Chapter VII Aircraft Welding ‘The construction and repair of metal aircraft joints can be done using any of the following methods either individually or in combination: fusion welding, brazing or soldering, fasteners or adhesives. Fusion welding joins metal without using fasteners or ad- hesives by blending compatible molten metals into one common part or joint. Compatible metal ele- ments are those in the same metallurgical group. For example, chrome molybdenum is a commonly used aircraft steel alloy, Brazing or nonfusion joining occurs when two or more pieces of steel are held together by a noncompatible molten brass or silver rod. Molten brass or silver rods stick to steel surfaccs by adheston rather than fusion. A brazing rod used with the proper flux will act like a glue when holding a steel joint together. The purpose of braz- ing flux is to clean away impurities which might be in the path of the molten rod. Brazing of a Joint 4s achieved at a much lower temperature than fasion welding. Soldering is similar to brazing except that braz- ing materials normally melt at temperatures above 800 °F, while solders melt at temperatures consid- erably lower than this. Soldering is similar to brazing; in many respects ‘some of the same techniques and devices are used when making nonfusion joints. Hard and soft soldering ure two methods used for fabricating solder parts or joints. Figure 7-1. TIG welding has lergely replaced oxyacetylene welding in aircraft fuselage structures. 347 71Years ago, hard solder was used extensively as a body filler, An oxyacetylene welding torch was often used to apply hard solder to the repair area. For todays market, hard solder is not used as much anymore because of the development ofnew ‘epoxy type body fillers, A regular welding torch is also used at times to apply soft solder. Soft solder is available in rolls with elther an acld core or a rosin core flux. Electrical and electronic wires and components are soldered with the rosin-core type because the acid core would cause corrosion at the joints. I. TYPES OF WELDING A. Gas Welding Gas welding is oxyacetylene welding; it gets its name from the two gases, oxygen and acetylene, which are used to produce a flame. Acetylene is the fuel for the flame and oxygen makes the flame hotter. An equal balance between acetylene and oxygen produces a neutral flame. B. Electric Arc Welding 1, Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) This is the type of arc welding that 1s most familiar and is commonly known in the trade as stick welding. A metal wire rod coated with a welding flux is clamped in an electrode holder connected to the pawer supply with a heavy electri- Figure 7-2. SMAW, or shielded metal arc welding, Is ‘normally used for welding heavy gauge stee! and is seldom used for altcraft construction or repair. 72 348 cal cable. The metal to be welded is also attached to the power supply. The electrical power is sup- plied to the work at a low voltage and high current and may be either AC or DC, depending upon the type of welding being done. An arc is struck be- tween the rod and the work and produces heat in excess of 10,000 °F, which melts both the material and the rod. As the flux melts, it releases an inert gas which shields the molten puddie from oxygen in the air and prevents oxidation. The molten flux covers the weld and hardens to an airtight slag cover that protects the weld bead as it cools. This slag must be chipped off to examine the weld. 2. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) This method of welding was formerly called Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding and is an improve- ment over stick welding, because an uncoated wire electrode is fed into the torch and an inert gas such as argon, helium or carbon dioxide flows out around the wire to protect the puddle from oxygen. ‘The power supply connects between the torch and the work, and the arc produces the intcnsc heat needed to melt the work and the electrode. Low- voltage high-current DC is used almost exclusively with MIG welding, Gas metal arc welding is used more for large-volume production work than it is for aircraft repair. 3. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (@TAW) ‘This is the form of electric arc welding that flls most of the needs in aircraft maintenance and is more commonly known as Tungsten Inert Gas (Tic) welding and by the trade names of Heliarc® or Heliweld®. These trade names were derived from the fact that the inert gas originally used was helium, Rather than using a consumable electrode such as is used in both of the other two methods we have discussed, the electrode in TIG welding ts a tungsten rod. (In earller procedures using this form of welding, a carbon electrode was used, but it has been replaced almost exclusively with tungsten.) The arc between the electrode and the ‘work melts the metal, and a filler rod is manually fed into the molten puddle. A stream of inert gas such as argon or helium flows out of the torch and envelopes the arc, preventing the formation of oxides in the puddle. ‘The versatility of TIG welding is increased by the power supply that is used. Direct current of either polarity and alternating current are available for use, and we will discuss all of these types of power and the reason for using each of them.Figure 7-3. GTAW, or gas tungsten arc welding, famillar to us 26 T1G (Tungsten Inert Gas) welding, may be used for repairing cast-aluminum engine crankcases. C. Electric Resistance Welding Many thin sheet metal parts for aircraft, espe- cially stainless steel parts, are joined by one of the forms of electric resistance welding, either spot welding or seam welding. 