Heat Laboratory

Faculty Of Engineering Alexandria University

Name : Fahd Hatem Mohammad Abo Elmagd

Sec : 8
Seat : 328

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A Heat exchanger experiment.

A.1 Air Heat Exchangers.

A.1.1 Flow arrangement theory of operation.

In an air-cooled heat exchanger, the hot process fluid flows through a bank of finned tubes, and ambient
air is blown across the tubes by one or more axial-flow fans. For applications involving only sensible heat
transfer, the tubes are oriented horizontally as shown in Figures 1 and 2. For condensers, an A-frame
configuration (Figure 3) is often used, with the condensing vapor flowing downward through the tubes,
which are oriented at an angle of 60 with the horizontal. In units employing horizontal tubes, the fan
may be located either below (forced draft) or above (induced draft) the tube bank. In either case, the air
flows upward across the tubes. The fan drive assembly in an induced-draft unit may be mounted below
the tube bundle (either on the ground as shown in Figure 2 or suspended from the framework), or it may
be mounted above the fan .With the former arrangement, the drive assembly is easily accessible for
inspection and maintenance, and it is not exposed to the heated air leaving the unit. However, the drive
shaft passes through the tube bundle, requiring omission of some tubes, and the relatively long shaft is
more susceptible to vibration problems.
The forced-draft configuration provides the simplest and most convenient fan arrangement. With all
blower components located below the tube bundle, they are easily accessible for maintenance and are not
exposed to the heated air leaving the unit. However, these exchangers are susceptible to hot air
recirculation due to the low velocity of the air leaving the unit. Induced-draft operation gives more
uniform air flow over the tube bundle and the exit air velocity is several times higher than in forced-draft
operation, thereby reducing the potential for hot air to be recirculated back to the intake of the unit or
other nearby units. Hot air recirculation tends to reduce the capacity of the heat exchanger, thereby
requiring a higher air flow rate and/or more heat-transfer surface. The induced-draft configuration also
provides some protection from the elements for the tube bundle, which helps to stabilize the operation of
the unit when sudden changes in ambient conditions occur. For a given mass flow rate of air, induced-
draft operation in principle entails greater power consumption than forced-draft operation due to the
higher volumetric flow rate of the heated air that is handled by the induced-draft fan. In practice,
however, this potential disadvantage tends to be offset by the more uniform flow distribution and lower
potential for hot gas recirculation obtained with induced-draft operation. As a result, induced-draft units
typically do not require significantly more power than forced-draft units, and in some cases may actually
require less power.

Figure 1 Forced draft air cooled heat exchanger

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 Figure 2 Induced draft air cooled heat exchanger

Figure 3 A-farm air cooled condenser

A.1.2 Advantages and disadvantages of Air-cooled heat exchanger.

Advantages
1. Cooling with air is very economical
2. The Operating cost is very low compared with the water cooled Heat Exchangers
3. maintenance costs are generally lower for air-cooled exchangers
4. there is no possibility of leakage and mixing of water with the process fluid
5. Air cooling also eliminates the fouling and corrosion problems associated with cooling water
Dis-advantages
1. High capital cost
2. Large Volume

A.1.3 Application Area of use.

1. Cars` radiators to remove heat from the engine coolant

2. Chemical and petroleum processing operations.
3. Subsurface gas storage
4. Cooling the units of Compressor stations

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A.2 Shell and tube heat exchangers.

A2.1 Flow arrangement theory of operation.

A shell-and-tube exchanger (Figure 4) consists of a bundle of tubes contained in a cylindrical

shell.

Figure 4 (A schematic illustration of shell and tube heat exchanger)

Either the tube-side fluid, the shell-side fluid, or both may make more than one pass through
the heat exchanger. On the tube side, multiple passes are achieved by means of U-tubes or by
partitioning the headers. The number of tube-side passes is usually one, two, four, or six, but may
be as high as 16. Multiple passes on the shell side are achieved by partitioning the shell with a
longitudinal baffle (type F-shell) or by connecting two or more single-pass shells together. The
number of shell-side passes is usually between one and six.
The primary flow pattern in the shell is a sinuous motion both transverse and parallel to the
tubes. However, the situation is complicated by the fact that part of the fluid bypasses the main
heat-transfer surface as a result of various leakages. The bypass streams include the tube-to-baffle
leakage stream, the tube bundle-to-shell bypass stream, and the baffle-to-shell leakage stream.
The amounts of these bypass streams can be substantial as shown in Table 1 which gives typical values
for well-designed heat exchangers . As a result, the main stream flowing across the tube bundle
may comprise less than 50% of the total shell-side flow. It is the presence of these bypass streams
that greatly complicates the analysis of shell-side heat transfer and pressure drop.

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A.2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of shell and tube heat exchanger.

