raffles programme biology

Notes compiled by Muhammad Syafiq B Mohamed S (3A/4A)

Year 3 Biology
1. Cellular Respiration Page
2. External Respiration Page
3. Transport in Man Page
4. Response and Coordination
a. Nervous System Page
b. A Sense Organ: The Eye Page
c. Muscles and Movement Page
5. Homeostasis Page
6. Hormones/Human Endocrine System Page

Year 4 Biology
1. Reproduction
a. Cell Reproduction: Cells from Cells Page
b. Reproduction in Flowering Plants (Angiosperms) Page
2. Genetics - Patterns of Inheritance Page
3. Molecular Genetics Page
4. Genetic Engineering
a. Genetic Engineering Page
b. Applications and Ethics of Genetic Engineering Page
5. Evolution Page

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YEAR 3 BIOLOGY
TOPIC 3: CELLULAR RESPIRATION
Tested for Y3 EOY and Y4 FYE
3.1: What is Respiration?
Oxidation of food substances with energy as its product
Occurs in all living cells
Energy released is stored in Adenosine Triphosphate:
Short-term energy store of all cells

3.2: Uses of Energy

Synthesis Formation of new substances for growth, development and repair
Transport Transport of material across cell membranes via active transport
Movement Contraction of muscles
Electrochemical activity Generation of impulses
Heat production Maintain a constant body temperature in warm-blooded temperature

3.3: Aerobic Respiration

Breakdown of food substances in the presence of oxygen
One glucose molecule can produce about 38 ATP worth of energy
Takes place in the mitochondria of cells
Overall Equation: C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Lots of energy

3.4: ATP, The Universal Energy Currency

Constantly recycled with Adenosine Diphosphate
A reservoir of energy
Takes part in many metabolic reactions
Delivers energy in small amounts to drive individual reactions
Involved in both exergonic and endergonic reactions

3.5: ADP ATP Cycle

3.6: Anaerobic Respiration

Breakdown of food substances in the absence of oxygen
Produces 2 ATP worth of energy

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3.7: Anaerobic Respiration: Yeast
Yeast cells can respire both anaerobically and aerobically
Ethanol and carbon dioxide produced
Process known as fermentation
Overall equation: C6H12O6 2CO2 + 2C2H5OH + small amount of energy

3.8: Anaerobic Respiration: Muscles

Normally respire aerobically to produce large amounts of energy, carbon dioxide and water
During muscular activity, insufficient oxygen is transported to the muscles
Muscles will therefore undergo anaerobic respiration
Respiration is incomplete
Lactic acid builds up
Overall Equation: C6H12O6 2CH3CHOHCOOH + small amount of energy
Only the first stage of respiration occurs
Glycolysis in the cell cytosol
Muscles fatigued due to accumulation of lactic acid
After period of rest:
Lactic acid transported to liver
Some oxidised produce energy
Oxygen debt
Amount of oxygen required to oxidise lactic acid produced
Energy used to convert remaining lactic acid to glucose
Glucose and energy transported to muscles for usage or storage

3.9: Aerobic vs. Anaerobic Respiration

Small amount of ATP produced in anaerobic respiration
Waste products lactic acid and ethanol contain a lot of unused energy
Lactic acid and ethanol harmful if accumulated
Lactic acid can be converted back to sugar to be used for respiration
Yeast cannot metabolise ethanol

3.10: Differences between Respiration and Photosynthesi s

RESPIRATION Process Photosynthesis

Energy is liberated Energy Energy is stored in

carbohydrate molecules

Used: O2 Materials used Used: CO2 and H2O

Given Out: CO2 and H2O Given out: O2

Catabolic process Process Anabolic process (Glucose is

(Breakdown of glucose) formed)

Occurs all the time Frequency Occurs only in:

Cells with chlorophyll
In the presence of
sunlight

Loss of dry mass Mass Gain of dry mass

3
TOPIC 4: EXTERNAL RESPIRATION
Tested for Y3 EOY and Y4 FYE
4.1: Inspiration and Expiration
Inspiration Air is taken into the body
Expiration Process in which air is given out

4.2: Respiratory System

(Organs are in chronological order, in accordance to the path air goes along)
Nose
Hair and mucus trap dust
Receptor smell: Dust
Nasal cavity
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
C-shaped cartilage keeps trachea open and enable food to pass through oesophagus
easily.
C-shaped cartilage allows room for expansion of trachea during coughing or intensive
exercise
Mucus: Trap dust and micro-organisms
Cilia: Move mucus upwards towards pharynx where mucus is swallowed
Lungs
Bronchi
C-shaped cartilage
2 in the left-side of the lungs(to accommodate heart), 3 in the right side of the
lungs
Bronchial Tubes
C-shaped cartilage
Bronchioles
Alveolus
Small, rounded air sacs
Wall is one-celled thick
Thin film of moisture
Closely bound to capillaries
One-cell thick endothelium
Breathing movement brings in oxygen, while blood circulation brings oxygen
away, maintaining concentration gradient for gas exchange
Oxygen dissolves in layer of moisture before diffusing
Maximum surface area due to folded exterior, as well as there being millions of
them

4
EXAM QUESTION: Outline briefly the part played by the diaphragm in the breathing of a mammal.

EXAM ANSWER: The diaphragm contracts and flatten downwards during inspiration to allow increase of
the volume of thoracic activity and also to allow decrease in the air pressure as air rushes into the lungs.
The diaphragm relaxes and arches upwards during respiration as volume of thoracic activity decreases
and increase of air pressure as air rushes out of the lungs.

EXAM QUESTION: How does intercostal muscles play a role in respiration?

EXAM ANSWER: During inspiration, the external intercostal muscles contract while the internal
intercostal muscles relax. This causes the ribcage to move upwards and outwards, thereby increasing the
volume of the chest cavity and creating a pressure gradient between the air in the atmosphere and the air
in the body, causing air to rush in. During expiration, the internal intercostal muscles contract while the
external intercostal muscles relax. This causes the ribcage to move inwards and downwards, thereby
increasing the air pressure within the lungs by decreasing the volume of the chest cavity, forcing the air
out as a result.

(*Note: Always give the name of the muscle that contracts first)

4.3: Input and Output

Input Material Output

21% O2 16%

0.03% CO2 4%

78% N2 78%

Variable H2O Saturated

Variable Temperature 37o C

Present Dust Particles Lacking

4.4: Movement of Lungs

Ribs Diaphragm Thoracic Thoracic Internal External

Volume Air Intercostal Intercostal
Pressure Muscles Muscles
Breathe In Move out Move down Increase Decrease Relax Contract
and up

Breathe Out Move down Move up Decrease Increase Contract Relax

and in

4.5: Gaseous Exchange

Air entering the lungs will have a higher oxygen concentration and a lower carbon dioxide

5
 concentration (compared to air leaving the lungs)
Air leaving the lungs will have a lower oxygen concentration and a higher carbon dioxide
concentration (compared to air entering the lungs)
Diffusion gradient maintained through:
Continuous flow of blood through the capillaries
Continuous flow of air in alveoli
Membrane separating blood vessels (capillaries) from alveolar air permeable to both O 2 and CO2
During short pause between inspiration and expiration:
Oxygen dissolves in moisture lining alveolar walls
Dissolved oxygen diffuses into blood
Combines with haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin
Carbon dioxide diffuses into the alveolar space
Carbon dioxide is transported in 3 forms:
Dissolved into the plasma (5-7%)
Bound to the amino groups of haemoglobin (15-20%)
Bicarbonate ions in the plasma (70-80%)
When carbon dioxide concentration is low, carbonic anhydrase (CA) catalyses reaction in which
carbonic acid is converted to carbon dioxide and water
H2O + CO2 H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-
Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood into alveolar cavities
Water evaporates from the walls of alveoli
Heat also escapes from blood into alveolar air

4.6: Health and Breathing Hazards/Ailments

Cigarette smoking can cause:
Head/Neck Cancer
Lung cancer
Stomach cancer
Kidney cancer
Pancreatic cancer
Colon cancer
Bladder cancer
Cervical cancer
Stroke
Blindness
Gum infection
Aortic rupture
Heart disease
Pneumonia
Hardening of arteries
Chronic lung diseases and asthma
Reduced fertility
Hip fracture
Carbon monoxide poisoning
Carbon monoxide is a colourless and odourless gas
It binds irreversibly to form carbaminohaemoglobin
Oxygen transport is reduced
Can result in fetal deformity if smoking during pregnancy

6
 Disease BRONCHITIS EMPHYSEMA ASTHMA SARS

Cause/Spread Influenza A & B Cigarette Inherited Person-to-person

Inhalation of smoking tendencies contact
irritating fumes or Deficiency of Allergens Transmission
dust alpha-1- through droplets
antitrypsin in air
Air pollution
Airway
reactivity

Part of resp. Air passages Alveoli Trachea Lungs

system Lungs
affected

Symptoms Fever with chills Loss of Shortness of High fever

Muscle ache elasticity in breath Headache
Nasal congestion lung tissue Wheezing Fatigue
Sore throat Difficulty in Coughing Muscle ache
Significant phlegm breathing Chest Malaise
Coughing Mucus tightness Decreased
Wheezing secretions appetite
not cleared Diarrhoea
Alveoli Dry Cough
broken down Shortness of
breath
Runny nose
Sore throat
Pneumonia

Treatment Cough Broncholidati Inhalants NIL

suppressants ng medicine Long-term
Broncholidator medicine
inhalers that relieves
Antibiotics airway and
lung
inflammation

Prevention Dont/Stop smoking Dont smoke Avoid Stay at home until

Avoid exposure to allergens 10 days after
irritants recovery
Avoid second-hand Wear protective
smoke or long suit when in
exposure to air contact with
pollution patient

7
 Maintain hygiene

4.7: Structure and Function of Fish Gills

4.8: Countercurrent Exchange

Equilibrium not reached, diffusion is constantly taking place.

EXAM ANS:
The opposing directions and different concentration gradients of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood
vessels and the water flow allows a maintained diffusion gradient as equilibrium will not be reached from
opposing directions of flow of water and blood. Water will have a higher concentration of oxygen as
compared to the blood vessels throughout the length of the gill filament.