1, Spot Welding ‘Two copper electrodes are held in the jaws of the ‘spot welding machine, and the material to be welded is clamped between them. Pressure is ap- plied to hold the electrodes tightly together, and electrical current flows through the electrodes and the material. The resistance of the material being welded is so much higher than that of the copper electrodes that enough heat is generated in the metal to melt it. The pressure on the electrodes forces the molten spots in the two pieces of metal Figure 7-4, Spot welding is @ form of electrical resis- tance welding, used for joining thin sheets of metal. tounite, and this pressure is held after the current stops flowing long enough for the metal to solidify. The amount of current, pressure and dwell time are all carefully controlled and matched to the type 73of material and the thickness to produce the cor- rect spots, 2. Seam Welding Rather than having to release the electrodes and move the material to form a series of overlapping spot welds, a seam welding machine is used to manufacture fuel tanks and other components where a continuous weld is needed. ‘Two copper wheels replace the bar-shaped electrodes, and the metal to be welded is moved between the wheels. Pressure {s applied to the wheels, and timed pulses of current flow between them and through the metal. The pulses create spots of molten metal that overlap to form the continuous seam. IL. GAS WELDING AND CUTTING A. Equipment 1. Gases a. Acetylene Gas It has already been established that acetylene gas is the fuel used to produce an oxyacetylene flame. Acetylene is a heavy gas, it has a very disagreeable odor, it becomes unstable al pres- sures of 15 psi or higher, and at 30 psi it becomes so unstable that the slightest amount of heat generated by friction of acetylene against the at- mosphere will cause it to explode. Normal operat- ing pressure for most welding Jobs using acetylene is 4 to 8 psi. Acetylene tanks are filled with fullers earth, a porous mixture with the characteristics of a sponge. The sponge-like quality provides hollow paths for liquid acetone to flow into the bottle, Acetone has the capability of absorbing acetylene up to 25 times its volume. Because acetylene is stored in acetone. this makes it safe enough to ship, acetylene bottles without the danger of exploding. ‘The quantity of a freshly charged acetylene bottle is measured by volume (in cubic feet) and total weight, not in psi, However, when an acetylene bottle is connected toa pressure gauge, it can read as high as 250 psi when fully charged. In this case, the pressure gauge is not reading acetylene but acetone pressure. It is recommended that acety- lene be released slowly from the acetone by open- ing the tank valve no more than one-quarter to one-half turn. if the acetylene tank valve is opened too far, acetone will flow out of the bottle into the fecd line or gas hose. 74 350 ACETYLENE (OXYGEN CYLINDER ‘CYLINDER Figure 7-5. Typical portable oxyacetylene welding ‘equipment used in alrcraft maintenance shops. Acetylene gas is formed when calcium carbide crystals are exposed to water. A simple acetylene generator consists of 1. Awater supply tank. 2. A line between the water tank to the carbide- crystal container. Awater shut-off valve. A line between the carbide container to an acetylene bottle. ‘The operation of an acetylene generator begins with a full water tank, a half-filled carbide con- tainer and a tank filler line connecting the top of the carbide container to the acetylene botlle. As water droplets begin to fall onto the carbide crys- tals. acetylene gas is released. The water mixing with the carbide crystals acts like a seltzer tablet. As the crystals fizz, released gas builds up pres- sure at the top of the carbide container where it eventually flows to the acetylene tank and is ab- sorbed by the acetone. While the bottle is filling. an operator monitors the weight of the bottle; when the proper weight is reached, the tank valves are closed. b. Hydrogen Hydrogen 1s a colorless, highly flammable gascous element: it is the lightest of all the gases and the most abundant element in the world. It is, 3. 4,used for welding with oxyhydrogen torches. The main advantage of using the oxyhydrogen welding technique 1s {ts flame burns much cleaner than oxyacetylene. ©. Oxygen Oxygen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gaseous element making up 21 percent of the earths atmosphere by volume. It is used to support fe as we know it on this planet. In welding, it is used to support combustion. Oxygen must never be used in the presence of petroleum base substances because it presents the danger ofa fire ur an explosion. Oxygen under pressure increases in its support of the combus- tion process. For example, this means when high- Pressure oxygen comes into contact with a petroleum-base engine ofl, il lowers tts kindling point. Lowering of the kindling point advances a dangerous situation because the least bit of