LORILLA, RIZALYN C.

VARIATIONS IN PRECIPITATION

Geographic Variations. In general, precipitation is heaviest at the equator and decreases with
increasing latitude. However, the irregularity and orientation of the isohyets on the mean annual
precipitation map of the United States (Fig. 3-12) indicate that the geographic distribution of
precipitation depend' on more effective factors than distance from the equator. A study of
maximum rain storms in the United States indicated heaviest intensities at about 30 degrees N.
The main source of moisture for precipitation is evaporation from the surface of large bodies of
water. Therefore, precipitation tends to be heavier near coastlines. This characteristic is shown
by the isohyets of Fig. 3-12, especially northward of the Gulf of Mexico. Although distorted by
orography, a similar variation is observed in the Far Western states. Since lifting of air masses
account for almost all precipitation, amounts and frequency are generally greater on the
windward side of mountain barriers. Conversely, since downslope motion of air results in
decreased relative humidity, the lee sides of barriers usually experience relatively light
precipitation. However, the continued rise of air immediately downwind from the ridge and the
slanting fall of the precipitation produce heavy amounts on the lee slopes near the crest. The
variation of precipitation with elevation and other topographic factors has been investigated with
somewhat varying conclusions.
Time variations. While portions of a. precipitation record may suggest an increasing or
decreasing trend, there is usually a tendency to return to the mean; abnormally wet periods tend
to be balanced by dry periods. The regularity of these fluctuations has been repeatedly
investigated. More than 100 apparent cycles, ranging in period from 1 to 744 years, have been
reported. The bibliography lists several reports on attempts to detect these variations from the
analysis of tree rings and geological formations or to associate them with fluctuations in sunspots
and solar radiation. However, with the exception of diurnal l1nd seasonal variations, no
persistent regular cycles of any appreciable magnitude have been conclusively demonstrated.
The seasonal distribution of precipitation varies widely within the United States. (Figure 3-14)
shows typical seasonal distribution graphs for stations in the precipitation regions defined by
Ken drew.
Record rainfalls. (Table 3-l) lists the world's greatest observed point rainfalls. The
predominance of U.S. stations for durations under 24 hrs. should not be interpreted as a tendency
for heavier short-duration rainfall in the United States. The large number of recording rain gages
enhances the probability of measuring localized rainfalls such as thunderstorms and cloudbursts.
If the values of Table 3-1 were plotted on logarithmic paper, they would define an enveloping
curve closely approximating a straight line.
The maximum rainfalls of record for duration up to 24 hr. at five major U.S. cities are given in
Table 3-2. Table 3-3 lists maximum
3-9.Depth-area-duration analysis. Various hydrologic problems require an analysis of time as
well as areal distribution of storm precipitation. Basically, depth-area-duration analysis of a
storm is performed to determine the maximum amounts of precipitation within various durations
over areas of various sizes. The method discussed here is somewhat arbitrary but has been
standardized by the Federal agencies so that results will be comparable. For a storm with a single
major center, the isohyets are taken as boundaries of individual areas. The storm total is
distributed through successive increments of time (usually 6 hrs.) in accordance with the
distribution recorded at nearby stations. When this has been done for each isohyet, data are
available showing the time distribution of average rainfall over area of various sizes. From these
data, the maximum rainfall for various durations (6, 12, 18 hrs. etc.) can be selected for each size
of area. These maxima are plotted (Fig. 3-11), and an enveloping depth-area curve is drawn for
each duration. Storms with multiple centers are divided into zones for analysis
SNOW PACK AND SNOWFALL

Measurement. Measurement of the depth of accumulated snow on the ground is a regular

function of all Weather Bureau observers, where the accumulation is not large; the measurements
are made with a yardstick or rain-gage measuring stick. In region where large accumulations are
the rule, permanent snow stakes, graduated in inches, are normally used. Such stakes should be
installed where they will be least affected by blowing or drifting now.

The water equivalent of the snow pack, the depth of water that would result from melting,
depends on snow density as well as on depth. Snow density, the ratio between the volume of melt
water from a sample of snow and the initial volume of the sample, has been observed to vary
from 0.004 for freshly fallen snow at high latitudes to 0.91 for compacted snow in glaciers. An
average density of 0.10 for freshly fallen snow is often assumed.

Measurements of water equivalent are usually made by sampling with a snow tube of the type
shown in Fig. 3-15. The tube is driven vertically in 0 the snow pack, sections of tubing being
added as required. The cutting edge on the leading section is designed to penetrate ice layers
when the tube is rotated. When the bottom of the snow pack is reached, the snow depth is
determined from the graduations on the tube. The tube and its contents are then withdrawn and
weighed to determine the water equivalent.
Snow is usually composed of ice crystals and liquid water; the amount of liquid water is referred
to as the water content of the snow. The quality of snow, the percentage by weight which is ice,
can be determined by a calorimetric process. Snow is inserted into a thermos bottle containing
hot water. The quality can be computed from initial and final temperatures and weights (or
volumes) of the water and melted snow. The water content in per cent of the water equivalent is
100 minus the quality.

Variations. The mean annual snowfall for the United State is shown in the map (Fig. 3-16). This
map may be considerably in error in mountainous regions because of the paucity of
measurements at high elevations. As should be expected, there is a gradual increase of snowfall
with latitude and elevation.

Snow depth usually builds up rapidly early in the season and then remains relatively constant as
compaction of old snow compensates for new falls. Maximum depths on the ground are usually
less than one-half the annual snowfall at high elevations and are still less at lower elevations
where intermittent melting occurs. Because of drifting, considerable variation in snow depth and
water equivalent may be observed within short distances. This variation can be intensified by
differences in melting rates, which are generally greater on south slop s and in areas without
forest cover.