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Coastal Pollution: A Review

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Aquatic Procedia 4 (2015) 381 388

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON WATER RESOURCES, COASTAL AND OCEAN

ENGINEERING (ICWRCOE 2015)

Coastal Pollution: A Review

Vikas M.a, G.S.Dwarakishb*
a
National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, Srinivas Nagar,Mangalore , India-575 025
b
National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal,Srinivas Nagar,Mangalore , India-575 025

Abstract

The harmful effects of various substances on the marine environment were reviewed by collecting and studying the relevant
literature. Various sources for the pollution of marine environment were identified and the causes for the same are understood.
Many of the pollutants that are let into the sea are directly or indirectly by human activities. Some of these substances are
biodegradable, while some are not. Several laws and policies have been taken in preventing marine pollution at the national and
international levels. Simulation of oil spills has been done by developing models in some parts of the world. The pollution off the
shore is increasing at an alarming rate and to address this problem of pollution in the oceans is a difficult task, and a variety of
approaches are urgently required. In this paper, the definition of coastal pollution, causes of coastal pollution, its impacts and
preventive measures are discussed.
2015 Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under
Peer-review under responsibility
responsibility of organizing
of organizing committee
committee of ICWRCOE
of ICWRCOE 2015 2015.

Keywords:Marine pollution, Plastic debris, Oil spill, Marine biology.

1. Introduction

The coast is a zone or strip of land extending from the coastline, which borders the sea to where the land rises
inland. Its limit is marked by the level of high tide. The coastline is the triple interface of air, land and sea. The
word pollution comes from the verb pollute, which means to make impure. The definition of coastal pollution by the
World Health Organization goes like this The introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy
into the marine environment, including estuaries, which results or is likely to result in such deleterious effects such

* Corresponding author. Tel.: 0824-2474000Ext.: 3309; fax: +91-0824-2474039.

E-mail address:dwaraki.gs@gmail.com

2214-241X 2015 Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of organizing committee of ICWRCOE 2015
doi:10.1016/j.aqpro.2015.02.051
382 M. Vikas and G.S. Dwarakish / Aquatic Procedia 4 (2015) 381 388

as harm to living resources and marine life, hazards to human health, hindrance to marine activities, including
fishing and other legitimate uses of the sea, impairment of quality for use of sea water and reduction of amenities.

The chemical and biological characteristics of coastal waters are really susceptible to addition of biodegradable
and stable compounds from soil. Qasim and Sen Gupta predicted that in 1984, 5 million tonnes of fertilizers, 55000
tonnes of pesticides, and 125000 tonnes of synthetic detergents were used in India (Gupta S. et al, 1983). On an
average, 25% of all these can be anticipated to end up in the ocean every year. More or less of these substances are
biodegradable while others are relentless. Their cumulative impact to the coastal marine environment, over a long
period could be quite harmful (Sen Gupta S. et al, 1989).

It is mainly the human activities that are responsible for a major decline of the worlds biological diversity, and the
problem becomes more complicated when combined human impacts could have enhanced present loss rates to
100010000 times the usual rate (Lovejoy, 1997). In the seas, the marine life faces threats in many ways, such as
overexploitation and harvesting, deposit of waste, contamination, exotic species, soil recovery, dredging and global
climate change. One of the major kinds of human impact constitutes a major threat to marine life: the pollution by
plastic debris (Douglas et al., 1987, Beatley, 1991;, National Research Council, 1995; Irish and Norse, 1996;
Ormond et al., 1997; Tickel, 1997; Snelgrove, 1999; Jose Derraik G.B., 2002). So, the issue of pollution may be
served to analyze the natural events in future. Anticipating the effects of contamination on marine population by the
purpose of simulation models requires that all sources of pollution over the total orbit of the species be considered.
Even though a particular pollutant, waste disposal site, or habitat loss may be judged minor when judged
independently, the cumulative effect might be significant (Cross et al, 1985).

Pollution in marine coastal areas is also considered from point and non-point land-based sources, such as rivers,
drainage ditches, submarine outfalls and coastal cities.

The portion of pollutants in coastal regions is determined by the combination of three mechanisms:

(a) Advection by currents

(b) Turbulent diffusion and
(c) Chemical, biological or other interactions

In relatively shallow and coastal areas with weak tides, wind is the main mechanism for generation of currents
(Jacques, 1991). The shear stresses applied at the sea surface creates a three dimensional circulation, greatly
influenced by the natural process of the Coriolis and inertia forces (Fischer et al., 1979; Baines Knapp, 1965).