fric- tion or spark could set off an explosion. This situation must be carefully adhered to when Proposing to weld tanks which were once filled with gasoline, alcohol, hydraulic fluid or any other volatile substance. Before attempting to weld these tanks, they must be steam-cleaned thoroughly. A good visual example of oxygen-supporting combustion 1s shown when the flame color and pattern from the welding torch changes as the volume of oxygen is increased. While these chan- ges are taking place, the flame color changes from @ not so dazzling orange to a brilliant whitish purple. The intensity of the heat and the changing color of the flame continues until a neutral flame 1s reached. After the torch is lighted, an increase in the ratio, of oxygen to acetylene changes the flame from carbonizing to neutral. By continuing to increase the amount of oxygen, the flame will change from neutral to oxidizing. A neutral flame ts 6300 °F and is used primarily when welding aircraft steel. A carbontzing flame burns much cooler and is used for brazing and soldering. An oxidizing flame is used for cutting. . Argon Argon is a colorless, odorless, inert gaseous element making up approximately one percent of the earths atmosphere. One of its uses, as welders are concerned with, 1s the inert gas shield it provides for are welding, An inert gas, as far as arc welding is concerned, means the area around the molten rod and base metal are in an oxygen-free zone which ensures there will be no oxides formed in or around the finished weld. ‘The formation of oxides in the welding zone of some metallic alloys are augmented when high heat is applied and oxygen is present. High heat causes oxygen to react with the heated surfaces of the metal to form additional oxides. The formation of additional oxides often modifies the melting range of certain metals to a point where the molten puddle becomes difficult to control. When a welder is unable to control a molten puddle, welding faults such as blow holes, hot shorts and burned welds occur. In those locations where a bead forms, when excessive oxides were present, it often results in porous pockets which causes a weak Joint. The best defenses against oxide buildup ts touse an approved welding flux or an inert gas, as in the case of MIG or TIG welding. The best method is to stop them before they get started by using an inert gas envelope in the welding area. Standard are welding uses an electrode with a special flux that creates an oxygen-free envelope around the ‘molten metal. 2. Pressure Regulators a. Oxygen Both oxygen and acetylene are supplied in cylinders under a pressure far higher than is needed at the torch, and a regulator is used to reduce the pressure to a usable value. Most regulators are of the two-stage type, which has one slage of pressure reduction to drop the pressure from that in the cylinder to a constant intermediate pressure, and then a final stage fur- ther drops the pressure to the specific value needed for welding. This two-stage operation en- sures that the pressure delivered to the torch will not vary as the pressure in the cylinder drops from use. The union nut for connecting the oxygen regulator to the cylinder valve is on the regulator and has right-hand threads, while the acetylene regulator has the nipple and mut on the cylinder valve and has left-hand threads. This arrangement makes it impossible to accidently connect. the wrong regulator to a cylinder. b. Acetylene ‘The acetylene regulator has two gauges on it, ‘one of which indicates the pressure of the gas in the cylinder and normally has a range of up to about 400 to 500 psi. The second gauge indicates the pressure of the acetylene gas being fed to the torch, and it has a much lower pressure, only up to about 30 to 50 psi. Remember that acetylene 351 75becomes unstable when itis kept under a pressure greater than 15 psi. When the adjusting screw handle is turned counterclockwise until you can no longer feel the opposition of the spring, the gas flow to the torch is shut off. Turning this handle in a clockwise direction opens the valve and regulates the pres- sure of the gas delivered to the torch. ‘To prevent attaching the wrong hose to the regulator, the threads to which the hose attaches on the acetylene regulator are left-hand threads, while those on the oxygen regulator are right- hand. All approved-type regulators have a safety dise that will rupture at a pressure below that which will break the diaphragm. This disc is on the low-pressure side of the regulator, and if the regulator should leak, this disc will break and protect the regulator diaphragm. ‘The oxygen regulator is similar to the one used for the acetylene gas, except that it is built for a much higher pressure. The cylinder pressure gauge is graduated up to 3,000 psi, and the low- pressure gauge that indicates the pressure being delivered to the torch usually has a range of up to about 200 psi. If the oxygen and acetylene are delivered to a permanently installed welding bench from a com- mon supply, there will normally be only one pres- sure gauge on the regulator, the gauge that indicates the pressure being delivered to the torch. In addition to a portable welding system, there is another type called the manifold system. The manifold system is a permanent setup with in- Figure 7-6. Acetylene regulator. 