The main advantage of shell-and-tube exchangers is that they provide a relatively large amount of
heat-transfer surface per unit of volume and weight, and require a minimum number of connections.
They are also extremely versatile, and can be designed to meet almost any heat-transfer service. As
a result, they are commonly used in a wide variety of applications.

Advantages

1- Less expensive as compared to Plate type coolers

2- Can be used in systems with higher operating temperatures and pressures
3- Pressure drop across a tube cooler is less
4- Tube leaks are easily located and plugged since pressure test is comparatively easy

Disadvantages

1- Heat transfer is less compared to the plate type

2- Difficult of cleaning and maintenance
3- Requires a more area compared to the plate type

A.2.3 Application Area of use.

1. Process liquid or gas cooling

2. Process or refrigerant vapor or steam condensing
3. Process liquid, steam or refrigerant evaporation
4. Process heat removal and preheating of feed water
5. Thermal energy conservation efforts, heat recovery
6. Compressor, turbine and engine cooling, oil and jacket water
7. Hydraulic and lube oil cooling

A.3 Double pipe heat exchanger

A.3.1 Flow arrangement theory of operation

A simple double-pipe exchanger consists of two pairs of concentric pipes arranged as shown in Figure 4.
Such a configuration is called a hairpin, for obvious reasons. Batteries of hairpins connected
In series or in series-parallel arrangements are commonly employed to provide adequate surface area for
heat transfer. The two fluids that are transferring heat flow in the inner and outer pipes, respectively. The
fluids usually flow through the exchanger in opposite directions as shown in Figure 4. Such a flow pattern
is called counter flow or counter-current flow. In some special-purpose applications, parallel (or co-
current) flow is employed in which the two streams flow in the same direction. The outer pipe may be
insulated to minimize heat transfer to or from the environment.
Also, nozzles may be provided on the inner-pipe (tube) side as well as on the annulus side to facilitate
connection to process piping.

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 Figure 4 (Simple double pipe exchanger)

A.3.2 Advantages and disadvantages of double pipe heat exchanger.

Advantages:

1. Very simple to construct

2. Very easy of operation
3. U-type or hairpin constructions handle differential thermal expansions.
4. Simple construction
5. Ease of maintenance and operation
6. Low cost

Dis-advantages

1. The use of two single flow areas leads to relatively low flow rates and moderate temperature
differences.
2. Cant be used in handling dirty fluids.

A.3.3 Application Area of use.

Double-pipe exchangers are commonly used in applications involving relatively low flow rates
and high temperatures or pressures, for which they are well suited.

A4 Plate type Heat Exchangers

A4.1 Flow arrangement theory of operation.

The flow pattern through a gasketed-plate heat exchanger is illustrated in Figure 5.

When a package of plates are pressed together, the holes at the corners of the plates form
continuous tunnels or manifolds, leading the media from the inlets into the plate package, where
they are distributed into the narrow channels between the plates. The plate pack is tightened by
means of either a mechanical or hydraulic tightening device that permits control of tightening
pressure to the desired level. These passages formed between the plates and corner ports are
arranged so that the two heat transfer media can flow through alternate channels, always in
countercurrent flow. During the passage through the apparatus, the warmer medium will give some
of its heat energy through the thin plate wall to the colder medium on the other
side. Finally, the medium are led into similar hole-tunnels as in the inlets at the other end of the
plate package and are then discharged from the heat exchanger. The plates can be stacked up to
several hundred in a frame and are held together by the bolts that hold the stack in compression
(Figure 5)

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 Figure 5 (Flow diagram of Gasketed-Plate heat exchanger)

A.4.2 Advantages and disadvantages of Plate type heat exchanger.

Advantages:
1- The gasket design minimizes the risk of internal leakage
2- Any failure in the gasket results in leakage to the atmosphere, which is easy to be detected.
3- Flexibility of design through a variety of plate sizes and pass arrangements
4- Easily accessible to the heat transfer area
5- Permits changing in configurations to suit change in processes requirements through
changing the number of the plates.
6- Efficient heat transfer; high heat transfer coefficients for both fluids because of turbulence
and a small hydraulic diameter.
7- Very compact (large heat transfer area/volume ratio), and low in weight; in spite of their
compactness, 1,500 m2 of surface area is available in a single unit
8- Only the plate edges are exposed to the atmosphere; the heat losses are negligible and no
insulation is required
9- Intermixing of the two fluids cannot occur under gasket failure
10- Plate units exhibit low fouling characteristics due to high turbulence and low residence
time
11- More than two fluids may be processed in a single unit.
Dis-advantages:
1. The maximum allowable working pressure is also limited by the frame strength and plate
deformation resistance. Commonly stated limits have been 300F (149C) and 300 psi
2. Because of the narrow gap between the plates, high liquid rates will involve excessive pressure
drops, thus limiting the capacity.
3. Large differences in fluid flow rates of two streams cannot be handled.
4. The gaskets cannot handle corrosive or aggressive media.
5. Gaskets always increase the leakage risk
6. The standard PHEs cannot handle particulates that are larger than 0.5 mm.