8
TOPIC 6: TRANSPORT IN MAN
A HUGE TOPIC tested in Y3 EOY and Y4 FYE

6.1: The Need for a Circulatory System

Every organism needs to exchange materials and the energy with its environment
Exchange occurs at cellular levels
In simple organisms, almost all cells have indirect contact with the environment
Unicellular organisms exchange materials with the environment
Exchange of nutrients, gases and wastes occur via diffusion
Multicellular organisms with increasing size and complexity
Amount of materials moving in and out of the body increases
Distance the materials have to travel increases
Diffusion through the skin is inadequate to cope with the demand
Direct exchange with the environment is not possible

6.2: The Circulatory System in Man

Functions:
Provides an efficient internal transport system
Connects the organs of exchange with the body cells
Circulating fluid provides a bridge between the aqueous environment of living cells and
the exchange organs that exchange chemicals with the outside environment
Diffusion occurs at the capillary beds
Materials (nutrients and oxygen) diffuse into the cells through the plasma membrane
Metabolic wastes diffuse out of cells through the plasma membrane for disposal

Arteries Arterioles Capillaries Venules Veins

6.3: Components of a Circulatory System

3 main components
Central muscular pump (Heart)
Vascular system (Blood Vessels)
Circulating fluid
Unidirectional flow of blood

6.4: Open Circulatory System

Circulating fluid is pumped through open-ended vessels and it flows out into the cells DIRECTLY
System used in most invertebrates

6.5: Closed Circulatory System

Consists of transport vessels and a pump
Circulating fluid is confined to the transport vessels and distinct from interstitial fluids
Exchange occurs between cells and interstitial fluids
More efficient at transporting circulatory fluids to tissues and cells
Used in most vertebrates

6.5.1: Closed Circulatory System In Man

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 Blood flows in a closed cardiovascular system
Consisting of blood vessels and a 4-chambered heart
Arteries carry blood to capillaries from the heart
Capillaries: Site of chemical exchange between the blood and interstitial fluid
Veins return blood from capillaries to the heart

6.6: Double Circulation System

Blood passes through the heart twice in complete
circulation
Red: Systemic Circulation
Black: Pulmonary Circulation

Left and Right separated to prevent oxygenated and

deoxygenated blood from mixing with each other

6.7: Pulmonary Circulation

Transports blood between the heart and the lungs
Pulmonary arteries
Exits the heart
Carry deoxygenated blood to the lungs
Blood loads oxygen and unloads
carbon dioxide
Pulmonary veins
Enters the heart
Carry oxygenated blood to the heart

6.8: Systemic Circulation

Transports blood between the heart and the rest of the body tissue
Supplies blood rich in oxygen and nutrients to body cells, tissues and organs
Removes carbon dioxide and other metabolic wastes from cells, tissues and organs
Difference between arterial and venous transport

6.9: The Heart

Muscular organ
Pumps blood through blood vessels
Repeated rhythmic contractions
Approximately the size of a clenched fist
Located within the thorax (protection and structural support)
Behind the sternum
Surrounded by the lungs
Enclosed within a sac known as a pericardium

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6.10: Structure of the Heart

6.10.1: Atria (Atrium)

Upper chambers
Thin-walled as compared to ventricular walls
Receives blood returning to the heart and pumps blood into the ventricles

6.10.2: Ventricles
Lower chambers
Thick-walled as compared to the atria
Able to generate high pressure
Dumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body
Left ventricular wall 3x thicker than right ventricular wall
Pumps blood to the rest of the body requires more pressure
Right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs

11
6.10.3: Atrioventricular Valves
Tricuspid valve Between the chambers on the right side
Bicuspid valve (mitral valve) Between the chambers on the left side
Prevent backflow of blood into the atria during systole
Chordae tendineae to hold the valves in place
Prevent prolapsing/inverting of atrioventricular valves
Fastened to ventricular walls by papillary muscles

6.10.4: Vessels Associated with the Heart

Vena cavae (RIGHT SIDE)
Major veins entering the right atrium
Superior vena cava and inferior
Return deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body via the systemic circulation
Pulmonary artery (RIGHT SIDE)
Blood vessel leaving the right ventricle
Transports deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs via the pulmonary circulation
Pulmonary Vein (LEFT SIDE)
Blood vessel entering left atrium
Transports oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart via the pulmonary circulation
Aorta (LEFT SIDE)
Major artery leaving the left ventricle
Transports oxygenated blood to all parts of the body via the systemic circulation

6.10.5: Semilunar Valves

Present in the arteries leaving the heart
Pulmonary (Semilunar) Valve
Aortic (Semilunar) Valve
Prevent backflow of blood into the ventricles

EXAM QUESTION (BONUS!): Why does a person with a damaged atrioventricular node have weaker
pulses?

EXAM ANSWER: A person with a damaged atrioventricular node is unable to receive and send impulses
properly from the sinoatrial node. The atrioventricular node cannot send impulses to the Bundle of His
(right ventricle) and the Purkinje Fibres (left ventricle). Therefore, weak impulses are generated.

EXAM QUESTION: How can the heart slow down their heartbeat rate in a stage of relaxation?

EXAM ANSWER: The brain will detect the slower rate of aerobic respiration that is occurring in the
muscles, and send nerve impulses to the sinoatrial node as there is not much of a need for a lot of
oxygen, therefore there will be a slower heart rate, putting the body to a state of relaxation.

12
6.11: Cardiac Cycle

STAGE (Duration) Diastole (0.4s) Atrial Systole (0.1s) Ventricular Systole

(0.3s)

Heart muscles Relaxed Atria contract Ventricles contract

Blood flow Atria Ventricles Ventricles Forced into arteries

(Passive Filling)

Semilunar Valves Closed Closed Open

Tricuspid Valves Open Open Closed

Bicuspid Valves Open Open Closed

6.12: Pacemaker
Some cardiac muscle cells (myocytes) are self-excitable/auto-rhythmic
These cells generate rhythmic impulses and directly control the heart rate\
Region of the heart called the sinoatrial node
Impulses from the sinoatrial node travel to the atrioventricular node
Impulses are delayed at the atrioventricular node before travelling to the Bundle of His and the
Purkinje Fibres
Can be recorded through an electrocardiogram

6.13: Blood Vessels

Transport blood to all parts of the body
Blood delivers nutrients and removes wastes
3 major types of blood vessels
Arteries
Capillaries
Veins

EXAM QUESTION: Why is there a fluctuation in the blood pressure in the arteries?

EXAM ANSWER: The spikes in the fluctuation is due to the ventricular systole which results in the
pumping of new volume of blood into the arteries at high pressure. The troughs of the fluctuation is due to
the ventricular diastole to fill up the blood, while the artery walls experiences low pressure at these
intervals.

6.13.1: Arteries
Carry blood away from the heart
Branch and narrow into arterioles
Arterioles branch and narrow further into capillaries
Thicker muscular and elastic walls than veins
Endothelium
Made of endothelial cells, smooth
Smooth muscles
Constricts and dilates blood flow

13
 Elastic fibres
Stretches and recoils for blood pressure
Connective tissues
Wavy Elastic membrane
Accommodate and maintain high pressure of blood pumped from the heart
High pressure helps move the blood along
No valves

6.13.2: Veins
Carry blood to the heart
Thinner-walled vessels
Endothelium
Smooth muscles and elastic fibres
Connective tissue
Extremely low blood pressure
Skeletal-muscle pump helps move the blood along
Skeletal muscles contract
Pressure exerted on veins by the surrounding contracting muscles
Pushes blood through one-way valves
Keep blood moving only towards the heart
Muscular contractions help to move blood along
Valves present
Prevent backflow of blood

6.13.3: Capillaries
One cell thick
No smooth muscles
Endothelial cells
Allows rapid diffusion
Branches repeatedly
Large surface area for exchange of materials between blood and tissue cells
Exchange driven by osmotic and hydrostatic gradients

6.13.4: Lymphatic System

Composed of many lymphatic vessels
Contains circulatory fluid named lymphatic fluid
As diffusion of metabolic waste is not 100% efficient, the lymphatic system helps to take up the
left over metabolic waste and brings it away from the cells and back into the circulatory system
Leads to the aorta (Note: As it leads to the aorta, the waste is not removed and instead circulates
around the body once more)

6.14: Blood Flow Velocity

Varies in the circulatory system
Fastest in the arteries (Low Surface-Area-to-Volume Ratio)
Slowest in the capillary beds (High Surface-Area-to-Volume Ratio)
Volume of flow per second must be constant (law of continuity)
Total cross-sectional area increases Flow velocity decreases
Blood travels slower in capillaries: vast surface area

14
 Total cross -sectional area decreases Flow velocity increases
Blood travels in veins and arteries

6.15: Blood Pressure

Blood pressure
Hydrostatic pressure that blood exerts against the walls of a vessel
Systolic Pressure
Pressure in the arteries during ventricular systole
Highest pressure in the arteries

Diastolic Pressure
Pressure in the arteries during diastole
Lower than systolic pressure
Determined by:
Cardiac output
Volume of blood pumped by each ventricle per minute
Peripheral resistance
Variable constriction of the arteries
Cross-sectional area

6.16: Capillary Function

Capillaries in major organs are usually filled to capacity
In many other sites, blood supply varies over time

6.17: Exchange of Materials

Critical exchange of substances between the blood and interstitial fluid
Takes place across the thin endothelial walls of the capillaries
Difference between hydrostatic pressure and osmotic pressure due to blood proteins (e.g.
fibrogen)
Drives fluids out of capillaries at the arteriole end
Draws fluids into the capillaries at the venule end
Fluid reenters the circulation
Directly at the venule end of the capillary bed
Indirectly via the lymphatic system
The lymphatic system
Returns fluid to the body from the capillary beds
Acids in body defense
At the arteriole end, plasma is forced out of the capillaries
Plasma proteins too bulky to pass through capillary walls
White blood cells changes shape and squeeze through capillary walls
These make up the interstitial fluid, which
Bathes all living cells in the body
Contains dissolved food and oxygen from blood
Supply to cells
Receives waste products of cells
Returned to blood in capillaries to be removed

15
6.18.1: Plasma
About 55% of the blood
Pale yellowish liquid
Made of many different materials
Water
Solvent for carrying other substances
90% of the plasma content
Ions (blood electrolytes)
Osmotic balance
pH buffering
Regulation of membrane permeability
Sodium
Potassium
Calcium
Magnesium
Chloride
Bicarbonate
Fibrinogen
Albumin
Immunoglobulins
Substances transported by blood
Nutrients
Metabolic wastes
Respiratory gases
Hormones
Transports dissolved nutrients and removes waste products

16
6.18.2: Transport of Carbon Dioxide
3 ways of transport
Dissolved into the plasma
5%
Reversible bind to haemoglobin to form carbaminohaemoglobin
Carbon dioxide does not bind to the haem group, unlike oxygen
Binds with amino groups on polypeptide chains of haemoglobin
Majority travel as HCO3-
Enter RBCs and combines with H2O to form carbonic acid, H2CO3
Reaction catalysed by carbonic anhydrase
Dissociates to form bicarbonate ions and hydrogen ions
H+ ions left bound in RBC to preserve safe levels of blood pH
CO32- ions diffuse into the plasma

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6.18.3: Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)
5 000 000 to 6 000 000 per mm 3 of blood
Transports oxygen and helps to transport carbon dioxide
Circular, flattened, flexible biconcave discs
Stretches into a bell shape when travelling through capillaries to allow it to squeeze through, as
well as to aid its aerodynamism
No nuclei
More space to transport materials
Less than 0.01 mm in diameter
Contains haemoglobin
250 000 000 molecules per RBC
Elastic
Can squeeze through capillaries smaller than themselves
Produced in bone marrow
Destroyed in the spleen and the liver
Life span of 3-4 months