76 dividual welding stations. The manifold system is often used for welding shop instruction. There can be as many as 18 welding stations connected to the manifold. Amanifold system has two sets of pipes—one for ‘oxygen and the other for acetylene gas. The gas bottles used in the manifold system are larger than those of the portable system. Gas pressure in the manifold system is set by a main system regulator connected to each gas tank. Each main pressure regulator has two gauges mounted on it, the one near the tank reads bottle pressure and one near the line reads adjusted line pressure. 3. Hoses Acetylene and oxygen gas are directed from the gas bottle to the welding torch by hoses. The oxyacetylene type welding units have hoses to carry the oxygen and acetylene from the gas bottles to the torch. A typical system consists of the bottle with a gas shutoff valve, a regulator with two gauges connected to the gas valve, and a hose which runs from the regulator to the torch handle. ‘The acetylene hose is colored red and has a left-hand threaded fitting at each end. The fittings, figure 7-8. used on acetylene hoses are recognized by the universal groove cut into the hex-sided coupling nuts. The groove cut into the hex-sided coupling nut tells the technician that the threads are left hand. Lefi-hand threads mean the nut is, lightened by turning it counterclockwise from the hose end. 352‘OXYGEN FITTING (RIGHT-HAND. THREADS) FITTING (LEFT-HAND THREADS) Figure 7-8. Welding hose fittings. ‘The oxygen hose is colored green and has right- hand threaded coupling nuts at each end. Right- hand threads means when tightening, the nut turns clockwise from the hose end. The reason for having different thread rotation for the attaching nut 1s so the two gases cannot be accidentaily mixed. 4, Torches Oxyacetylene welding torches are divided into two classes: balance pressure and injector type torches. ‘The balance-type of torch is most com- monly used in aircraft welding. A torch used for aircraft welding consists of an oxygen and acetylene on/off valve, a mixing valve and a torch tip. a. Balanced-pressure Torch This is the type of torch that is most often used with cylinder gases. The oxygen and acetylene are supplied to the torch at the same pressure, usually between one and five psl, depending upon the thickness of the metal being welded. ‘The control valves are of the needle type to give close adjustment of the gas flow, and for the larger torches these valves are located at the end of the torch where the hoses attach. For light-duty weld- ing used for thin-wall aircraft tubing, the torches that give the best control have the valves located at the tip end of the Lorch. Here they can be adjusted with your fingertip. ‘The mixing chamber used for equal-pressure torches screws onto the torch body. and the tubes and ‘tips screw into it. The gases low into the mixing chamber through two separate tubes, and here they are thoroughly mixed and delivered to the tip through the torch tube. The tips used for aircraft welding may be separate tips screwed onto a single-torch tube, but are more ofien a combination tip and tube that screw directly into the mixing chamber. The size orifice in the tip is measured by the number drill size, and the various manufacturers have their own designation that refers to this tip orifice size. Generally, the lower the number, the smaller the orifice. b. Injector Torch If the acetylene is supplied to the welding bench from a generator rather than a cylinder, an injector torch {s used in which the flow of oxygen passes through a venturi-like portion of the torch and creates a low pressure to pull the acetylene into the mixing chamber. ©. Electrode Holders An electrode holder serves several purposes for the arc welding units. An electrode holder carries the current from the arc welding machine to the welding surface via the electrode. The electrode is held in place by a vise action of the holder. An are welding electrode is similar to the filler rod used for gas welding. However, the electrode is a filler rod with a flux coating which will provide an ‘oxygen free inert gas area around the weld. . TIG Welding Torch A simple TIG welding torch uses the same electrode holder which an arc weld does. The only difference is that instead of holding an electrode it holds TIG torch, which is made up of a control valve assembly, collet, adaptor, heat insulator, electrode and gas cup. Figure 7-9. An equat-pressure torch is used with acetylene supplied in steel cylinders. 353 175. Welding Goggles 4. Oxyacetylene Type Goggles ‘The welding flame and molten puddle both emit a bright, white hot light spot which will cause temporary blindness if looked at while welding. ‘The glow from the white hot metal will not cause any permanent damage to the eyes. However, when welding or just looking on, it is required that each person wear an approved pair of oxyacetylene welding goggles. It must also be understood that oxyacetylene welding goggles are never worn for electric are welding. because permanent damage to the eyes will occur if they are worn. ‘Welding goggles come in two types—goggles with round lenses, and those with a rectangular lens. ‘The lenses of both types of goggles consist ofa clear outer cover that is often damaged from weld spat- ter and is economically replaced, and