2. Causes

There can be many causes of coastal pollution. Depending upon the position, the extent of pollution varies. The
primary origin of pollution being the humans can be separated as the pollution by humans on the soil and off the
ground.

2.1 Plastic debris

The only substance that is illegal to dump anywhere in the ocean is plastic. Plastics are primarily synthetic organic
polymers derived from petroleum. Plastic materials are found to be the major macroscopic pollutants in many
published reports about plastic debris found throughout the world. (Colton et al.,1974; Raynor, 1978; Shiber, 1979;
Ryan, 1988; Shaw and Day, 1994;Golberg, 1995; Gregory, 1996; McDermid and McMullen, 2004; Moore et
al.,2001, 2002; Barnes, 2005; Guillet, 1997; Henderson,2001; Ericksson and Burton, 2003; Otley and
Ingham,2003).The versatility of these materials has led to a large increment in their use over the past three decades,
and they have rapidly moved into all facets of daily life (Hansen, 1990; Laist, 1987). Plastics are lightweight, strong,
durable and cheap (Laist, 1987), characteristics that make them suitable for the manufacture of a very wide range of
 M. Vikas and G.S. Dwarakish / Aquatic Procedia 4 (2015) 381 388 383

products. These same properties happen to be the reasons why plastics are a grave risk to the surroundings (Pruter,
1987; Laist 1987).Since they are also floating, an increasing load of plastic debris is being spread over long
distances, and when they eventually settle in sediments they may be kept for centuries (Hansen, 1990; Ryan, 1987b;
Goldberg, 1995,1997).

The polymers when exposed to UV radiation in sunlight break into smaller and smaller pieces, but they are still
present as plastic, and they are non-biodegradable in any practical manner. This persistence of plastic leads to an
increasing abundance in the ocean environment, which makes plastic debris more accessible to plankton and other
marine life (Lorena M.R. Et al., 2007).Though these synthetic organic polymers have only existed for just over a
century, from 1988 in the United States alone, 30 million tons of plastic were produced annually (OHara et al.,
1988). Also it was found that plastic degradation process is slower in the ocean than land because ocean water
which is cool hinders the reaction (Andrady, 2000).

The threat of plastics to the maritime environment has been neglected for a long time, and its seriousness has been
just recently recognized (Stefatos et al., 1999).In the maritime surroundings, the perceived abundance of marine life
and the immensity of the oceans have passed to the firing of the proliferation of plastic debris as a potential hazard
(Jose Derraik G.B., 2002).

Studies by Gregory and Ryan show that plastics are the predominant amongst the marine litter, and its proportion
consistently varies between 60% and 80% of the total marine debris (Gregory and Ryan, 1997). On that point is
however comparatively little data on the impact of plastics pollution on the oceans ecosystems (Quayle, 1992;
Wilber, 1987). A study done on 1033 birds collected off the coast of North Carolina in the USA found that
individuals from 55% of the species recorded had plastic particles in their guts (Moser and Lee, 1992). Minute
particles floating in the ocean are consumed by birds that resemble their natural food. (Minchin, 1996; Auman et al.,
1997; Blight and Burger,1997; Bugoni et al., 2001; Cadee, 2002; Page et al., 2004).Over the past 20 years
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) have increasingly polluted marine food webs, and are prevalent in seabirds (Ryan
et al., 1988).

2.2 Sewage and effluents

Although it is hard to imagine raw sewage being dumped into the ocean, it happens on a regular basis. The oceans
are vast and can break down this vile liquid, but it still causes many adverse effects on marine life. Sewage or
polluting substances flow through sewage, rivers, or drainages directly into the ocean. This is often how minerals
and substances from mining camps find their way into the ocean. The release of other chemical nutrients into the
oceans ecosystem leads to reduction in oxygen levels, the decay of plant life, a severe decline in the quality of the
sea water itself. As a result, all levels of oceanic life, plants and animals, are highly affected.

Domestic sewage and industrial effluents are released in the water courses in and around India in untreated or
partially treated form.These, of course, add a mixture of pollutants which include, among others, certain toxic heavy
metals and metalloids. The total volume of all discharges from the environs of Bombay is around 365 million tonnes
(MT) per year (Sabnis, 1984). Similar discharges from the environs of Calcutta are around 350MT every year
(Ghose et.al., 1973).