6.18.4: Haemoglobin
Made up of four globular protein subunits
Each subunit comprises
A protein chain
An iron-containing haem group
Each haem group is capable of binding to an oxygen molecule, forming oxyhaemoglobin
Oxygen requires haemoglobin as a transport molecule as it is poorly soluble in water
Deoxyhaemoglobin is the form of haemoglobin without the bound oxygen

6.18.5: Transport of Oxygen in the Blood

Majority of the dissolved oxygen molecules binds with haemoglobin
Less than 1% remain dissolved in either plasma or erythrocytes

6.18.6: White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)

5 000 to 10 000 per mm3 of blood
Defense and immunity
Irregular in shape
Ability to squeeze through walls of blood capillaries through a change in shape
Colourless
No haemoglobin
Two main type of leukocytes
Lymphocytes
Produced in bone marrow
Large rounded nucleus
Small amount of cytoplasm
Produce antibodies
Antitoxins to kill bacteria
Clumping of foreign particles
Phagocytes
Lobed nucleus
Ingests foreign particles, bacterias and dead/dying cells

18
 Phagocytosis

6.18.7: Platelets (Thrombocytes)

Platelets are not true cells
Fragments of cytoplasm from bone marrow cells
Play a role in blood clotting
Reduce blood loss
Prevent entry of micro-organisms at a wound
When endothelium of a blood vessel is damaged
Clotting cascade begins

6.19: Summary: Functions of Blood

Acts as a transport medium
Carries various substances from one part of the body to another
Blood plasma
Erythrocytes
Protects the body against disease-causing organisms
Leukocytes
Lymphocytes produce antibodies
Phagocytes that engulf foreign particles
Platelets
Help in blood clotting
Prevent entry of micro-organisms

6.20: Cardiovascular Diseases

Atherosclerosis
Caused by the buildup of cholesterol within the arteries
Exacerbated by consumption of excessive amounts of trans fat and saturated fat in the
diet
Can also be caused by hypertension, which tears the endothelium of the blood vessel,
thereby providing a point for matter within the blood to gather and clump together
Hypertension
Promotes atherosclerosis and increases the risk of heart attack and stroke
Heart Attack
Death of a cardiac muscle tissue resulting from blockage of one or more coronary
arteries
Stroke
Death of a nervous tissue in the brain, usually due to a rupture or blockage of arteries in
or leading to the head

19
TOPIC 7a: NERVOUS SYSTEM
Tested for Y3 EOY and Y4 FYE

7a.1: The Nervous System

Central Nervous System
Brain
Spinal Cord
Peripheral Nervous System
Cranial nerves from brain
Spinal nerves from spinal cord
Receptors
Somatic (Voluntary) Nervous System
Autonomic (Involuntary) Nervous System
Sympathetic Division: Controls reactions that excite the body
Parasympathetic Division: In charge of returning the body to normal
Enteric Division

7a.2: Stimulus/Response
Stimulus
A change that is detected by the receptors
Receptors
Nerve endings and specialised cells in sense organs
Receive stimuli from environment
Response
A reaction of the body towards the stimulus
Effectors
Muscles or glands that bring about the response

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7a.3: The 2 Different Responses

PARASYMPATHETIC Organ SYMPATHETIC

(Rest or Digest) (Fight or Flight)

Constricted Pupil Dilated

Stimulated (for salivation) Salivary Glands Inhibited

Heartbeat inhibited Heart Heartbeat Accelerated

Constricted Bronchi Relaxed

Stimulated Digestive System Inhibited

Gall Bladder stimulated Liver/Kidney Liver stimulated for glucose

release

Secretion of epinephrine and

norepinephrine from kidney

Contracted Bladder Relaxed

Relaxed Rectum Contracted

7a.4: Receptors
Nociceptors
Detects physically damaging stimuli
Deals with pain
Commonly located at the
Superficial parts of the skin
Joint capsules
Periostea of bones
Walls of blood vessels
Deep tissues/Most visceral organs
Thermoreceptors
Temperature, heat or cold
Commonly located at the:
Immediately beneath the skin surface
Skeletal muscles
Liver
Hypothalamus
Cold receptors are 3-4 times more numerous than heat receptors
Free nerve endings
Chemoreceptors
Chemical stimuli
Respond to water-soluble or lipid-soluble substances
No well-defined chemosensory pathways in the brain/spinal cord
Except for taste and smell
Neurons within the respiratory centres of the brain respond to concentrations of H + ions
and carbon dioxide in the cerebrospinal fluid

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 Receptors in the periphery monitor the oxygen concentrations of the arterial blood
Mechanoreceptors
Touch/pressure/position
Sensitive to stimuli that distort their cell membranes

7a.5: Pathway of Nervous Control

Stimulus detected by receptors

Information sent via the sensory nerve to the Central Nervous System
CNS receives the information and processes the information
The brain decides the response
Response sent via motor nerves to effector cells

7a.6: Structure of a Neuron

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 Cell body/Soma
With nucleus, cytoplasm and plasma membrane
Axon
Covered with myelin sheath (made of lipids)
Transmits impulses away from cell body
Dendron
Conducts impulses to cell body
Dendrites
Conduct impulses from other cells to dendron and cell body
Myelin Sheath
Thin membrane (neurilemma), provides nourishment for the cell
Node of Ranvier
Unmyelinated part of axon/dendron
Speeds up transmission of impulses
Synapse
Junction between 2 neurons
Neurotransmitter
Chemical substance that is released at the synapse
Aids in the transmission of the impulses across the synapse
Schwann cells
Forms the myelin sheaths around the axons of neurons

7a.7: Types of Neurons and Their Functions

Sensory/Afferent/Receptor Neuron
Carry impulses from receptors or sense organs to central nervous system
Intermediate/Relay neuron
Carry impulses from sensory to motor neuron
Found in the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)
Effector/Efferent/Motor neuron
Carry impulses from the central nervous system to the effector neuron

23
7a.8: Central Nervous System
The brain and the spinal cord consists of 2 distinct regions
White matter
Consists mainly of nerve fibres (axons and myelins)
Grey matter
Consists mainly of cell bodies of motor and relay neurons
The Spinal Cord
Passes through the vertebral column
31 pairs of spinal nerves that emerge at regular intervals along the length of the spinal
cord

24
 White matter on the outside, Grey matter on the inside
Central Canal
Narrow canal that runs through the middle of the spinal cord
Carries cerebrospinal fluid
Cerebrospinal fluid carries nutrients to the spinal cord
Cushions the Central Nervous System
Spinal Nerve
Bifurcates into two: Dorsal and Ventral Roots
Ventral roots contains motor neurons
Cell bodies of these found in grey matter of spinal cord
Dorsal roots only contain sensory neurons
Dorsal Root Ganglion
Cell bodies of the sensory neurons in the dorsal root aggregate in a small swelling called
the Dorsal Root Ganglion

7a.9: Reflex Action

Spontaneous/Immediate/Rapid response to a certain stimulus without conscious control
Most basic form of response to protect oneself from harm/injury
The reflex arc:

1. Stimulation of nerve endings/receptors

2. Nervous impulses are initiated by receptors
3. Travel along the dendron of sensory neuron to spinal cord
4. Impulses transmitted across synapse to relay neuron
5. Impulses transmitted across another synapse to motor neuron
6. Impulses leave the spinal cord
7. Travel along the axon of the motor neuron to the effector
8. Effector muscles bring appropriate

Axon of sensory neuron has many branches in spinal cord

One branch forms a synapse with a relay neuron transmitting impulses to the brain
Another branch forms a synapse with a motor neuron to the larynx (for a cry)
Spinal cord acts as a coordinator for simple reflex action

EXAM QUESTION: Albino people lack colouring pigments in their bodies. Suggest why albino people
should avoid looking at bright lights.

EXAM ANSWER: The lack of colouring pigments leads to hyper-photosensitivity. The absence of the
melanin pigment in the choroid layer of the eyes causes internal reflection of light within the eyeball,
resulting in blurred vision and damage to the sensitive retina.

25
TOPIC 7b: A SENSE ORGAN - THE EYE

Tested for the Y3 EOY and Y4 FYE

7b.1: Structure of the Eye

Sclera
Transparent, tough protective outer coat that protects the eye from the inside
Choroid
Has melanin pigment so that internal reflection will not occur
Contains blood vessels
Retina
Inner layer, contains photosensitive neurons that join to form the optic nerve
Cornea
Refracts and converges light onto the retina
Iris
Controls the amount of light entered through the radial and circular involuntary muscles
through controlling the size of the pupil
Ciliary body
Helps to hold the lens in place by suspensory ligaments

26
7b.2: How Do We See?
The cornea allows light into the eye, while the pupil controls the amount of light that can enter
The cornea and lens focuses light onto the retina
Impulses from the photoreceptors travel along neurons to the optic nerve fibres
The two optic nerves carry impulses to the visual centre in the back of the brain where the image
is seen

7b.3: Photoreceptors
Two kinds are found in the retina
Rods
Very sensitive to light and enables us to see in dim light
Contributes more to night vision
Contains a pigment derived from Vitamin A
Vitamin A deficiency can cause night blindness
Cones
Less sensitive to light and stimulated by bright light
Also used to distinguish colour

7b.4: Focusing of the Eye

Clear vision depends primarily on the ability of the lens to focus the light on the clearest part of
the retina, or the fovea
As light rays pass through the eye, they are refracted by the different densities of the cornea and
the lens so their point of convergence falls on the retina
Accommodation of the eye for near vision:
Ciliary muscles contract
Suspensory ligaments slacken
Lens thicker, more convex
Less pull on lens
Accommodation of the eye for far vision
Ciliary muscles relax
Suspensory ligaments tighten
Lens thinner, less convex
More pull on lens

27
7b.5: Action of Iris - Pupil Reflex
Changes in light intensity stimulates the photoreceptors in the retina
Nervous impulses are sent to the brain via the optic nerve
Brain interprets these impulses and send impulses via a motor neuron to the circular and radial
muscles in the iris
The muscles contract and relax accordingly to ensure the correct amount of light entering the eye
Without conscious control
Pupil reflex for bright light:
Circular muscles contract
Radial muscles relax
Less light enters the retina to protect it
Pupil reflex for dim light
Circular muscles relax
Radial muscles contract
More light enters the retina to stimulate it

7b.6: Binocular Vision

Humans and most predators have two forward-pointing eyes, one located on each side of the
face
The image that each sees is slightly different because each eye views the object from a different
angle
This slight displacement of the images permits binocular vision, the ability to perceive 3D images
and sense depth

28
TOPIC 7c: MUSCLES AND MOVEMENT
Tested for Y3 EOY and Y4 FYE

7c.1: Functions of the Skeleton

Support
Provides a rigid internal framework, maintaining the shape of the body
Protection of internal organs
Skull protects the brain from injury
Ribcage protects the heart, lungs and liver
Spinal cord is enclosed in the vertebral column
Movement
Provides points of attachment for skeletal muscles
When muscles contract, they pull on these bones, producing movement
Production of Blood Cells
Bone marrow produces RBCs and WBCs

7c.2: Joints: What are They?