the shaded filter glass. The filters are identified by a number; the lower the number, the lighter the shade. Never substitute sunglasses for welding goggles. They are not adequate. For aluminum welding, normally a blue lens filter is used, as it allows you to better observe the surface of the metal; but for steel welding, the filters are usually green or brown. b, Are Welding Hood And Glasses Are welding hoods are the only approved glasses and face shields used for standard arc and TIG welding. Never use oxyacetylene goggles while doing any type of arc or TIG welding. The hood designed for are welding serves as a shield to protect the welders face from becoming burned by ultraviolet and other undesirable rays. The glass used in an are welding hood is dark enough to protect the eyes from being allected by the rays given off by the electric arc. 6. Torch Lighters A Mlint-and-steel-type lighter is most generally used to light the torches. Matches should not be used because of the danger in carrying matches in the welding area where metal popped from the torch could accidently ignite them. Many of the per- manently installed welding stations have a combina- tion torch holder and pilot light. When the torch is hung up on the holder, both the acetylene and ‘oxygen are cut off, and the flame goes out. When the torch s lifted, the gases again flow, and a small pilot light on the dxture is used to light the torch. 7. Filler Rods Filler rods are used to reinforce the bead and they also serve as a heat sink. When a filler rod 78 354 Figure 7-10. An injector torch uses a high-velocity flow ‘of oxygen to create a low pressure that pulls acetylene gas trom the acetylene generator. works as a heat sink it pulls heat away from the molten puddle as it melts. This action (the melting of the rod) helps the welder to control the flow of metal in the molten puddle. Most filler rods used for aircraft welding are copper coated to prevent rust from forming on the surface of the rods. Rust is the physical result of oxidized steel. The oxides formed on a filler rod ts undesirable because it would cause more rapid oxidation during the welding process. Oxidation is a normal occurrence even when no oxides are present at the start of the welding process. If too many oxides are permitted within a molten puddle it will result in a porous weld. Porous metals lend to weak spots in the Joint which would then be subject to failure. 8. High-frequency Attachment A high-frequency attachment makes it possible to establish an arc without touching the TIG electrode to the work. It also aids in reducing contamination of the tungsten electrode or work by forming the are before the electrode touches the metal. B. Equipment Set-up 1, Handling Gas Cylinders ‘The gas cylinders are shipped with protective caps which are threaded to cover the tank's gas valves. The reason for having these tank caps is in the event when a tank falls. the gas valve will be protected. If the gas valve on a fully charged bottle were to be broken off, the bottle would act like an uncontrolled rocket. Gas cylinders must always be locked or chained into a holding stand on either portable or stationary bottle stations. 2. Attaching The Regulators Remove the protective cap from the oxygen cylinder and open the valve slightly to blow outany dirt particles that may be in the fitting. Close the valve and attach the regulator, being very careful to get the threads started straight so they will not be cross-threaded. Use the proper size wrench to tighten the regulalor union nut. Con- nect the acetylene regulator to its cylinder in the same way. 3. Connecting The Oxyacetylene Torch The oxyacetylene torch is connected by two gas hoses to their respective pressure regulators. The ‘oxygen hose (green) connects to the back end of the torch and its attachment nut turns clockwise to tighten. The acetylene hose (red) connects to the back end of the torch and its threads are left- headed or counterclockwise to tighten. The fitting at the hose and regulator ends must be checked for leaks. The recommended way to check for gas leaks 1s to brush a commercial leak check fluid on each of the fittings while there is Ime pressure in the system. Do not use a soap solution, as most soaps have petroleum com- pounds. Ifa leak is detected, try, gently, to tighten the fitting. IF st still leaks, bleed the system down, undo the fitting, check for dirt in the fitting, rein- stall the fitting, and check the connection again for aleak. 4. Connecting The TIG Torch A simple TIG torch 1s one which is clamped to an are welding electrode holder. The torch assem- bly which is separate from the electrode holder has aline which connects to an argon bottle, a serrated, tube which s clamped by the electrode holder, and a series of parts which carry current and argon gas to the welding area. The type of torch described above is inexpensive as compared to one which ts independent of an are welding electrode holder (figure 7-24, page 7-17). 