The information in Table.1would help towards ascertaining the total volume of domestic sewage and industrial
effluents generated and released in India. The expected composition of such discharges is presented in Table1. The
data are from the annual releases to the Mahim River bay and creek in the city of Bombay (Sabnis, 1984). The Bay
occupies an area of 64 km2 and is influenced by semi-diurnal tide with a maximum elevation of 3m. It formerly had
good fisheries and an oyster bed, and its fringing mangroves used to be visited by migratory fowl. Today it is one of
the most industrialized and densely populated areas of Bombay.

The birds hardly flock there and the fishes are dead, as no fauna can live in the toxic environment. The Bay
receives 64 MT domestic sewage and 0.9 MT industrial effluents every year. These releases were initially untreated,
but are now partially done by. The release of effluents of hydrocarbon origin has so heavily contaminated with the
384 M. Vikas and G.S. Dwarakish / Aquatic Procedia 4 (2015) 381 388

creek that it has become common practice to recover the oil by soaking Sorbents. Geochronology of sediments using
210Pb gave the maximum period since deterioration started at 54 years, which is roughly about the time when
pumping of untreated sewage into the river started.

Table 1. Pollutants discharged into Mahim Bay (Bombay) every Table 2. Some of the coastal regulation laws in India are listed below
year (in tonnes). Source- Sabnis (1984) (Sangeeta et al., 2009, Gotthard, 2010)
Indian Ports Act 1908
Dissolved solids 92619 Merchant Shipping Act 1958
Chlorides 37495 Major Port Trust Act 1963
BOD 16480 The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972
Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act 1974
Suspended solids 15649
Coast Guard Act 1978
Sulphates 4791 Forest (Conservation) Ac 1980
Nitrogen 2236 Environmental Protection Act 1986
Phosphorous 383 Indian Fisheries Act 1987
Hazardous Waste Management Act 1989
Iron 162
Coastal Regulation Zone Notification 1991
Manganese 32 Deep Sea Fishing Policy 1991
Zinc 16 Environmental Impact Assessment Notification 1994
Copper 7 National Environment tribunal Act 1995
Nickel 5 Merchant Shipping Act 1995
Biological Diversity Act 2002
Cobalt 2
Merchant maritime Act -
Lead 0.7 Marine Fisheries Regulation Acts -

2.3 Oil Spills:

The principal cause of marine pollution with oil is shipping. Traditionally shipping is considered to be a polluting
industry (Gennaro, 2004).Ocean is polluted by oil on a daily basis from oil spills, routine shipping, runoffs and
dumping.
x Oil spills make up about 12% of the oil that enters the ocean. The rest come from shipping travel, drains
and dumping.
x An oil spill from a tanker is a severe problem because there is such a huge quantity of oil being spilt into
one place.
x Oil spills causes a much localized problem but can be disastrous to local marine wildlife such as fish, birds
and sea others.
x Oil cannot dissolve in water and forms a thick sludge in the water. This suffocates fish, gets caught in the
feathers of marine birds stopping them from flying and blocks light to photosynthetic aquatic plants (Dicks
B, 1998).

Just an instance, On March 24, 1989, the Tanker Vessel Exxon Valdez ran aground 25 miles out of Valdez,
Alaska. The impact tore open eight of the ships eleven cargo tanks, spewing out 10.8 million gallons of oil into
Prince William Sound. Oil impacted hundreds of miles of pristine shoreline, inundating national forest and national
park wilderness parcels. The spill wreaked havoc among sensitive coastal ecosystems, killing tens-of-thousands of
waterfowl and other wildlife. The affected shoreline also contained significant archeological treasures (Kurtz, 1995).

The unprecedented attention of 1989 led to unprecedented statutory change. In 1990 a new oil pollution act was
passed. The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90) (Busenberg1999,2000) was a landmark piece of legislation, going
well beyond the scope of previous incremental provisions (Kurtz, 2004).
The worlds tanker fleet counts approximately 7000 vessels with cargo capacities between 76000 and 175000 tons
(Gennaro, 2004). Usual shipping operations, especially transportation of oil by tankers and accidents, result in the
dumping of around 600000 1750000 tons of oil into the ocean per year (Brubaker, 1993).Sea-bed activities on oil
 M. Vikas and G.S. Dwarakish / Aquatic Procedia 4 (2015) 381 388 385

exploration and production constitute a relatively small part in the general amount of the pollution of marine
environment with oil (Anyanova Ekaterina, 1997).
There are many harmful effects of oil spill on the environment. It kills animals and plants in the estuarine zone.
Oil kills the organisms that live on the beach if it settles there; it kills benthic organisms such as crabs if it settles on
the ocean floor. Oil toxic algae, disturbs major food chains and results in the decrease of the production of edible
oils. The oil that adheres to the body of the birds damages their flight and reduces the insulating property of their
feathers, therefore causing the birds more vulnerable to cold (Peter C et al.).