The skeleton of an animal together with the muscles attached act as a system of levers

7c.4: Types of Joints

3 types
Immovable
Cranial bones: multiple bones fused together at sutures
Partially movable
Gliding joints between bones of vertebral column
Freely movable/synovial
Ball-and-socket joint: Hip and shoulder
Hinge: Elbow and knee

29
7c.5: Synovial Joints

Ligament
Fibrous covering, orientated to cope effectively with particular stresses on the joint
Joins 2 bones together
Made of collagen, which is elastic and flexible
Synovial membrane
Secretes the synovial fluid
Synovial fluid
Provides nutrients for the cartilage at the ends of the bones
Reduces friction when bones move against each other
Articular cartilage
Prevents damage to the articulating surfaces of bones as a result of friction between
them

7c.6: Skeletal Muscles

Usually voluntary
Involuntary during reflex actions
Attached to a bone in at least 2 places
Origin
Firm, non-movable part of the skeleton
Insertion
Freely movable part of the skin
Antagonistic Action
One muscle group contracts, another one relaxes (Biceps -triceps)

30
TOPIC 8: HOMEOSTASIS
Tested for Y3 EOY and Y4 FYE

8.1: Homeostasis
The maintenance of a constant internal environment despite changes in the external environment
Animals manage their internal environment by regulating or conforming to the external
environment
A regulator control its internal coordination in the face of fluctuating external conditions
A conformer allows its internal condition to vary with external change
Involves 3 factors
Receptors Detects stimulus
Messengers Coordinate a corrective mechanism via negative feedback
Effectors Carries our response
Regulatory responses may be effected through
Nervous system
Endocrine system
4 kinds of regulatory processes to study
Blood glucose level regulation
Thermoregulation
Osmoregulation
Water potential
What is a negative feedback
A response to a change by reserving the direction of the change so as to maintain a
constant internal environment

31
8.2: Negative Feedback

When body temperature rises

Blood Temperature rises
Thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus in the brain detects this increase
Hypothalamus sends nerve impulses to bring about the following changes
Stimulation of sweat glands
As more sweat is produced is evaporated, more latent heat is removed
from the body
Vasodilation of arterioles near skin surface
Allows more blood to flow through the skin
More heat lost through radiation, convection and conduction
Hair erector muscle relax
Lesser air trapped around skin, allows more loss of heat
Metabolic rate decreases

32
 When body temperature falls
Fall in blood temperature
Thermoreceptors in hypothalamus in the brain detects this change
Hypothalamus sends nervous impulses to bring about the following changes
Sweat glands are not stimulated
Less production of sweat
As less sweat evaporates from surface of skin, less latent heat is
removed from the body
Vasoconstriction, or constriction of arterioles in skin
Allows less blood to flow through the skin
Less heat lost through radiation, convection or conduction
Hair erector muscles contract
Hair stand on ends, forms insulating layer of air between hair
Involuntary successive contraction and relaxation of muscles Shivering
Metabolic rate increases

8.3: Exchanges with the External Environment

Organisms must continuously exchange chemicals and energy with their surroundings
All living cells must be bathed in a watery solution so that exchange of materials can occur
Complex animals have extensively folded or branched internal surfaces to maximise surface area
for exchange
Osmoconformers are organisms whose:
Internal and external environments have similar solute concentrations
Include most marine vertebrates
Osmoregulators are organisms who:
Actively regulate their water loss or gain
Include freshwater animals, as well as most marine invertebrates as well as land animals

8.4: Excretion
Removal of metabolic wastes from the body
Products:
Carbon dioxide
Excreted by lungs as a gas in expired air
Excess water
Excreted by kidney, skin and lungs
A constituent of urine, sweat and expired air
Urea
Excreted by kidney and skin
A constituent of urine and sweat
Formed during deamination of proteins at the liver
Uric acid
Excreted by kidney and skin
A constituent of urine and sweat
Formed by the breakdown of nuclear materials
Bile pigments
Excreted by liver via the intestines
Formed by the breakdown of haemoglobin
Iron released is recycled

33
 Mineral salts
Excreted by kidney and skin
Constituent of urine and sweat

8.5: Lungs as Excretory Organs

Cellular respiration produces carbon dioxide and water
Carbon dioxide from cells diffuse into blood
Carried as carbonic acid (H+ + HCO3-) in RBC and blood plasma
Carried to the lungs
HCO3- changed back to CO2 in the capillaries of lungs
CO2 diffuses into the alveoli
O2 diffuses into blood from alveoli
CO2 expelled during exhalation
H2O evaporates from walls of alveoli

8.6: Kidneys

8.7: Functions of Kidneys

Elimination of waste substance
Salvage of essential ions such as Na+, K+, Cl-
Regulation of blood pH by removing/reabs orbing H+ and HCO3
Regulation of plasma volume/blood pressure
Regulation of blood osmotic concentration
Production of hormones - erythropoietin and renin
Removal of toxic substances

34
8.8: Excretion by the Kidneys: Urine
A very large volume of extracellular fluid is separated from the plasma per day
99% reabsorbed back into the plasma
Excess water, salts and urea left
Working unit of kidney: NEPHRON

Blood enters the kidney by renal artery

8.9: Ultrafiltration
Diameter of afferent arteriole is larger than diameter of efferent arterioles
Hydrostatic pressure created forces fluid out from artery to Bowmans capsule
Small particles are filtered into the Bowmans capsule
Plasma containing: Glucose materials, amino acid molecules, urea
Large molecules (RBC, WBC, proteins) remain in the renal artery
Resultant fluid is known as glomerular filtrate

EXAM QUESTION: Why is glucose present at the Bowmans Capsule but not at the Loop of Henle?

EXAM ANSWER: Selective reabsorption of glucose has taken place at tha Proximal Convoluted Tubule
into the capillaries surrounding it, through the tubule walls via passive transport. However, glucose is
small enough to pass through the glomerulus into the Bowmans capsule.

35
8.10: Selective Reabsorption
Occurs in proximal convoluted tubule
Filtrate passes through tubule, selective reabsorption of molecules would occur
Most of the water is reabsorbed
Glucose, amino acids and some minerals are reabsorbed through tubule walls into surrounding
capillaries
By passive transport(water) and active transport(glucose, amino acids, minerals, water)
Excess water, mineral salts and nitrogenous waste allowed to pass through tubule and out to the
ureter and urinary bladder as urine
96% water
1.8% mineral salts
2.0% urea
0.2% other nitrogenous wastes

8.11: Osmoregulation
Osmoregulation is the regulation of blood osmolarity
Controls the amount of water available for cells to absorb
Osmoreceptors:
Capable of detecting osmotic pressure changes
Situated at the hypothalamus
Sends chemical messages to the pituitary gland next to it
Pituitary gland secretes anti-diuretic hormone (ADH), which targets the kidney
responsible for maintaining water concentration levels
Osmoregulatory effectors
When ADH reaches the kidneys, it alters the nephrons of the kidney to become more
permeable to water
To reabsorb more water, more ADH is produced, and vice versa
If more water is required in the blood stream (Low osmotic pressure, concentrated blood)
High amounts of ADH produced
Tubules are more permeable to water
More water reabsorbed by the kidneys
Less urine is produced
If less water is required in the blood stream (High osmotic pressure, diluted blood)
Low amounts of ADH produced
Tubules are less permeable to water
Less water reabsorbed by the kidneys
More urine is produced

36
8.12: Haemodialysis
When both kidneys fail, the patient will be treated with a dialysis machine
Blood is drawn from a radial artery in the patients arm
Requires an enlarged vein
Flows through a tubing in the machine, bathed in a specially controlled dialysis fluid which is an
isotonic solution
Walls of tubing are partially permeable
Urea and other waste products diffuse through
Proteins and blood cells stay in the tubing
Fluid contains essential salts for the body
Therefore such salts do not diffuse out of the body
Tubing is coiled
Increases surface area and speeds up exchange of substances
Filtered blood then returns to the enlarged vein
Process repeated 3 times a week, few hours each session

37
TOPIC 9: HORMONES
Tested for Y3 EOY and Y4 FYE

9.1: Human Endocrine System

A system made up of small endocrine glands, which secrete chemical messengers known as
hormones

9.2: Endocrine vs. Exocrine Glands

Endocrine glands are ductless glands
Secretions directly enter into and are carried by the bloodstream
Exocrine glands have glands to carry their secretions
A duct distributes the secretions

9.3: Hormones
Chemical messengers
Carried by the blood
Their effect on target cells is slow due to the time taken to travel through the bloodstream
As compared to the nervous systems
Produced in minute amounts
Alters the activities of one or more specific target organs
Destroyed by the liver and/or excreted in the urine by the kidney

9.4: How Hormones Work

1-messenger model
Hormones are lipid-soluble
Can pass through membranes
Protein receptors recognise hormones and binds with it to form a complex
Complex recognises and binds to segments in the DNA to activate gene expression for
certain protein
2-messenger model
Hormones are protein-based
Cannot pass through membranes
Specific receptors on cell surface recognise them, allowing hormones to bind
Binding release a secondary messenger into the cell, causing the hormonal response

38
9.5: 3 Major Tasks of Hormones
Control growth, metabolism
Homeostasis: maintain a constant internal environment
Regulate activities of different systems so that they are coordinated

9.6: Pituitary Gland

Consists of 2 distinct parts
Anterior lobe
Posterior lobe
The anterior lobe secretes and synthesises:
Growth Hormones which stimulates growth (duh)
Dwarfism occurs when too little GH is secreted
Gigantism occurs when too much of GH is secreted in childhood. The result is
called acromegaly
Other hormones that control thyroid glands, adrenal glands and gonads
The posterior lobe stores and secreted hormones that are synthesised by the
hypyothalamus(effectively becoming just a messenger for the hypothalamus):
ADH which controls the volume of urine produced at the kidney
Oxytocin which regulates milk release during nursing and child birth

9.7: Thyroid Glands

Located in the neck, just under the larynx
Produces the hormones thyroxine and triiodothyronine
Regulates metabolic growth
Ensure normal growth and mental development
Undersecretion causes:
Weight gain
Lethargy
Simple goitre
Mental development at a slower pace
Oversecretion causes:
High body temperature
Profuse sweating
Irritability
Protruding eyes
Excitability
Trembling hands
Sensitivity to heat
High blood pressure

39
9.8: Gonadal Sex Hormones
Gonads produce hormones that control development of male or female sexual characteristics
Testes of males
Testosterone
Ovaries of females
Oestrogen
Progesterone

9.9: Adrenal Glands

Sits atop both kidneys
Each adrenal gland has 2 portions
Adrenal cortex
Adrenal medulla
Adrenal medulla produces the hormone adrenaline
Produced after nerve impulses by the brain under stress conditions
Adrenal cortex produces the hormone cortisol
Produced after hormonal secretion by the pituitary gland