5. Selecting The Torch Tip And Rod Sizes The thickness of the metal determines the size of the torch tip. Whenever thicker metal is to be welded, the torch tip and filler rod sizes increase. If the filler rod ts too small (in relationship to the torch tip and metal thickness) the finished bead will be burned or undercut. This happens because the rod will melt so fast it will be unable to carry heat away from the molten puddle, An under-cut weld is considered the same as a burned weld. If the filler rod is too large (in relationship to the torch tip) it will cool the molten puddle too rapidly, resulting in the rod sticking to the puddle, poor Penetration and cold edges. Cold edges. sticking yod and poor penetration can be caused by too large of a rod or too small of a torch tip. 6. Selecting The Filler Rod For A TIG Torch In TIG welding, the filler rod is selected using the same criteria as that used for oxyacetylene. The Tod is selected according to the metallic alloy being welded and the thickness of the metal. No flux is, needed for TIG welding: only compatible filler rod is required. In some cases, the filler rod ts cut from sample of the metal being welded. C, Lighting And Adjusting The Oxyacetylene Torch With the equipment properly set up and the correct size Up screwed in the torch, open the oxygen valve on the torch about one turn and then screw in the oxygen regulator handle until the low-pressure gauge indicates the correct pressure for the thickness of metal you will be welding (Ggure 7-11). The pressure with the oxygen flowing will be lower than it is when there is no flow. Turn off the oxygen valve at the torch and repeat the Procedure with the acetylene regulator, adjusting it for the proper pressure with a flow from the [ METAL ROD TIP ORIFICE PRESSURE THICKNESS DIAMETER DRILL SZE ORYGEN ACETYLENE 16 16 60-69 4 4 18 we 54-57 5 5 16 ane 44-52 8 8 3 14 40-50 ® 8 Figure 7-11. Relationship between gas pressures, of metal. 355 tip orifice size, and rod diameter for welding various thickness 7-9torch. Shut off the acetylene valve at the torch and you are now ready to light it. Crack the acetylene valve on the torch for about Ye-turn, and using a flint lighter, ignite the gas coming from the torch. Open the acetylene valve until all of the smoke clears from the flame. Once a full acetylene flame has been adjusted to where heavy black smoke stops, slowly open the ‘oxygen valve on the torch. Simultaneously three distinct flames appear, a bright white cone at the orifice tip, a long white middle flame, and a large feathery blue flame. Notice, as the oxygen valve is opened further, the flame pattern changes from the heavy acetylene orange to a flame with a whitish blue hue. As more oxygen is added to the flame, the long white middle cone begins to shrink toward the inner cone at the tip. When the middle flame becomes the same size as the little white inner cone at the tip, a neutral flame has been formed. From this adjustment it is a simple matter of fine-tuning the flame to a soft neutral flame for welding, The neutral flame (for welding 4130 steel) should be set soft enough to prevent the torch from Popping as it melts the puddle. a NEUTRAL FLAME US OXIDIZING FLAME. Figure 7-12. Oxyacetylene gas flames. D. Shutting Down The Equipment After welding is finished for the day. shut down the welding equipment. Shutting off the welding equipment ensures against gas leaks and it relieves pressure from the gas regulator valves. Begin the shutdown by closing the gas valves on both the oxygen and acetylene bottles. Bleed the acetylene line from the tank, then back off the acetylene regulator. Next bleed the oxygen line 7-10 356 from the tank, then back off the oxygen regulator. Bleeding of the hoses from the regulators is done by opening the respective valve on the torch as- sembly, E. Gas Welding Procedures And Techniques Most aircraft gas welding is done using thin- gauge steel which ranges between 16- to 20-gauge. ‘or about .027- to .050-inch thick. Welding at these thicknesses eliminates any welding problems en- countered with thicker metals. The major dif- ference of welding thicker metal ist requires larger equipment; however, welding techniques remain fairly much the same. Another difference which ‘occurs when welding thicker metal is the heat zone is much larger and there is an increase in the danger of getting burned from residual hot spots on the metal. 1. The Puddle For a beginning welder, the most important operation is to master the art of running a molten puddle without using a filler rod. The first welding operation is the technique of molten puddle control. If'a student welder cannot learn to control a molten puddle, there will never be any success with fusion welding. A molten puddle could be imagined as a miniature bucket, ‘of melted metal waiting to be added to another bucket of molten metal: to where the combination of the two buckets is called fusion joining. Practice running puddles on small squares of 18-gauge (.035-inch thick) steel cut to a size of 4” x4”, Place the square of steel onto a fire brick and begin running puddles from one side to the other in a forehand direction. A good puddle should show a rippled penetration on the bottom side of the plate. From time: to time, the operator might burn through the metal; this is usually caused by too hot of a lame or not moving the torch fast enough. If the penetration is not deep enough, it is because the torch was moved too fast or the flame is not hot enough. ‘The actual puddle movement is accomplished by keeping the hot cone at the torch tip about 14-inch away from the base metal and slowly moving the tip in a small circular