2.4 Non-point source:

According to National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 80% of pollution to the marine
environment comes from the land. One of the biggest sources is called non-point source pollution, which occurs as a
result of runoff. Non-point source pollution includes many small sources, like septic tanks, cars, trucks, and boats,
plus larger sources, such as farms, ranches, and forest areas. Millions of motor vehicle engines drop small amounts
of oil each day onto roads and parking lots. Much of this, too, makes its way to the sea.

Some water pollution actually starts as air pollution, which settles into waterways and oceans. Dirt can be a
pollutant. Non-point source pollution can make river and ocean water unsafe for humans and wildlife. In some areas,
this pollution is so bad that it causes beaches to be closed after rainstorms. Correcting the harmful effects of non-
point source pollution is costly. Each year, millions of dollars are spent to restore and protect areas damaged or
endangered by non-point source pollutants. NOAA works with several agencies to develop ways to control non-
point source pollution. These agencies work together to monitor, assess, and limit non-point source pollution that
may result naturally and by human actions.

NOAA's Coastal Zone Management Program is helping to create special non-point source pollution control plans
for each coastal state participating in the program. When non-point source pollution does cause problems, NOAA
scientists help track down the exact causes and find solutions.

3. Discussion

x Major pollutant being plastic, its use has to be restricted and recycling must be entertained. The death of
marine species by ingestion of plastic is a great loss to nature and the species are becoming extinct because
of this.
x Plastic is an epidemic. Virtually every piece of plastic that was ever made still exists in some or the other
form. Some of the compounds found in plastic have been found to alter hormones or have other potential
human health effects.
x The biggest source of pollution in the ocean is directly from land based sources, such as oil, dirt, septic
tanks, farms, ranches, motor vehicles, among larger sources. Thousands of tons of waste and trash are
dumped into the ocean on a daily basis.
x Oil is the fastest source of deterioration to the ocean, being far more harmful than trash and waste. Oil spills
suffocate marine life to death, and leads to behavioral changes and a breakdown in thermal insulation to
those that do survive. It essentially changes the entire ecosystem of an affected area, such as a long
coastline or deep ocean.
x Not all sources of contamination in the ocean come from just oil, trash and solid wastes. The dumping of
radioactive waste from nuclear reactors, industrial race (such as heavy metals and acids), and drained
sewage are also heavy contributors to pollution.
x Offshore activities like installation, transfer of material etc. will result in the pollution of water. The oil and
gas leaked of drained into the waters may change the properties of water and also may affect the marine
life.
386 M. Vikas and G.S. Dwarakish / Aquatic Procedia 4 (2015) 381 388

4. Conclusions

Following are the conclusions drawn from the present review on coastal pollution:
x Plastic debris can absorb toxic chemicals from ocean pollution, therefore poisoning whatever eats it. In fact,
plastic pollution is one of the most serious threats to the ocean. Plastic does not degrade; instead, it breaks
down into progressively smaller pieces, but never disappears. They then attract more debris. It poses a
significant health threat to the various sea creatures, and to the entire marine ecosystem. Overall, plastic is
the main source of pollution in the ocean.
x Small animals at the bottom of food chain absorb the chemicals as part of their food. These small animals
are then eaten by larger animals that again increase the concentration of chemicals. Animals at the top of
hierarchy of food chain have contamination levels millions times higher than the water in which they live.
x Waves, water currents, and wind move the oil onto shore with the surf and tide. Oil waste reaches the
shoreline or coast; it interacts with sediments such as beach sand and gravel, rocks and boulders, vegetation,
and terrestrial habitats of wildlife and humans, causing erosion as well as contamination.
x Many laws have already been formed. Awareness must be created among people about the effects of
pollution. Only then, they can follow the laws.
x Till today, in many parts of the world, sewage water is discharged in the ocean untreated or under-treated.
This can cause serious effect on marine and human life and can also lead to eutrophication.
x Prevention is an essential part of stopping coastal pollution, but will require radical changes in all levels of
society.

5. Acknowledgements

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. G.S.Dwarakish, corresponding author, my teacher and guide, for
his generous guidance and great kindness, and for his patience with me. Authors are thankful to the Director of
National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, and Head of the Department of Applied Mechanics and
Hydraulics for the Support for the study and permission to prepare this paper.

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