9.9.1: Cortisol
Responds to stress or threat
Effects of cortisol:
Blood clotting
On-the-spot injury repairs
Production of more amino acids
Repair of blood vessels and muscles
Dampening of pain
Faster healing

9.9.2: Adrenaline
Causes the sympathetic/fight-or-flight response
Effects of adrenaline:
Increased heart rate
Greater contraction of heart
Pumps more oxygen-concentrated blood to muscles and brain
Increased breathing rate
Higher intake of oxygen for energy supply
Air passages relax
More surface area for oxygen to pass through to the lungs
Dilation of blood vessels to muscles and brain
Receive more oxygen-concentrated blood from the heart for energy
Constriction of blood vessels to the skin and digestive system
Allow more oxygen-concentrated blood to be sent to the muscles and the brain
Slows digestion down
Dilation of pupils
Allows a person to see better through the entry of more light
Hair stand on ends
For a person to look bigger and fiercer (useless)
Lower urine production

40
 Conversion of
Fat/fatty acids Energy
Glycogen Glucose
Increased energy supply

9.10: Pancreas and the Islets of Langerhans

Endocrine glands are found in specialised regions called the islets of Langerhans
Produces 2 antagonistic hormones to regulate blood glucose concentration
Glucagon in the cells
Insulin in the cells
*Note: Hormones and their location must be stated in the following format:
(Hormone) is produced in the (cell) of the (organ)
Eg. Glucagon is produced in the cells of the Islets of Langerhans of the pancreas

9.11: Blood Glucose Concentration Regulation: Negative Feedback

9.12: Effects of Insulin
Binds to receptors on liver/muscle/adipose tissue cell surface which modulates various enzymes
to:
Increase uptake of glucose into the muscle and adipose tissue cells
Converts glucose glycogen (glycogenesis)
Inhibit the breakdown of glycogen glucose in skeletal muscle and liver cells
Overall effect: Blood glucose concentration drops
9.13: Effects of Glucagon
Binds to receptors on liver/adipose tissue cell surface which modulates various enzymes to:
Stimulate the hydrolysis of glycogen glucose in the liver (glycogenlysis)
Converts fatty acids/amino acids to glucose (gluconeogenesis)
Overall effect: Blood glucose concentration increases

41
9.14: Diabetes Mellitus
A hormonal disease caused by a deficiency of insulin (Type 1) or a decreased response to insulin
in target tissues (Type 2)
11% of Singaporeans aged 18-69 are affected in 2010
Characterised by persistent hyperglycaemia where the blood glucose concentration is higher than
the norm

9.14.1: Type 1 Diabetes

Usually detected in childhood
Autoimmune disease
90% of the cells are recognized as foreign bodies and destroyed by the immune system
Unable to produce insulin
Control of the disease:
Insulin injection
Diet regulation
Regular exercise

9.14.2: Type 2 Diabetes

Usually appears after age 40
Young people who are overweight and/or sedentary can also develop this disease
Pancreas produces insulin normally
Body cells gradually become unresponsive to insulin
Lowered rate of conversion of glucose to glycogen, causing high blood glucose levels
Control of the disease:
Diet regulation
Regular exercise
Insulin injection (if need arises)

9.14.3: Symptoms of Diabetes Mellitus

Weakness
A diabetic patient does not have glycogen in the liver
Absence of hormone, insulin, to convert glucose to glycogen
No glucose to use in cell respiration to produce energy
Frequent urination/Polyuria
High blood glucose concentration, liver unable to further synthesise glucose to glycogen
due to the absence of the hormone, insulin
Glucose needs to be expelled to maintain osmolarity
Also due to the increase in water potential when interstitial fluids diffuse through the
bloodstream
Change detected by hypothalamus
Less ADH secreted causing more urine to be produced
Frequent thirst/Polydipsia
High blood glucose concentration = low water potential
Water from the interstitial fluids diffuse through the bloodstream
Body cells therefore lack in water
Excessive urination and loss of water also causes dehydration
Need for more water

42
 Frequent hunger/Polyphagia (Only present in patients who are insedentary)
Need for more glucose

9.14.4: Long-Term Complications of Diabetes Mellitus

Damage to blood vessels affecting the eye, kidney and the cardiovascular system
Hardening of blood vessels from fatty and sugary deposits
Kidney diseases
Foot/leg amputation as a result from infections
Nerve desensitised

9.15: Genetic Engineering of Hormones

Animal-derived insulin (porcine and/or bovine) was widely used to treat diabetes mellitus
Synthetic insulin(Humulin) introduced in the 1980s
Growth hormones, adrenaline, glucagon, gonadal sex hormones can also be produced
synthetically to treat various conditions

9.16: How Much Insulin Should Be Used?

Amount of insulin to be injected into the patient needs to be properly calibrated
Depends on
Severity of condition
Carbohydrate intake
Lifestyle (sedentary/active?)
Type of insulin used

9.17: Abuse of Hormones

Growth Hormone abuse
Some athletes have reportedly injected themselves with GH to increase performance
Can cause symptoms that mirror acromegaly
Anabolic steroid abuse
Some athletes use it to gain muscle mass and lose body fat
Can cause baldness, severe acne, liver abnormalities and heart diseases
Can cause a change in behaviour

9.18: Difference between Nervous and Endocrine Systems

NERVOUS SYSTEM Criteria ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Nerve impulses Involves? Hormones

Impulses transmitted through Transport Transported by the blood

neurons

Quick Response Slow

Short-lived How Long the Response? Either short-lived or long

Either voluntary or involuntary Type of response? Involuntary

Localised Location Can be at more than one

target cell

43
YEAR 4 BIOLOGY
TOPIC 1a: CELL REPRODUCTION - CELLS FROM CELLS
Where a cell exists, there must be a pre-existing cell. ~Rudolf Wirchow
1a.1: Function of Cell Reproduction
Cell replacement for damaged/dying cells
Growth
Asexual/Sexual Reproduction

1a.2: Mitosis: A Continuum

Mitosis is a continuum of changes distinguished by 5 phases:
Interphase
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase and Cytokinesis
The daughter cells receive the same number and type of chromosomes as the parent cell
The diploid condition is maintained from one generation to another.

1a.3: Interphase: 90% of the Cell Cycle

Preparation for mitosis in 3 stages:
G1 phase
Immediately after cytokinesis and can last from a few months to a few years
The cells build up a large store of energy, manufactures proteins and replicates
organelles
S phase
DNA replication occurs, doubling the DNA content of the cell
Cannot be seen as DNA material is still in loosely packed chromatin
G2 phase
The cell continues to build a store of energy, manufactures proteins and
replicates organelles
Genetic material in the nucleus is threadlike and cannot be seen clearly during interphase

1a.4: Prophase & Metaphase

Chromatin threads become shorter and thicker, forming distinct chromosomes. The nucleolus
disappears.
Each chromosome is made up of 2 sister chromatids joined at the centromere
The 2 sister chromatids are identical as DNA replication occurred during the S-phase of
Interphase
In animal cells, the centrioles move to the opposite ends of the cell
Short microtubules develop from each centriole to form a spindle
Nuclear membrane breaks down
1a.5: Metaphase
The microtubules attach to the centromeres of the chromosomes and move it to the equator of
the cell.

44
 Chromosomes will be lined up at the equator of the spindle with a fully formed mitotic spindle

1a.6: Anaphase
Sister chromatids are pulled apart from one another by the shortening of mitotic spindles towards
the opposite ends of the spindle

1a.7: Telophase
The reverse of prophase
Regeneration of nucleolus
Nuclear membrane reforms
Chromosomes uncoil to become long and thin chromatin threads
Spindle fibres disintegrate

1a.8: Cytokinesis
Division of the cytoplasm
In animal cells, cleavage furrow pinches the cell into 2, producing 2 daughter cells
In plant cells, a cell plate forms, growing outwards until it touches the parental walls forming 2
separate cells.

1a.9: Cancer
Causes include:
Age: Chances of developing cancer increases with age
Chemicals: Carcinogenic chemicals causes cancer
Radiation: Too much exposure to ultraviolet radiation in sunlight can cause skin cancer
Virus: Cancer of the cervix is caused by the human papilloma virus (HPV)
Genetic factor
It is caused by cell division that goes out of control
Genes are responsible for normal cell growth and division
Genes produce proteins that provides the red or green light at key points of the
cell division
Cancer is caused by a mutation in the gene that produces the protein, causing an
uncontrollable amount of cell division
A tumour that spreads is the malignant tumour. It spreads through metastasis
Benign tumours remain at the original site

1a.10: Homologous Chromosomes

Any 2 chromosomes that determine the same characteristics (but may have different alleles) are
known as HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES

1a.11: Haploid and Diploid Cells

Humans and many other organisms are diploid organisms as all of their body cells (except for the
sex cell, which is haploid) contain pairs of homologous chromosomes.
During fertilisation, two haploid sex cells (one from male, another from female) fuses and forms a
diploid zygote

45
1a.12: Meiosis
Occurs during the formation of gametes, resulting in haploid cells
2 successive nuclear division (Meiosis I and Meiosis II)
MEIOSIS I
Prophase I (Diploid)
a. Chromatin threads become
shorter and thicker, forming
distinct chromosomes. The
nucleolus disappears.
b. Each chromosome is made up of
2 sister chromatids joined at the
centromere
c. Synapsis occurs (protein
pairing of homologous
chromosomes, forming a
bivalent/tetrad)
d. Chiasmata formed over 2 non-
sister chromatids, forming new
combination of alleles
e. Nuclear membrane breaks down
f. The microtubules attach to the
centromeres of the chromosomes
and move it to the equator of the
cell.
Metaphase I
a. Bivalents arrange themselves at
equator of spindle
b. Centromeres attached to
individual spindle fibres
Anaphase I
a. Homologous chromosomes
separate
b. Pulled to opposite poles through
shortening of spindle fibres
Telophase I & Cytokinesis
a. Chromosomes reach opposite
poles
b. Spindle fibres disintegrate
c. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus
forms
d. Cytokinesis occurs, 2 daughter
cells formed
MEIOSIS II
Prophase II (Haploid)
a. Chromatin threads become
shorter and thicker, forming
distinct chromosomes. The
nucleolus disappears.
b. Each chromosome is made up of
2 sister chromatids joined at the
centromere
c. Nuclear membrane breaks down
d. The microtubules attach to the
centromeres of the chromosomes
and move it to the equator of the
cell.
Metaphase II
a. Chromosomes arrange
themselves at equator of spindle
b. Centromeres attached to
individual spindle fibres
Anaphase II
a. Centromeres divide and pulled by
spindle fibres on opposite poles
b. Chromatids become the new
chromosomes of the cell
Telophase II & Cytokinesis
a. Sister chromatids reach opposite
poles
b. Uncoil and become undistinct
c. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus
forms
d. Cytokinesis occurs resulting in 4
haploid daughter cells
46
1a.13: Genetic Variation
Meiosis results in genetic variation that is essential to evolution, but not as important as genetic
mutation.
Chiasmata forms a new combination of alleles in the gametes
Independent assortment (and separation) of homologous chromosomes during
metaphase I and anaphase I/II is another source of genetic variation (2 23 (or 8 388 608)
ways to arrange chromosomes)
We are one of the 246 (or 70 368 744 177 664) ways of arrangement! (dude, youre
awesome and unique)
Allows for natural selection and constant adaptation to environmental stimulus.