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A.4.3 Application Area of use.

1- chemical, pharmaceutical, hygiene products, biochemical processing, food, and dairy

industries, to name a few, because of the ease of disassembling the heat exchanger for
cleaning and sterilization to meet health and sanitation requirements
2- used as conventional process heaters and coolers as well as condensers.
3- Typical applications are mainly liquid-to-liquid turbulent flow situations
4- At-sea or coastal locations in central cooling systems using sea, river, or well water
5- In compressor intercooler systems
6- ideal for offshore and on-ship applications

B Fire tube boiler erosion and corrosion

B.1 Corrosion
Corrosion is essentially an electrochemical process , where in the oxidation of metals or
alloys to their (lower energy state) oxides reactions takes place .
The corrosion of steel or on the r metals in a boiler plan t system takes place when an
electrochemical cell is established . This occurs when two different metals (anode and
cathode ) are coupled together in water, which acts as the electrolyte in any steam water
circuit .
Corrosion also occurs where only one metal is involved. Here variations
in oxidation potential caused by surface chemistry differences (such a s irregularities in
the metal' s crystalline structure or stresses caused during the finishing stages of
manufacture) create microanodes and microcathodes .

B.2 Mechanism of corrosion.

It is at the anode that oxidation takes place, with the anodic metal suffering a los s o f negatively charged
electrons. The resulting positively charged metal ions dissolve in the water electrolyte and metal
wastage occurs. In the corrosion cell, the metal or metal are a having the lowest electrical potential
becomes the anode.
At the cathode, a variety of reduction reactions take place, including the reduction of hydrogen ion s (the
gaining of electrons) to produce hydrogen gas.
The relevant important corrosion reaction s are shown below :

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Corrosion mechanisms in boiler plant systems take many forms .They always result in metal wastage and
usually result in a loss of mechanical or structural strength as well.
Each metal will develop an electrode with a measurable electrical potential. This potential can be
referenced to that of a standard hydrogen electrode, which by convention is set at zero. Thus, all metals
have either a higher or lower potential compared to hydrogen, and a comparative list of metals can be
produced indicating their relative nobility. This list is the galvanic or electrochemical series and
measured as an electromotive force (EMF).
In general, the baser the metal, the lower (more negative) the electrical potential at the anode and the
higher the potential rate of corrosion. Carbon steel and low alloy steels (which are widely used in boiler
plants) have a relatively low potential with respect to the standard hydrogen electrode an d can therefore
be expected to corrode readily unless active prevention measures are taken . Copper and brasses have
a relatively higher potential.

Figure 6 (Corrosion Mechanism)

Figure 7 (Fire tube boiler is opposed to corrosion attack)

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B.3 Effect of corrosion (pitting)

Pitting is probably the most destructive form of corrosion that affects the water side of boiler tubes.
Frequently, only a few pits are present and most of the surface is unattacked. In other cases, the pits
cover most of the surface, and as a further extreme, the pits all run together and the corrosion takes the
form of uniform attack. The frequency of the pits is determined to a large extent by the degree of acidity
or alkalinity of the water.
Acidity and alkalinity are dependent upon the amount of hydrogen-ion concentration found in the
water. Both would be expressed in terms of the pH scale. A strong acid solution -- strong muriatic or
sulfuric acid -- is rated as 1; a strong alkaline solution -- concentrated caustic soda -- is rated as 14.
Neutral water has a pH value of 7.
Below a pH of 5, the water is actually sufficiently acid to dissolve the steel, and under these conditions
no pits form. Instead, the corrosion is relatively uniform and the steel gradually gets thinner until it is
too weak to hold the pressure, or a small hole develops.
Between a pH 5 and 9.4, pitting takes place at a rate depending on the concentration of oxygen in the
water. Therefore, while operating the boiler, it is necessary that all air or as much air as possible be
excluded from the boiler water.
It has been shown that a strip of steel hung in the middle of a fast moving stream did not rust, while an
identical piece hung in a stagnant pool along the edge of the same stream pitted badly when connected
to the first by a wire. This proves that velocity and air content have an effect on the corrosion of steel. In
most cases, the pitting in horizontal fire tube boilers takes place along the top of the tubes on the
outside, and it is our belief that this may in part be due to the difference in velocity of the rising water
and steam bubbles, creating an eddy effect along the top of the tube and accelerating the corrosion,
much as did the experiment of the flowing stream. In any event, pitting would not occur in this type of
boiler if no oxygen were present in the water .
Practically all ground surface supplies of water contain dissolved air in quantities depending on its
source, time of exposure and its temperature. Cold water will retain more air than warm water, as can
be seen by filling a clear bottle with cold water from a tap and allowing it to stand overnight. Small air
bubbles will form on the sides, demonstrating that as the water warms up the gas is liberated.
a new boiler, or in one which has been drained and refilled with cold water, as the water warms up, air
bubbles form on the tubes. In a very short time pits develop under these bubbles, due to the difference
in oxygen concentration under the bubbles and the oxygen concentration in the water surrounding the
bubbles. Penetration as high as 50 percent of the tube wall has been known to take place in one
stagnant period of two weeks duration. Once these pits form, they proceed rapidly even under
operating conditions.