motion. When the heat is right and as the tip is directing heat to the puddle, a little glossy eye will appear. When the glossy eye is present it means the metal is melting at a uniform rate. The rate can be continued by keep- ing the torch moving up and down vertically and In a circular motion horizontally.Figure 7-13. Practice running a puddle bead across @ ‘sheet of stae! until your bead is uniform in width and is straight across the sheet. After running several puddles on the same sheet, it is time to have them examined by your welding teacher. A good puddle should sag uniformly over the full length of the run, the ripples from the underside should be even or uniform, and there should be no blow holes. After running straight line puddles, spend a litde time running curved or side to side, mixed with fore and aft puddle control, The whole purpose of running puddles is to learn how to control the action of the welding torch as a preparation for future welding Jobs. Do not try to move on if you cannot run or control a molten puddle. Once you learn to run a puddle, then you can be assured of successfully doing fusion welding. 2. Filler Rod Added To The Puddle After mastering the art of molten puddle control, the next step is to begin adding filler rod to the puddle. The operation begins the same as for a puddle; however, when the puddle forms, start dipping the filler rod into the molten mass while moving the puddle horizontally across the metal at an even rate. Use a rod of the proper diameter for the metal, and in this case for /16-inch-thick metal, a Vie- inch diameter rod is correct. Form the puddle in the same way you did previously, and hold the end of the rod about an eighth of an inch above the puddle and just a little farther than this ahead of the torch. This will preheat the rod so it will not chill the puddle. Momentartly dip the end of the rod into the puddle, and enough of it will melt off to give the puddle a slightly crowned appearance. Continue to move the puddle across the sheet, adding rod by dipping it in as you move. With the rod, torch tip and metal thickness being the correct size, a neutral flame will melt a puddle as well as the filler rod. As the metal is being heated to form a puddle, the filler rod tip should be resting within the high-heat zone. Some 357 Figure 7-14. Dip the welding rod into the molten puddle to add enough metal to produce a slightly crowned bead. of the heat used to melt the puddle will be drawn off by the filler rod. this action will give the operator more control over the molten puddle. As the rod begins to melt some of the base metal, heat energy is drawn away from the puddle. This action should cause the experienced welding operator to slow down the movement and travel of the torch in order to obtain a good solid bead. As the torch moves from right to lefl across the base metal. the front part of the flame preheats the metal and the aft flame after-heats the metal, thus controlling the heat of the puddle movement and the cooling of the bead. ‘A good bead with proper penetration and good fusion will be straight across the practice sheet and will have a smoothly crowned surface that fairs evenly into the base metal. This kind of bead can be produced only by keeping the torch motion constant, by keeping the torch properly slanted with regard to the work, and by adding the filler metal at regular intervals. 3. Butt Welds ‘When your beads are uniform and you have skill in adding the rod to the puddle, take two practice sheets of steel and butt-weld them together. This procedure introduces a new variable. The metal expands when it is heated and contracts when it cools, and because of this you cannot just lay the two pieces together and end up with a neatly welded seam. To see the effect of this dimensional change. lay two pieces together with Just their edges touching and start to weld them together by forming a puddle at their edge at one end; as you work your 7puddle along the length of the crack, adding filler rad, you will see one pice crawl up over the top of the other, ‘There are several methods we can use to proper- ly Join these two pieces and prevent their warping out of shape. One way is to space the sheets apart with a space that is about equal to the thickness of the material and then tack-weld them together with a small puddle filled with filler rod about every inch. When the sheets are tacked together, you can go back and make completed welds between the tacks. You may further minimize distortion by putting the heat into the metal uniformly by skip welding. This is done by starting at one of the tack welds and working back toward the end of the sheet. Then go to the next tack and work back to the weld you have just completed. This will put the heat into the metal uniformly and not allow any one part to receive so much heat that it will warp excessively. Another method of preventing buckling from expansion and contraction, and a method that will allow you to visualize the movement of the metal, is to space the sheets so they are farther apart at one end than the other, and as they move, they will -— st» 3» 2 ye | SKIP WELDING ———_ De SS ot | ‘TAPERING SPACE Figure 7-15. Minimizing distortion when butt welding two pleces of steel. 