1a.14: Mitosis v. Meiosis

MEIOSIS MITOSIS

Diploid DIVIDING CELLS Diploid and Haploid

Gonads EVENT VENUE Somatic cells in the body

2 successive nuclear division PROCESSES 1 nuclear division

Forms bivalents for allele HOMOLOGOUS Does not associate

crossing CHROMOSOMES

Present CHIASMATA Absent

4, genetically different DAUGHTER CELLS 2 genetically identical

chromosomes formed chromosomes formed

47
TOPIC 1b: REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS
(ANGIOSPERMS)
1b.1: Asexual vs. Sexual Reproduction

ASEXUAL SEXUAL

1 NO. OF PARENTS REQUIRED 2

No FERTILISATION Yes

Identical GENETIC MAKEUP Different from parent

Mitosis CELL DIVISION Meiosis

1b.2: Vegetative Propagation

A rapid method of production where new individuals arise without the use of seeds
Part of a parent plant used to cultivate a new plant
Methods include:
Underground storage organs (rhizomes, bulbs, tubers, corms)
Organs used by the plant for survival in harsh, adverse conditions (food storage
organs)
During unfavorable conditions, storage organs lay dormant underground
while the above plant may die
New shoots regenerate from the buds of the new organs when
favourable conditions return
Leaves formed photosynthesise to produce more food that is stored in
new storage organs
Runners, leaves and suckers can be used for vegetative propagation.

1b.3: Characteristics of Plants through Individual Methods of Propagation

RHIZOMES BULBS TUBER CORMS RUNNER LEAVES

Horizontal Vertical Exists as stem Swollen, short Stems that

underground underground tubers or root vertical grow
stems shoots tubers underground horizontally
stem above ground
Flattened disc-
like stem

Food storage, Closely set Food storage, Food storage,

has scale nodes bearing presence of has scale
leaves and fleshy scale buds leaves and
buds leaves buds

Adventitious
roots at the
base of the
bulb

48
 If separated Bulbs may be Tubers can be Corms can be Buds form at New shoots
into pieces, dug up and dug up and replanted nodes grow at leaves
and replanted replanted replanted before
in soil, each elsewhere to detaching itself
piece may give form new to form a new
rise to a new plants plant.
plant

1b.4: Advantages vs. Disadvantages of Vegetative Propagation

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Genetically identical offsprings, favourable traits Plants lose their vigour since there is no genetic
can be kept variation, more prone to widespread diseases

Only one parent is needed, pollination and Many plants produced at one time. If not
fertilisation not needed controlled, it can result in overcrowding and
competition for resources

Much faster than sexual reproduction

With perennating organs, many plants can tide

over unfavourable conditions.

1b.5: The Flower

Contains the reproductive structures (can be carpellate/pistillate/only female, staminate/only male
or hermaphroditic/bisexual)
Parts include:
Pedicle Flower stalk
Plants with no pedicles are called sessile flowers
Receptacle Enlarged end of the pedicle, flower structures attached here
Petals Brightly coloured, sometimes scented
Arranged in a cylinder/circle called a corolla
Attracts insects (for insect-pollinated flowers)
Sepal Modified petals, often green
Protects flower in the bud stage
Sepals made up together are called the calyx
Reproductive parts

1b.5.1: The Stamen

A male reproductive system, with the filament and the anther at the top
Anther has 2 lobes, and each of them has 2 pollen sacs which contains pollen grains
Each pollen grain has 2 male gametes due to meiosis
Pollen grains released when anther matures, lobes split
Filament holds anther up in a suitable position to release pollen grains
A group of stamen is called the androecium

49
1b.5.2: The Carpel
A female reproductive organ consisting of the ovary, style and stigma
Stigma receives the pollen grain, style holds stigma and connects it to the ovary
Ovary have at least one ovule (that contains the female gamete(s), ovum/ova)
The ovule becomes the seed and the ovary becomes the fruit
A group of carpel is called the pistil/gynoecium

1b.6: Pollination
Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma either via wind, insects or self.
Self pollination is the transfer of pollen grain from anther to stigma in the same flower or a
different flower in the same plant
Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen grain from anther to stigma of flowers in different plants.

1b.6.1: Advantages v. Disadvantages of Self-Pollination

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Only one parent is needed Offspring has less genetic variation, less adapted
to environmental changes

Beneficial qualities are likely inherited by offspring Weaker, smaller, less resistant offspring

Does not depend on external factors

Less pollen needed, less energy wasted

1b.6.2: Advantages v. Disadvantages of Cross-Pollination

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Can inherit beneficial qualities from both parents 2 parent plants needed

Greater genetic variation, better adapted to Depends on external factors

changes in environment

More viable seeds, longer dormancy possible More pollen and hence more energy is needed to
improve chances of pollination

1b.6.3: Features Favouring Self/Cross Pollination

SELF-POLLINATION CROSS-POLLINATION

Hermaphroditic flowers Dioecious plants (different sexes on different

plants, therefore cross-pollination is inevitable)

Same maturation times of anther and stigma Different maturation times of anther and stigma

Anthers situated just above the stigma on the Anthers and stigma on the same flower situated
same flower far apart

Cleistogamous (closed) flowers (since flowers are

closed, self-pollination is inevitable)

50
1b.6.4: Features Favouring Wind/Insect Pollination

WIND POLLINATION INSECT POLLINATION

Small and dull/Absent PETALS Large, brightly coloured

Absent NECTAR Present, nectar guides may be

present on petals

Absent SCENT Present

Large and feathery, protrudes STIGMA Small and compact, does not
out of the flower protrude out of the flower

(to catch the pollen grains (so that the pollen grains from
brought about by the wind) the body of the insect can be
brushed onto the stigma while
getting nectar)

Long and pendulous filaments STAMEN Filaments not pendulous, anther

with protruding anthers does not protruded out of the
flower
(pollen grains can go into the
wind when the lobes split) (so that the pollen can be
brushed onto the insects body)

More abundant, tiny and light POLLEN Fairly abundant, larger with
with smooth surfaces rough surfaces

(so that they dont stick to each (so that it can cling onto the
other and can be blown by the insect)
wind)

1b.7: Pollination Fertilisation

1. Pollen grains land on the stigma
2. Pollen grains germinate in response to the sugary fluid secreted by stigma to form a pollen tube
(cytoplasm in the pollen grain grows out as tube)
3. Vegetative nucleus of the pollen grain moves in front
a. Secretion of enzymes to soften and digest the tissue of the stigma and style for the pollen
tube to grow
4. The tip of the pollen tube grows towards the micropyle (a pore in the ovule wall) in response to
chemicals secreted by the ovary
5. As the pollen tube grows, the generative nucleus behind will undergo mitosis to form 2 male
gametes

1b.8: Fertilisation
At the micropyle, the tip of the pollen tube absorbs the sap and bursts, releasing the 2 male
gametes. Double fertilisation occurs.
One of the male gametes (haploid) fuses with the ovum (haploid) to form a zygote (diploid)
Another one fuses with the definitive/endosperm nucleus (diploid) to form endosperm nucleus
(triploid)
Changes during fertilisation:

51
BEFORE AFTER

Ovule Seed(s)

Zygote Embryo consisting of a plumule (embryonic shoot), radicle (embryonic root)

and cotyledons (seed leaves)

Endosperm nucleus Endospermic seeds: Nucleus develops into endosperm (through mitosis)
which stores food for the growing plant

Non-endospermic seeds: Endosperm absorbed by the embryo, food stored

in the cotyledons instead

Integuments Testa (seed coat), membranous tegmen

Ovule stalk Funicle (seed stalk)

Ovary Fruit

Ovary wall Fruit wall/Pericarp

Stamen, Carpel, Sepals Wither and fall off

1b.9: Fruit Anatomy

Protects the seeds and the embryo within the seeds
To help in dispersing the seeds to new habitats
Anatomy:
Scars: Left behind, attachment to the receptacle
Funicle: Attaches seed to placenta, vascular tissues present
Fruit chambers (loculus/loculi)
May be filled with juicy pulp or empty
Arrangement of the ovules in the loculi of the ovary determines how the seeds are
arranged in the fruit
Pericarp of fruits consists of exocarp (outermost), mesocarp and the endocarp (layer surrounding
the cell)

1b.10: Types of Fruit

Simple fruits (Mangoes, Papayas etc.)
Formed from a single ovary with one or many seeds
Aggregate fruits (Raspberries, Strawberries etc)
Formed from a simple flower with multiple ovaries
Multiple fruits (Fig, Pineapple etc.)
Formed from an inflorescence (a cluster of separate flowers arranged on a stem or a
receptacle)
Each flower develops into a fruit that ripens together

1b.11: The Seed

Dicotyledonous seeds
Have 2 cotyledons (duh)
Have little or no endosperm (food stored in the cotyledon)
Monocotyledonous seeds

52
 Have 1 cotyledon (duh)
Most monocot seeds store food in the endosperm

1b.12: Seed Dispersal

Explosion Pericarp that dries unevenly
(eg. Flame of During drying process, pericarp contracts, twist suddenly and split open with
the Forest, great force to throw out seeds
Rubber etc.)