B.4 protection of fire tube boiler against corrosion .

Out-of-Service Factors
1. Boil out the boiler with an alkaline cleaner after installing new tubes to remove oil or other coatings
from the tube surfaces. These protective coatings are commonly applied to new tubes to prevent
rusting during storage and transit, and will cause corrosion if left on the tubes during operation of
the boiler.
2. Bring a steam boiler to a good steam output as soon as it is filled to deaerate the water. Heat the
water in a hot water boiler to 180o F for the same reason. A temperature of 180o F will not remove
all the air, but the majority will be driven off.

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3. Add sodium chromate or sodium nitrite - nitrate inhibitors to the water in the quantities
recommended.
4. In greenhouses or in damp locations, put a tray of unslaked lime in the ash pit to absorb moisture,
and close the boiler. Inspect this lime occasionally and renew when it becomes mushy.

In-Service Factors
1. Keep all boiler and system fittings airtight.
2. Add sodium chromate or sodium nitrite - nitrate inhibitors to the water in the quantities
recommended.
3. Preferably, use a fuel with low sulfur content to avoid the corrosive action of sulfur gases.
4. Brush, flush and dry out the insides of fire tubes as often as possible to remove soot and other
products of combustion, and to prevent the accumulation of moisture and condensed sulfur gases.
5. Use sodium sulfite regularly in the boiler feed water to remove dissolved oxygen.
6. Use suitable feed water heater or deaerator to reduce the oxygen content of the boiler feed water.
7. Prevent water leakage and avoid draining water from the system. Addition of make-up water
results in loss and dilution of the treatment, and introduces air into the system
8. Don't pressurize a hot water system with compressed air over large areas of water

B.5 Erosion in fire tube boiler.

B.5.1 Fire tube boiler Erosion

Erosion is a process of wear in which materials are removed from a solid surface by the action of solid
particles impinging on it. This type of wear is common in many industrial devices, including boilers. The
combustion products of coal contain fly ash particles, which impinge on boiler tubes or fan blades and
erode them. Fly ash erosion is the second most important cause for boiler tube failure (DOE, 1998).
Tube failures by erosion in some cases account for about one-third of all tube failures in a boiler. Studies
on erosion show that the average rate of reduction in metal thickness of eroding tubes in pulverized coal
fired (PC) boilers varies from 2.0 x 10-5 }Lm/s to 15 x 10-5 }Lm/s. At the highest rate of erosion, tube
failures may occur after 16,000 h in service. This chapter explains the mechanism of erosion in fossil fuel
fired boilers, presents models for estimation of the extent of erosion, and discusses methods for
prevention of erosion.

B.5.2 theory of erosion

Finnie (1958) explained many aspects of the erosion of ductile materials impacted by streams of
angular-shaped rough particles. A hard angular particle impinging upon a smooth surface at an angle of
attack ex will cut into the surface much like a sharp tool. The ductility of the attacked material
determines its ability to undergo plastic deformation during the cutting process. By finding the volume
removed from the target by the mechanical action of a single particle of mass, m, inferences can be
made about the wear arising owing to a larger quantity of simple cutting bodies of total mass, M.

B.5.3 Size of Ash

Particle Erosion is markedly influenced by the size of impacting particles. The rate of erosion is
insignificant when impacting quartz particles are < 5 Microns. Small particles have insufficient
momentum to impact the target. Also, they are carried around the object by the gas flow. The erosion

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rate increases when the particle size increases from 10 to 100 Microns m. One interesting aspect of
erosion is that for particles larger than about 100 Microns the volume removed by a given mass of
abrasive grains is independent of particle size. The physical reasons for this size effect are still not clear.

B.5.4 Flue Gas Temperature

Erosion is a mechanical process. Therefore, the enhancement of erosion with temperature may be small,
but localized melting owing to high-velocity impact can significantly increase erosion. In the latter case
metal softening and localized shear deformation facilitate the formation of deep craters with extended
edges from which metal pieces break off easily during subsequent impacts. Melting ande-solidification
can also take place at the particle-metal interface. So when the particle rebounds it removes solidified
metal material that has adhered to its surface. This mechanism is favored when target surfaces are
already at high temperatures. High temperature also reduces erosion (Yong and Ruff, 1977) owing to the
increase in the metal ductility. This facilitates particle embedding, and the production of protective
oxide films.