712 358 ‘CROWNED BEAD PeNerRaTioNS Figure 7-16, Add the rod into the puddle to get a ‘crowned bead with good penetration. come together. Begin with the sheets separated by their thickness al one end and, for an eight-inch- long practice sheet, the other end should be separated by about a quarter of an inch. Begin by forming a puddle at the close ends and working your way along the sheets, fling puddle with filler rod. If the weld is correctly made and the separa- tion has been properly chosen, the sheets should close up and give you a uniform weld. In aircraft construction where there is a great deal of welding that allows for no warping or distortion, the metal is held in heavy jigs that prevent the metal warping out of shape. There will be stresses left in the joints after they are welded in a restraining jig, and they must be normalized by heating the entire joint to a red heat and allowing it to cool to room temperature in still air, 4. Lap Welds ‘The majority of aircraft welding uses butt welds, but for reinforcement we often must use a lap weld. ‘This is particularly true when we make a splice to a truss structure and use an internal sleeve rein- forcement. We drill holes in the outer tube and weld it to the inner tube through this hole. A weld of this type is called a rosette weld, or a plug weld. Its simply a form of lap welding. To gain skill in lap welding, take two practice sheets of metal and lap one over the other with about a half-inch overlap. The problem is to weld the top piece to the bottom, getting good penetra- tion of the bottom plece without burning the edges of the top piece. To make this kind of weld,IS Figure 7-17. Concentrate the heat on the bottom sheet when making 2 lap weld. f Figure 7-18. The rosette weld and the weld along the scarf of the outer tube are practical examples of lap welds. concentrate the heat on the bottom piece of material and rock the tip back and forth, moving up onto the edge of the piece just enough to keep it melting, The filler rod should form a nice smooth convex bead between the two pieces of metal. F, Appearance Of A Good Weld A cleanly formed oxyacetylene bead should en- compass the following qualities: uniform width, good penetration, good reinforcement and uniform ripples. A finished bead has uniformity when its width is 3 to 5 xT (T= thickness of the metal) and its edges are flowing evenly into the base metal. Penetration of welded aircraft parts should be at a depth of 100 percent of the thickness of the base metal to ensure proper fusion of the joints. The height of the bead, “4 to 4 xT, above the surface of the base metal is called the reinforcement. With the proper heat, filler rod size, torch tip size and gas pressures, a finished bead should have a uniform ripple appearance, A bead with a uniform rippled appearance is an indication of enough heat and good penetration. G. Gas Welding Of Aluminum Most aluminum welding is done with a gas- shielded electric arc, but there are times when you will have to weld aluminum with either acetylene 359 or hydrogen gas. Hydrogen is preferred because of its cleaner flame and less risk of oxidizing the joint. Hydrogen burns with much Iess heat than acetylene, and so you must use a larger tip than you would use for an equal thickness of metal when using acetylene. Aluminum has a reputation for being difficult to ‘weld because it does not change its color as it nears its melting temperature; it can be solid one mo- ment and, before you know it, it melts through, leaving a hole. By practice and experience, how- ever, you will be able to recognize the subtle warn- ing aluminum gives when it is ready to receive the rod, and you will be able to make as good welds with aluminum as you can with steel. Prepare the metal to be welded by cleaning it with a stainless steel brush or stainless steel wool. Be sure that you do not use any other type of steel brush or wool, as it will embed in the soft aluminum and contaminate the weld. Support the metal, as it will lose all of its strength at the weld when it melts. Heat the metal and apply ux to both of the pieces that will be joined and to the welding rod. Use light blue welding goggles so you will best be able to see the very subtle change in appearance of the metal as it approaches melting. Feel the surface of the metal by lightly wiping it with the welding rod, As soon as the metal feels slightly soft, allow the rod to stay in contact with it and melt with the metal. ‘The flame used for welding aluminum should be neutral or slightly carburizing, to be sure there will be no possibility of the metal being oxidized from the welding. A properly formed bead will be untform in width and height and will have a bright shiny surface, the same color as the filler rod. If the weld is oxidized, it will have a dead white appearance and a rough surface. If the flame was too carburizing, the weld will have a dirty ap- pearance from the extra carbon. When the weld is complete, scrub off all traces of the welding flux with hot water and a bristle brush. Any flux left on the metal will cause it to corrode. H. Oxyacetylene Cutting An oxyacetylene flame may be used to cut stee! ‘with an ease that is unrivaled by almost any other method. The cutting torch is similar to an oxyacetylene welding torch, except that there is an additional valve that allows a stream of high-pres- sure oxygen to flow directly from the regulator to 7-13