Wind Wings, hair that may develop from style, calyx, fruits, seed coats
(eg. Angsana) Dry to reduce weight; enlarged surface area
Fruit and seed can stay afloat longer, drift further away from parent plant
Small, light seeds

Animals Usually edible

(eg. Apple) Sweet smelling, scented to attract animals
Tough seed coats to withstand action of digestive enzymes
Seeds pass out in animal droppings

OR

(eg. Mimosa) Have attachments (hooks or hairs) on seed coats or walls of fruit
Enables fruits and seeds to cling on to animal bodies

Water Waterproof fruit surface

(eg. Coconut) Light and spongy parts filled with air in seeds or fruit wall
Enable fruit or seeds to stay afloat

Avoid overcrowding, competition for resources with parent plants

Enable plants to colonialise new favourable habitats, enhances chances for survival
Reduce spread of diseases
When fruits get dispersed to a suitable habitat
Pericarp breaks down
Seed(s) released
Germination under favourable conditions
Embryo grow and develop into new plants

1b.13: Germinating Seeds

Seed consists of embryo, which has a plumule, where 1 or 2 cotyledons are attached to, and
radicle , all enclosed within the testa.
STAGE 1: ABSORPTION OF WATER
Seed is dormant before germination
Absorption of water through the micropyle and seed swells up
Testa ruptures
Hydration activates enzymes in the cotyledons which digest stored food found in the
cotyledons and endosperms
STAGE 2: FOOD DIGESTION
Amylase digest starch, protease digests proteins and lipase digests lipids
Digested food translocated to the plumule and radicle to provide energy, synthesise cell
wall, protoplasm and enzymes

53
 STAGE 3: GROWTH
Radicle grows out of the split testa, and grows downwards forming lateral roots to absorb
water and mineral salts
Plumule emerges from between cotyledons, and grows upwards leaving testa in the soil
green leaves
Food tissue (endosperm/cotyledons) shrink as food is used up by respiration dry mass
increases
Shoot continues to grow upwards producing more leaves
Photosynthesis begins, dry mass of the plant starts to increase

1b.13.1: Conditions for Seed Germination

Water Necessary to soften testa so that it can

rupture more easily
Enables CO2 and O2 to diffuse in and out
rapidly
Provides medium for metabolic reactions
Activation of enzymes
Transports nutrients to growing regions of
the embryo
Maintains turgidity of the cells so that the
shoot can remain upright and leaves
expanded

Oxygen Early stages of germination: Testa not

permeable to O2, respires anaerobically
O2 used for aerobic respiration once testa
is ruptured
More energy is released
Used for metabolism
Utilisation of food
resources
Synthesis of cytoplasm

Temperature Rise in temperature speeds up chemical

reaction (up to a certain limit)
Germination best take place at 40oC
If higher, the enzymes will
denature and the seedling will die
If lower, it may not germinate

1b.14: Artificial Selection

Process by which humans breed other organisms for particular traits through selection of
organisms with desirable/better genetic combinations
Made possible to produce a variety of crops:
Higher yield
Shorter growth time
Pest resistant
Drought resistant
One method is hybridisation, where crossing of different varieties of plants happens to produce
better varieties
Steps:

54
 Transfer of pollens from a desired flower of a plant to another desired flower of a plant
Transfer done by brushing

55
TOPIC 2: GENETICS - PATTERNS OF INHERITANCE
Revisit your Y2 Biology

2.1: Key Terms

Gene
A unit of inheritance made up of a heritable sequence of nucleotides along a DNA
molecule which codes for a polypeptide
Locus
The position in which a gene resides in a chromosome
Allele
An alternative form of the gene. Alleles of a gene occupy the same locus on a pair of
homologous chromosomes
Dominant allele: The allele that shows its phenotype in a heterozygote or homozygote
Recessive allele: The allele that shows its phenotype in a homozygote only
Phenotype
The expressed or observable characteristics of an individual usually resulting from the
interaction between the genotype and the environment in which development occurs in a
tangible form
Homozygous
2 identical recessive or dominant alleles for a given gene
Heterozygous
2 different alleles (1 recessive, 1 dominant) for a given gene
Homologous chromosomes
Chromosome pairs of the same length
Each chromosome inherited from each parent
Mendels Law of Segregation (1st Law)
A pair of alleles for a heritable character separates into different gametes during gamete
formation
Outcome: For any given gene, one half of the gametes will carry one allele and the other
half of the gamete will carry another allele.
Mendels Law of Independent Assortment (2 nd Law)
Each pair of alleles segregates independently during gamete formation.
Applies when genes for 2 traits are located on different pairs of the chromosomes.
Co-dominance
The equal expression of both alleles in the phenotype of a heterozygous condition
Incomplete dominance
The expression of an intermediate phenotype in a heterozygote

2.2: Traits
Divided into 2: Continuous and Discontinuous Variation
Continuous Variation (Height)
Phenotypes in a continuum
Environmental factors can affect the phenotype but will not affect the genotype
Only genetic factors are inherited
Discontinuous Variation (Blood Type)
Phenotypes are discrete and can be categorized.

56
2.3: Drawing a Genetic Diagram/Punnett Square
Genetic diagram is especially useful when trying to find out the phenotypes of the offspring from
the parents for autosomal traits.
Diagram drawing is a 4-mark question in the examination. To get the full 4 marks, there is a
definite structure to be memorised.
For a Punnett Square, it is mostly used for sex-linked traits.
Let XH be the healthy gene and Xh the recessive (affected) gene.

57
Monohybrid cross

(Note: for crossing of

two heterozygotes,
usually from 2
purebreds, the
resultant phenotypic
ratio is usually 3:1)

58
Dihybrid cross.

Difference in expected ration

and observed ratio is due to
environment changes and fertilization

(Note: For crossing of dihybrid

purebreds, the resultant phenotypic
ratio is usually 9:3:3:1)

59
TOPIC 3: MOLECULAR GENETICS
3.1:Nucleic acids

3.2: Differences between DNA & RNA

DNA RNA

Very long strands, several Length of nucleotide strand Relatively short strands, 100-
million nucleotides long 1000 nucleotides long

Deoxyribose Type of sugar Ribose

Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine, Nucleotide bases Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine,

Thymine Uracil

2 polynucleotide strands with Number of strands Consists of 1 polynucleotide

complementary base pairing strand with 3 functionalities
messenger (mRNA)
transfer (tRNA)
ribosomal (rRNA)

Mostly in the nucleus, some in Location Synthesised in the nucleus but

the mitochondria and cytoplasm found mostly in the cytoplasm

60
3.3: How does genotype determine phenotype
An organisms genotype is its genetic makeup, the sequence of nucleotides bases in DNA
The phenotype is the organisms physical traits which arise from the actions of a wide variety of
proteins
DNA specifies the synthesis of proteins in 2 stages
Transcription: the transfer of genetic information from DNA into a RNA molecule
Translation: the transfer of information from RNA into a protein

3.4: DNA Replication

When a cell reproduces, a complete copy of the DNA must pass from one generation to the next
Both strands of DNA molecule separate and act as templates for s ynthesis of 2 new strands
It bonds form between old and new bases
Each daughter cell inherits a DNA molecule that is a hybrid, consisting of one old and one new
strand. This is semiconservative replication.

(From 3 strand to 5 strand)

1. Helicase unwinds DNA
a. Breaking of H-bond between bases
2. Single Strand Binding Proteins(SSBP) anchor the two separate strands, keeping them
apart
3. RNA Primase forms RNA strand
4. Polymerase III continues strand
5. Polymerase II changes it to DNA strand (H-bonding)

(From 5 strand to 3 strand)

1. Helicase unwinds DNA
a. Breaking of H-bond between bases
2. A LOT of RNA Primase forms RNA strand
3. Single Strand Binding Proteins(SSBP) anchor the two separate strands, keeping them
apart
4. Ligase joins okazaki fragments
5. Polymerase III continues strand
6. Polymerase II changes it to DNA strand (H-bonding)

3.5: One gene - One polypeptide: Nucleotides to Amino acids

Function of a gene is to dictate the production of polypeptides
A protein consists of more than one polypeptide
Genetic information in DNA is transcribed into RNA, before translation into polypeptides which
then folds or activates into proteins
The language of nucleic acids is the linear sequence of nucleotide bases in DNA, where a typical
gene has thousands of nucleotides in a specific sequence
When a segment of DNA is transcribed, the result is an RNA molecule
RNA is then translated into a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide

3.6: The Genetic Code

Flow of information from gene to protein is based on a codon, which is a triplet of bases
Codons code for amino acids

61
 The genetic code is the set of rules that convert a nucleotide sequence in RNA to an amino acid
sequence
Of the 64 triplets
61 code for amino acids
1 of those codons is the codon AUG, which is a start codon and codes for Methionine. As
such, the first amino acid of every polypeptide is usually Methionine.
3 are stop codons that end the polypeptide chain (UAA, UAG and UGA)
3.7: Transcription of DNA to pre-RNA
RNA polymerase attaches itself to the promoter DNA
As RNA nucleotides base-pair one by one with DNA bases on one strand, the enzyme RNA
polymerase links the RNA nucleotides into a RNA chain
RNA strand grows longer and peels away from DNA template
When RNA polymerase reaches terminator, it detaches from the RNA molecule and DNA strand,
and the DNA strands rewind

3.8: Processing pre-RNA in the nucleus

Addition of extra nucleotides at the ends of the RNA transcript to form the camp and tail
Protects the RNA from enzymes
Helps ribosomes recognise the RNA as mRNA
Non-coding regions (introns) are removed and the coding regions (extrons) spliced together
The final mRNA moves out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm

3.9: tRNA in translation

tRNA molecules match amino acids to the appropriate codons to form a polypeptide
In order to do this, tRNA must be able to attach to the appropriate amino acid and recognise the
appropriate codons in the mRNA
tRNA have similar structures but many slightly different versions of tRNA for each amino acids
3 stages:
Initiation
An mRNA molecule binds to the small ribosome subunit (Start: AUG)
Initiator tRNA binds to the start codon, amino acid attached is Methionine
A large ribosome subunit attaches to the small subunit, with the initiator tRNA
fitting nicely into the P-site of the ribosome, forming a functional ribosome
Elongation
Codon Recognition: The anticodon of an incoming tRNA, carrying its amino acid
pairs with the mRNA on the A-site
Peptide Bond Formation: Amino Acid detaches from the tRNA in the P site and
forms a peptide bond with the amino acid on the tRNA in the A site
Translocation: P site tRNA leaves the ribosome and the ribosome moves the
distance of 1 codon, moving the remaining tRNA carrying the polypeptide chain
to the P site
This allows the next tRNA to bind to the A site
The process continues, until the ribosome reaches a stop codon
Termination
Translation stops at codons UAA, UAG or UGA
Release of polypeptides
Ribosome split back into its subunits

62
3.10: Structure and Function of Ribosomes
Coordinates the functioning of the mRNA and tRNA
There are two subunits made up of proteins and rRNA
The smaller unit binds mRNA
The larger unit has 3 tRNA sites
The A site holds the tRNA carrying the next amino acid that is added to the chain
The P site holds the tRNA carrying the growing polypeptide chain
**The E site is the last holding site (hur dur APE) (not needed to know)
The anticodon on each tRNA base pairs with a codon on the mRNA
3.11: Mutations
Mutation is a change in the structure of a gene or a change in the chromosome number
A change in the chromosome number (aneuploidy) occurs when there is non-disjunction during
meiosis (when a pair of homologous chromosomes fail to separate)
Non-disjunction at Meiosis I: Gametes (n+1)(n+1)(n-1)(n-1)
Non-disjunction at Meiosis II: Gametes (n)(n)(n+1)(n-1)

3.11.1: Aneuploidy in Sex Chromosomes

XXY Klinefelters Syndrome
Non-disjunction in egg or sperm formation
Male with small testes, female body contours, sterile
XYY normal male, non-disjunction in sperm formation
XXX normale female, non-disjunction in egg or sperm formation
XO Turner Syndrome. Non-disjunction in egg or sperm formation
Female with short stature
Web of skin between neck and shoulders
Poor development of female sexual characteristics
Sterile
No YO as Y is a recessive chromosome and the person will die if there is only one recessive
chromosome.