B.5.5 Fly Ash Concentration

Erosion of the tube material increases with increasing ash concentration. In general, the erosion rate is
in direct proportion to the fly ash concentration, (Microns).

Figure 8 (Tubes is opposed against erosion attack )

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C. Teaching unit experience
C.1 the function of control devices typically used in refrigeration cycle

C.1.1 INTRODUCTION
A refrigeration system can be built with only the following four essential components:
1. Evaporator
2. Compressor
3. Condenser
4. Expansion valve
Other system controls and components are, however, necessary for safety, maintenance and control
purposes. Fig. 9 illustrates the functionalities associated with the compressor. Data related to the
compressor, such as oil pressure, temperature, motor current can be fed from integrated sensors into
an electronic controller. This type of equipment not only eliminates mechanical switches and external
pressure connections but also allows integration with other system information. Additional functionalities
can include historical information. Manufacturers web sites can give details. Fig. 10 shows some of the
frequently used circuit components. In addition, a safety pressure-relief device may be required for any
pressure vessel in the circuit, depending on its size. Many controls are now performed by electronic
controllers, but the functionalities are sometimes best described by examining the working of mechanical
devices. Some components such as filters, oil separators and relief valves are physical components in the
system, although certain aspects of their behaviour can be monitored electronically.

C.1.2 MAIN CONTROL FUNCTIONS

Since the primary purpose of a refrigeration, air conditioning, or heat pump
system is to maintain temperature, a thermostat is usually fitted to stop the
equipment or reduce its capacity when the required condition is reached.
The following types are in use:
1. Movement of a bimetallic element
2. Expansion of a fluid
3. Vapour pressure of a volatile fluid
4. Electric resistance
5. Electronic various types
The first three aforementioned types produce a mechanical effect which can be used directly to operate an
electric switch or modulate the pressure of an air jet (pneumatic system). These last two produce an
electric signal which must be measured and amplified to operate the controlled device.

In order to prevent excessive cycling, a differential of say 2 K should be incorporated. Where the
equipment is required to maintain a predetermined level of humidity, a humidistat may be used instead of,
or in addition to, a thermostat. The function will normally be to operate an electrical switch.
Mechanical humidistats employ materials which change dimension with humidity, such as animal hair,
plastics, cellulosics, etc. These can work a switch directly. Electronic humidistats generally depend on the
properties of a hygroscopic salt. The signal has to be measured and amplified.
A low-pressure switch can also be used in conjunction with a thermostat
and a solenoid valve in the pump-down circuit. In this method of control, the thermostat does not stop the
compressor but de-energises the liquid line solenoid valve to stop the supply of refrigerant to the
evaporator. The compressor continues to run and pumps down the evaporator until stopped by the low
pressure switch. When the thermostat again calls for cooling, it opens the solenoid valve, liquid enters the
evaporator and the low-pressure switch will close again to restart the compressor. This method is used to
ensure that the evaporator is kept clear of liquid when the plant is off. If there is any leak at the solenoid
valve, it will cause the compressor to restart periodically to remove the surplus liquid from the coil (see

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Fig. 11). Pressure switches are also made in miniature, encapsulated versions, mainly pre-set for use in
integrated control circuits.

Figure 9 (Components associated with compressor)

Figure 10 (Components for direct expansion circuit)

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 Figure 11 (The pump down circuit the solenoid valve is thermostat controlled and
compressor is low-pressure controlled.)

C.2 Expansion valves

C.2.1 Introduction

The purpose of the expansion valve is to control the flow of refrigerant from the high-pressure condensing
side of the system into the low-pressure evaporator. In most cases, the pressure reduction is achieved
through a variable flow orifice, either modulating or two-position. Expansion valves may be classified
according to the method of control.

C.2.2 THERMOSTATIC EXPANSION VALVES

The basic thermostatic expansion valve (Fig. 12) has a detector and power element, charged with the
same refrigerant as in the circuit. The pressure ps generated in the phial by the superheated gas equalizes
through the capillary tube to the top of the diaphragm. An adjustable spring provides the balance of
ps pe at the diaphragm, and the valve stem is attached at the centre. Should the superheat fall for any
reason, there will be a risk of liquid reaching the compressor. Ts will decrease with a corresponding drop
in ps. The forces on the diaphragm are now out of balance and the spring will start to close the valve.
Conversely if the load on the evaporator increases, refrigerant will evaporate earlier and there will be
more superheat at the phial position. Then ps will increase and open the valve wider to meet the new
demand.

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 Figure 12 (thermostatic expansion valve)

Advantages of the Thermostatic Expansion Valve

As it is obvious from the above discussion the advantages of the thermostatic expansion valve are:

1) The TEV maintains the flow of the refrigerant to the evaporator as per the load inside. Thus the refrigeration or the
air conditioning plant can run to the optimum capacity as per the requirements.

2) The TEV keeps the evaporator fully active and helps getting the optimum cooling effect from it.

3) Since the entire refrigerant in the evaporator gets vaporized the chances of the liquid refrigerant particles going to
the compressor are reduced. This reduces the chances of the breakdown of the compressor due to compression of
the liquid.

4) The compressor can also work at the optimum capacity as per the refrigeration load on the system. If the load is
lesser it has to compress refrigerant and work on lesser capacity thus absorbing lesser electric power. If the load is
higher it can work at higher capacities.

Dis-advantages
More expensive than capillary tubes. and Requires tuning during first assembly.
THERMOSTATIC EXPANSION VALVE APPLICATIONS
Due to its superior operating characteristics, the TEV is currently used on a wide variety of applications.
These applications include both large and small capacity air conditioning and heat pump systems;
commercial refrigeration systems including refrigerated display cases, ice cubers , and soft drink
dispensers; and low temperature refrigeration systems.

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C.2.3 ELECTRONIC EXPANSION VALVES

The electronic expansion valve offers a finer degree of control and system protection.
The benefits can be summarized as follows:
1. Precise flow control over a wide range of capacities.
2. Rapid response to load changes.
3. Better control at low superheats so that less evaporator surface is required for superheat. More surface
for evaporation results in higher evaporating temperature and better efficiency.
4. Electrical connection between components offers greater flexibility in system layout, which is
important for compact systems.
5. The valve can close when the system shuts down, which eliminates the need for an additional shut off
solenoid valve.

C.2.4 CAPILLARY TUBES AND RESTRICTORS

The variable orifice of the expansion valve can be replaced, in small systems, by a long thin tube. This is
a non-modulating device and has certain limitations, but will give reasonably effective control over a
wide range of conditions if correctly selected and applied. Mass flow is a function of pressure difference
and the degree of liquid subcooling on entry. The capillary tube is used almost exclusively in small air
conditioning systems and is self-regulating within certain parameters. Increasing ambient temperature
results in increasing load on the conditioned space and the condensing pressure will rise, forcing more
refrigerant flow.

Advantages Cheap, simple design, maintenance free

Disadvantages May operate at tight load operations

If it was defected , Maintenance cost is high

Figure 13 (Capillary tube expansion valve)

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C 3. A/C experiments
Refrigeration cycles

C3.1 The vapour compression cycle

Cycle is used for refrigeration in preference to gas cycles; making use of the latent heat enables a far
larger quantity of heat to be extracted for a given refrigerant mass flow rate. This makes the equipment
as compact as possible. A liquid boils and condenses the change between the liquid and the gaseous
states at a temperature which depends on its pressure, within the limits of its freezing point and critical
temperature.In boiling it must obtain the latent heat of evaporation and in condensing the latent heat is
given up. Heat is put into the fluid at the lower temperature and pressure, thus providing the latent heat to
make it vaporise. The vapour is then mechanically compressed to a higher pressure and a corresponding
saturation temperature at which its latent heat can be rejected so that it changes back to a liquid.

C.3.2 Absorption Cycle

The principle of the absorption cycle is given in Fig.14 . The refrigerant flowing through the condenser,
expansion valve and evaporator performs in just the same way as in the vapour compression cycle.The
difference is that the compressor is replaced by a thermal compressor. The refrigerant leaving the
evaporator is absorbed by a liquid absorbant ; the strength of the solution increasing as the liquid
absorbant passes through the absorber. This solution is then pumped up to condenser pressure and the
vapour is driven off in the generator by direct heating. The high-pressure refrigerant, now a gas, can then
be condensed in the usual way and passed back through the expansion valve into the evaporator. The
weak solution from the generator is passed through another pressure-reducing valve and
back to the absorber. There are two main refrigerants in use, ammonia with water absorbant and water
with lithium bromide absorbant. The water/lithium bromide systems are suited to air-conditioning water
chiller temperatures, whereas ammonia systems are suited for evaporating temperatures below 0C. With
water as a refrigerant the whole system operates well below atmospheric pressure. Ingress of air due to
leakages can cause problems. The diagram in Fig. 14 is illustrative only. The low low-pressure vessels
(evaporator and absorber) and the high-pressure vessels (condenser and generator) are commonly
combined within one shell each. Dual effect systems can be used. Overall thermal efficiency may also be
improved by a heat exchanger between the two solution paths and a suction-to-liquid heat exchanger for
the refrigerant. Absorption system can be used to advantage where:
a CHP unit has spare heat available.
a low-cost supply of waste heat is available.