3.11.2: Polyploidy
Heritable condition of having more than 2 sets of chromosomes, caused mainly by exposure to
chemicals

3.11.3: Genetic Mutations

A change in one or more bases as a result of chemical changes in the gene
Can take a form of:
Frame-shift mutation
Deletion: Removal of one or several nucleotides
Insertion: Addition of one or several nucleotides
Substitution: Replacement of nucleotides
Inversion: Reversal of sequence of nucleotides
Point mutation: Base substitution
Alteration of sequence of nucleotides in a gene may change the sequence of amino acids in a
polypeptide
As ribosomes read the incorrect triplets from the point of mutation, non-functional proteins are
produced and may cause repercussion to the organism
It may affect the phenotype of an organism (Usually doesnt as genetic code is degenerate)

63
3.11.4: Sickle-Cell Anaemia
Haemoglobin is made up of two and two haemoglobin subunits
Point mutations in the haemoglobin resulting in hydrophobic valine (GUA in the mRNA, base
change at the DNA) substituting hydrophilic glutamic acid (GAA in the mRNA, CTT in the DNA)
Normal haemoglobin is hydrophilic while the mutant haemoglobin is hydrophobic, causing it to be
fibrous and sickle-shaped
Obstructs blood vessels, depriving vital organs of oxygen
Unable to carry oxygen as well
Mutant haemoglobin cause the RBC to be more fragile and easily haemolysed, leading to
anaemia and enlargement of spleen
Homozygous recessive disorder
However, Sickle-Cell Anemia prevents one from contracting malaria, which is a disease that is
caused by parasites that multiply within the erythrocyte. As the erythrocyte is deformed, the
parasites cannot multiply and infect the body. Hence, in places where malaria is a problem (ie.
South America or Africa), there is a general trend that shifts towards a heterozygous allele
combination for Sickle-Cell Anemia

64
TOPIC 4a: GENETIC ENGINEERING
The direct manipulation of genes for practical purposes

4.1: DNA Cloning and Bacterial Plasmids

A set of experimental methods to create a multiple copies of an isolated DNA fragments
Plasmid: Pieces of DNA material exchanged between bacteria
Each bacteria can have one or more copies of a plasmid
Extrachromosomal DNA molecules that are small, double stranded and circular
(1000 - 200000 bases)
Any target DNA can be inserted into a plasmid recombinant DNA
Recombinant plasmid is introduced into host bacterium (recombinant bacterium)
The plasmid is like a vehicle that carries and transports DNA into another cell a vector
Recombinant plasmid self-replicates to produce multiple copies in a bacterium

4.2: Restriction Enzymes

Enzymes found naturally in bacteria to digest foreign (viral) DNA
Recognises a certain DNA sequence (each restriction enzyme is limited to 1) that is palindromic
Palindromic sequences are identical when read in opposite directions in the complementary
strand
Cuts BOTH strands of the DNA helix at precise points in the restriction site
Some create blunt ends Double-stranded ends
Some create sticky ends (Partially) single-stranded ends
Two molecules of DNA digested using the same restriction enzyme that produce ends will
produce complementary sticky ends
Expose nucleotides that can undergo complementary base pairing by hydrogen bonding
Used to:
Cut/digest bacterial plasmid so that foreign target DNA can be inserted
Isolate target DNA from the genome
DNA Ligase joins DNA fragments by repairing the sugar-phosphate backbone

4.3: Choosing the Restriction Enzyme

Rule 1: Both plasmid and target gene must be cut with the same restriction enzyme to produce
complementary sticky ends
Rule 2: Restriction enzyme used to isolate the target gene must not have restriction sites within
the target genes sequence

4.4: Multiple Cloning Sites (MCS)

Plasmids in DNA cloning are engineered to have a polylinker (MCS), which is a short DNA strand
with several restriction sites
Provides a wider choice of restriction enzymes for use to cut the plasmid
Target DNA inserted at MCS
Promoter sequence right before the MCS enables the inserted target DNA fragment to be
transcribed without too much unnecessary genes being transcribed
Digestion of Plasmid and Target DNA at 37oC and Ligation at 16oC

65
4.5: Heat Shock Transformation
1. Expose bacteria and plasmid to a Ca2+ rich environment under cold conditions for 30 minutes
a. Ca2+ neutralise the negative charges on bacterial cell wall and sugar-phosphate
backbone of plasmid DNA
b. Reduce electrostatic repulsion between bacteria (-ve charged) and plasmid and weaken
bacteria cell wall
c. Bacteria cell wall becomes more competent to take up foreign DNA
d. Cold temperature:
i. Congeals the lipid membrane, reducing kinetic motion
ii. Stabilising the -ve ions in the bacteria and plasmid
iii. Allowing more substances to pass through
2. Heat shock the mixture of bacteria and plasmid (usually at 42 oC) briefly between 30 - 150
seconds
a. Higher temperature creates a temperature imbalance on either side of the bacterial
membrane, creating a current, increasing the fluidity of bacterial cell membrane (may
induce formation of pores by damaging cell membrane)
b. Plasmid DNA molecule can enter more easily
3. Put on ice for 1-2 mins to stop molecules in the lipid membrane from moving around, stabilising
the -ve ions
4. Add nutrient mediums and incubate at 37oC for 1 hour. Allow the bacteria to survive the
temperature changes before plating on the agar plate for growth and colony isolation
5. Grow bacteria on agar plate containing antibiotic overnight.

Not 100% efficient

Transformed bacteria Took up the plasmid
Non-transformed bacteria Did not take up the plasmid
To identify transformed bacteria, plasmids have a selectable marker (eg. antibiotic resistance
gene, luminosity, etc.)
After heat shock transformation, bacteria is grown on medium containing the antibiotic
Transformed bacteria will survive and divide to form colonies but non-transformed bacteria will die

66
TOPIC 4b: APPLICATIONS AND ETHICS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING
4.6: Large-Scale Production of Recombinant Protein
Mass culture of transformed bacteria in fermenter
Bacteria produce insulin/human growth hormone
Extract and purify recombinant insulin/human growth hormone
Used to treat diabetes/human growth hormone deficiency
Example of HBV virus:
Gene for Hepatitis B virus coat protein cloned into a vector and introduced into yeast
Transformed yeast cell divides rapidly to produce large amounts of viral proteins
Protein given as vaccine to cause production of antibodies against HBV

4.7: Gene Therapy (unneccesary)

1. Isolate and clone the gene of interest
2. Insert the gene into a vector to produce a chimera
3. Insert the chimera into the patient
a. Ex vivo approach: Transfusion into harvested bodily cells, reintroduction
b. In vivo approach: Direct transfusion
Methods of gene delivery:

VIRAL VECTORS NON-VIRAL VECTORS

DEFINITION/CELLS USED Modified viruses that cannot Liposome/Naked plasmid DNAs

replicate in humans

PROS More efficient at Large genes can be

entering human cells cloned into plasmids
Can be modified to be
specific for certain cell
types
Delivered gene may
integrate into the
genome and be
replicated as patients
cell divide

CONS Cannot carry too much Low efficiency in

genetic material integrating into the
May induce immune patients genome
response Non-specific for cell
types
Liposomes may be toxic

67
4.7.1: Case Study: Cystic Fibrosis
Defective gene for a cell membrane protein
Production of thick sticky mucus in airways patient is more susceptible to infections
Normal gene inserted into viral genome. Virus is sprayed onto nose/lungs
Immune response, low rate of entry into cell
Gene places in liposomes (microscopic oil drops) and sprayed into nose/lungs
Toxicity, ow rate of entry into cell
Research is still ongoing

4.8: Genetically Modified Organisms

Genetically modified plants
Pest resistant, herbicide resistant, improved quality, produce viral vaccines using
bananas, plant factories (e.g. silk, fuel) etc
Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of plants
T-DNA on Ti plasmid
Insert gene of interest into T-DNA
No extra procedures needed as Agrobacterium injects and integrates Ti plasmid into
plant naturally without any resistance from the plant

4.9: Risks of Genetic Engineering

Environmental risks of GMO
Innocent creatures will be hurt by insecticides built into many GM crops
Superweeds will arise as genes that gives crops the ability to kill insect pests or to
withstand herbicides find their way into the weeds
Pollen from GM plants can fertilise its weedy relatives
GM crops will suddenly fail as pests may evolve tolerance to built in insecticides and
weeds will evolve immunity to herbicides sprayed over fields of herbicide-tolerant GM
plants
Human health risks
Allergy to transgenic food
Spread of antibiotic resistance to pathogenic bacteria
Socio-economical risks
Small-scale farmers unable to get GM seeds that are patented and expensive
Widening the gap between the rich and poor
Others
Bioterrorism/biological warfare

4.10: Ethics of GMO

Animal rights: manipulation for human ends
Painful side effects for animals: Broiler livestock engineered to grow too fast to be supported by
their bodies
Playing God?
Altering the natural order of the universe
Creation of a new species?
Manipulating DNA = Manipulation of life?

68
TOPIC 5: EVOLUTION
5.1: Evolutionism vs Creationism
Creationism says that each species was created as it is now, has never changed and will never
change. New species were created along the way.
Evolutionism says that species can change over long period of time, so those we see now have
evolved from earlier times
Accumulating evidence pointed to the fact that species are not static, but change and
evolve over time

5.2: Theories of Evolution

Lamarcks Hypothesis of Evolution
Parts of the body that are used extensively become larger and stronger while unused
ones deteriorate over time
Organisms can pass on these modifications to its offspring
Disproven
Germplasm Theory (August Weissman)
Inheritance only take place by means of the gametes and nothing else
Gametes are not affected by anything other cells acquire
Darwin-Wallace Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection
Proposing of natural selection to explain the observable patterns of evolution
1. Overproduction of offspring (successful species will produce more offspring per
generation than needed to replace the adults)
2. Constancy of numbers (In a stable environment, the size of a population will remain
steady)
3. Struggle for Existence
a. Members of the same species will constantly compete for survival
b. Many factors (climate, disease, predators) affect their chances for survival
4. Variation among offsprings
a. Individuals in a species are not identical in body form, physiology or behaviour
b. Variations resulting from random fertilisation (shuffling) or introduction of new
genes (mutation) can be inherited and passed on to the next generation
5. Survival of the Fittest
a. Nature selects fitter individuals with the variations which are adapted to the
environment
b. Gene mutation is the ultimate source of variation among members of a species
c. Selective advantage: Small advantage tends to survive and multiply
6. Like produces like
a. Fitter individuals survive to breed, passing the genes for the select ed variations
to their offspring
b. In time, the proportion of individuals in a population which have the
advantageous adaptation/gene will increase
c. Evolving of characteristics of the population

VARIATION AND OVERPOPULATION lead to COMPETITION resulting in S ELECTION if HERITABLE

results in EVOLUTION.

~END OF BIOLOGY SYLLABUS (Y3-4)~

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