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 heat from landfill gas or geothermal can be used.
electrical load limits apply at the site.
low noise and/or vibration are major considerations.
solar energy can be harnessed.
Because of the need for additional processes, an absorption systems can be significantly more costly than
a vapor compression alternative. The energy input to an absorption cycle is higher than for a compression.

Figure14 (Absorption cycle basic circuit)

C.3.3 Thermoelectric Cooling

The passage of an electric current through junctions of dissimilar metals causes a fall in temperature at
one junction and a rise at the other, the Peltier effect. Improvements in this method of cooling have been
made possible in recent years by the production of suitable semiconductors. Applications are limited in
size, owing to the high electric currents required, and practical uses are small cooling systems for
military, aerospace and laboratory use

C.3.4 Air Cycle

Air cycle refrigeration works on the reverse Brayton or Joule cycle. Air is compressed and then heat
removed; this air is then expanded to a lower temperature than before it was compressed. Heat can then
be extracted to provide useful cooling, returning the air to its original state .Work is taken out of the air
during the expansion by an expansion turbine, which removes energy as the blades are driven round by
the expanding air. This work can be usefully employed to run other devices, such as generators or fans.

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 D. Steam Turbine

D.1 Heat rate

The principles of stage and cylinder efficiency having been introduced, consideration
is now given to the definition of turbine heat rate. The heat rate is determined by
measurement of some plant operating parameters. These include:

Flow rate, using a differential pressure device.

Enthalpy, based on calibrated pressure and temperature measurement.
Electric power, based on calibrated voltage and current measurements.

Consider a steam cycle with single reheat and regenerative feed heating, shown in
Figure

Figure 15 (steam cycle with single reheat and regenerative feed heating)

The heat rate is defined by:

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 A means of measuring cycle heat rate having been defined, consideration can now
be given to variations between the design heat rates quoted by the turbine
manufacturers and the heat rates achieved in operation.

In this section, the effects of certain terminal conditions of the steam cycle are
considered in detail. The impact on efficiency is evaluated and the constraints faced
by the designer are discussed.

D.2.1 Effect of steam inlet conditions

Firstly, consider the effect of steam inlet conditions to the turbine. The temperature
of the steam supplied to the turbine stop valve is a major factor in the cycle
efficiency and the efficiency of the turbine in converting available energy into work.
The effect of increasing the steam inlet temperature for a turbine expanding
between set pressures. The expansion process shown is for a single-cylinder turbine
with no increase in entropy. As the temperature is increased, the available energy
increases.
There are limitations to the selection of inlet steam conditions. As mentioned in the
previous section there are criteria which affect the choice of inlet conditions:
Maximum turbine exhaust wetness 12%.
Metallurgical constraints on the choice of turbine and boiler materials.

The metallurgical limit on temperature is 565C for coal-fired plant brought into
service with the CEGB over the years 1960 to 1986. This limit reflects a
compromise between ease of manufacture, creep strength and cost. The practice on
CEGB 500 MW and 660 MW sub-critical units has been to select a pressure of 159
bar at the turbine stop valve.
D.2.2 Effect of reheat conditions

Now consider the selection of reheat conditions for a single reheat cycle. Having
established the steam conditions at entry to the HP turbine, there are several
design compromises involved in the choice of reheat pressure and temperature.
First, consider the boundary conditions.
The HP cylinder exhaust steam must be sufficiently superheated to avoid any
wetness in the cold reheat pipework, which would cause severe erosion. As in the
previous section, the exhaust steam from the LP cylinder must be wet, but not
greater than 12% wetness. Now consider the effect of changing reheat
temperature for a constant pressure drop in the HP cylinder The effect of reducing
the pressure or of raising the temperature of the reheat steam is to reduce LP
exhaust wetness.
Although reducing LP exhaust wetness is desirable, too high a temperature could
lead to some difficulties with materials. The common practice has been to reheat to
the original superheat steam condition, i.e., 565C.
Another important factor in the design of the re-heater is the effect of pressure

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losses in the pipework. The pressure loss results from a throttling effect which
reduces the available energy for work. The pressure at which steam is reheated is
about 25% of the stop valve condition, representing approximately a fourfold
increase in volume. This necessitates the use of increased pipe sizes which are
expensive and inflexible. The plant designer has to weigh the merit of using larger
pipes, or pipe runs in parallel, versus the improvement in cycle efficiency. The usual
pressure drop is 7.5 to 10% of the HP cylinder exhaust pressure. Finally,
constraints will exist in the boiler on the range of conditions attainable.

D.2.3 Effect of pressure loss in pipework and valves

the effect of pressure loss anywhere in the steam path causes a loss in cycle
efficiency by reducing the energy available for conversion into work. Valve gear at
the inlet to the HP and IP turbines is used to control the inlet mass flow and hence
the load on the machine by a throttling process. comparing the condition lines of a
reheat turbine at full load with all the valves wide open and one at part load, where
the load has been reduced by 40% by throttling on the inlet valves to the HP
turbine. Other pressure losses are neglected. The throttling effect is to reduce the
inlet pressure by a constant enthalpy process The result is a loss in entropy and
also a slight fall in temperature with some reduction in the available heat drop. This
accounts for a small loss in efficiency. However, the major flow reduction which
results is the main reason for the reduction of work done in the HP, IP and LP
cylinders. In this example, the condenser pressure is assumed to remain constant
and the pressure drop across the turbine cylinders is controlled by the Ellipse law
relationship.
Pressure loss is associated with pipe diameter, of surface roughness, steam flow
rate and the pipe geometry (number of bends, expansions, contractions). Simply
reducing piping losses by redesigning pipe runs, or by adding to the number of
pipes, may increase the capital cost of the plant in excess of the benefit gained in
running costs.
D.2.4 Effect of final feed temperatures

The concept of regenerative feed heating was introduced as a means of improving

cycle efficiency. The thermodynamic optimum final feed temperature for Rankine
cycle plant is, by definition, that which gives the highest cycle efficiency. However,
raising the final feed temperature would reduce the required size of the boiler
economiser surface.
In order to avoid an increase in the stack temperature, the air heater would have to
be increased in size, and the cost of this would exceed any saving on the
economizer. Consequently the economic optimum feed temperature is somewhat
lower than the thermodynamic optimum.
Raising the final feed temperature also has implications for the design of the HP
turbine. Past practice has been to use bled-steam from the HP turbine exhaust. The
saturation temperature of the bled-steam controls the maximum feed temperature
obtainable. To provide steam at a higher pressure with a higher saturation
temperature, requires steam to be bled from an intermediate point on the HP

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cylinder. This is an additional complication and cost to the turbine plant. Despite the
increases in capital cost, the benefit from improved cycle efficiency is such that the
additional heater is worth including.

D.2. Effect of exhaust pressure

The efficiency of the cycle is strongly influenced by the LP turbine exhaust pressure.
The back pressure of the condenser sets the saturation temperature at which the
expanded steam rejects its latent heat of vaporisation to the cooling water.
Consequently, changes in back pressure affect the temperature of cycle heat
rejection.
However, there are several plant constraints affecting the selection design exhaust
pressure. Consider the effect of lowering the exhaust pressure on the turbine The
effect of a change in condenser saturation temperature on the cycle work done is
shown on a T-S diagram Generally, a low exhaust pressure is sought as it improves
cycle efficiency.

However, there are several plant constraints affecting the selection design exhaust
pressure. Consider the effect of lowering the exhaust pressure on the turbine
Expansion to a lower pressure results in increased wetness, and increased specific
volume at the exhaust.
The increase in exhaust wetness tends to increase the erosion of the last-stage
blades. However, more significant is the effect of increased specific volume,

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implying the need for a higher volume flow rate. The volume flow rate through the
condenser is the product of the mean steam axial velocity and the annular exhaust
area. The annular exhaust area is limited by the maximum length of LP blade. At
3000 r/min, the centrifugal forces on the long blades become very high and there is
a limit to the mechanical stress which blade roots can sustain. Hence, having
established a maximum annular area, the increase in volume flow rate must be
accommodated by an increase in exit velocity. Steam issuing from the last stage of
the turbine with high residual velocity represents a loss of kinetic energy. This
kinetic energy performs no useful work on the turbine blades and therefore is a loss
of available energy, known as the 'leaving loss', and varies with the square of
velocity. The other loss associated with the turbine exhaust is the 'hood loss', which
defines the hydraulic pressure loss between the last row of moving blades and the
condenser; this also varies with the square of the same velocity.
The sizing of the LP turbine exhaust area affects the overall design of machine, in
particular the thermal design of the condenser. The requirement to provide a
certain volume flow rate affects the configuration of the LP cylinders since 1, 2, 3 or
even 4 double-flow LP cylinders may be operated in parallel to give the desired flow
rate. The number and size of the chosen arrangement of LP turbines affects many
other areas of design the rotor dynamics; the plant arrangement; size of civil
structures.
Having introduced all factors against decreasing exhaust pressure, the design
compromise is once more between improvements in cycle efficiency versus the
increase in plant complexity and therefore reliability and cost. Finally, a major
factor affecting the choice of exhaust pressure is the ambient temperature at which
the CW can reject heat. This factor seasonally effects the thermal efficiency of the
plant.

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