Transportation Engineering

(Supplementary notes to Chapter 14 Transportation Planning)
Transportation Engineering II (TEN201T)

Lecture 1:
CHAPTER 14: TRANSPORTATION PLANNING
1. Role players
Role of Government
Local Government
Development control and role of public
Innovation in policy
2. Role of Government
Involved in development and planning of facilities from earliest times for the following reasons:
Govern the safety of travellers
Avoidance of damage of roads by vehicles
Provide maintenance of roads
Finance of road construction and maintenance
Regulation of monopolies
The above is enforced through legislation. During early 1800s government got involved.
Proper planning of facilities did not take place. Earliest attempts by governments to plan
transportation facilities were related to military requirements. (Roman Empires roads: All roads
lead to Rome.)
Government plans and co-ordinates the construction and maintenance of national roads and
related facilities.
In motivating the necessity of a new road-facility, predictions can be made of the benefits that
flow from transport schemes in terms of the hypothetical savings to travellers, etc. These values
are then compared to the costs of undertaking the project.
2.5 Funding
Central government's Department of Finance distributes funds. They determine which projects
are more important, allocates funds accordingly. Spending takes place through public tender.
Funding is divided amongst:

New roads and bridges (capital expenditure)
Maintenance of roads and bridges
3. Local of Government
Local Government is rather similar to Central Government in its approach to planning and
funding of facilities. Funds are divided according to the importance of the projects. Funding is
also applied through public tender. Maintenance can be done by council (departmental) or in
combination with contractors.
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4. Development Control and Role of Public

The type of development determines the responsibility of control over development, e.g.
Railroads are the responsibility of the Railways Authority, National Roads the Central
Government, Provincial Roads the Provincial Government and Street(s) the Local Authorities.
Notice is (normally) given of any new facilities to be developed; public have the opportunity to
comment:- directly by letter, or through public forum; or at council meetings through
representatives.
In South Africa only residential streets are privately developed as part of a residential suburb.
The developer (private company) has to submit detailed plans of the intended development.
The following criteria will apply:
The minimum standards must be according to the applicable standards for the type of
development, and as specified by the local authority.
The proposed development must adhere to the structure plan and policies (if any is in
existence).
Representatives of the city engineer will attend all site meeting and will pay regular
inspection-visits to the site.
Estimates of the expected traffic must be forecasted to ensure that access routes and streets
will be sufficient.
Appropriate access routes to existing routes must be provided without causing an upset to
the average traffic-flow.
Visibility and safety measures at intersections must adhere to standards.
The need for public transport for the new development must be estimated at the planning
stage and sufficient turn-arounds and stops must be provided; parallel services must be
prevented as far as possible (e.g. a bus service where a light rail station exists, or where a
well-established taxi-service exists).
Land- and ecological-factors must be considered.
5. Innovation in Policy
Authorities have over the years realised that certain facilities can be better managed when done
so by private enterprise. The advantages of privatisation are:
A reduced financial burden on the taxpayer.
A shared responsibility on the maintenance of the facility.
There are three types of privatisation, i.e.

Single-unit privatisation:
The whole amenity (facility) is taken over by the private company.
Split carry-over:
The amenity is divided into a number of smaller, but viable, units and carried over to a
number of private companies.
Leasing:
This type of privatisation is successfully applied when the rolling stock of a railroad-
service is sold to the private company, while the railroads are leased to the company.
Local authorities have also realised that business forces dictate that land-use zoning has to be
adapted to allow for small business to be established where the need for such businesses exist.
It means that residential sites can be changed to accommodate offices and other types of
business that does not generate any disturbance to the surrounding residents. Examples are:
Streets changed into walkways or shopping boulevards (Church Street, Pretoria)
Businesses are allowed to establish in residential areas (along Pretorius, Schoeman and
Duncan Streets in Pretoria).
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6. Route determination
1. For the highway to serve its function of allowing convenient, continuous, free-flowing
traffic operation, locate it where it can best meet the major traffic desire lines and be as
direct as possible.
2. Keep grades and curvature to the minimum necessary to satisfy the service
requirements.
3. Avoid sudden changes in sight distance, especially near junctions.
4. Avoid having a sharp horizontal curve on or adjacent to a pronounced vertical curve.
5. In urban areas site the highway through undeveloped or blighted areas, along the edges
of large parklands and, in general, away from highly developed, expensive land areas.
6. In urban areas locate the highway as close as possible to the principal parking terminals.
7. In rural areas locate as much as possible of the new highway on existing ones, so as to
minimize the use of farmland and reduce total initial and maintenance costs.
8. Locate along the edges of properties rather than through the middle, so as to cause the
minimum interference to cultivation and avoid the need for subway construction.
9. Avoid the destruction or removal of man-made culture.
10. Keep the highway away from cemeteries, places of worship, hospitals, schools and
playgrounds.
11. The effect of the proposed highway on existing or future utilities above, on or under the
ground should be considered. Avoid expensive relocation of these utilities.
12. Never have two roads intersecting near a bend or at the top or bottom of a hill.
13. In the case of a motorway, the need for an interchange with another road may dictate an
alignment that will intersect the other highway at a place, at an angle and in terrain that
will best permit the interchange to be constructed.
14. Avoid intersections at-grade with railway lines. If possible have the highway pass over
the railway where it goes into a cutting.
15. Seek favourable sites for river crossings. Preferably at right-angles to the stream
centreline.
16. Do not have a bridge located on or adjacent to a highway curve.
17. Avoid the need for deep cuttings and expensive tunnel construction.
18. Avoid locations where rock is close to the surface, avoid expensive excavation.
19. In hilly terrain, be aware of the possibilities of landslides.
20. To minimize drainage problems, select a location on high ground in contrast to one in a
valley.
21. Avoid bogs, marshes and other low-lying lands subject to flooding.
22. Locate the highway on soil which will require the least pavement thickness above it.
23. Locate the highway adjacent to sources of pavement materials.
24. When the needs of all other factors have been satisfied, the best location is the one
which results in the minimum total cost of earthworks. For the minimum quantities of
excavation should be so balanced with the quantities of embankment as to require a
minimum of haulage with little need for overhaul.
25. In hilly terrain the highway should cross ridges at their lowest points. (This usually
results in cheaper construction as well as more economical vehicle operating costs.)
Avoid creating severe breaks in the natural skyline.
26. In hilly country also, select a location subject to sunlight and avoid areas where snow and
ice will accumulate.
27. Avoid the unnecessary and expensive destruction of wooded areas. If intrusion is
unavoidable, the road should be on a curve where possible so as to preserve an
unbroken background.
28. Avoid ground subject to mining subsidence.
29. Avoid placing the highway at right-angles to the natural drainage channels.
30. To relieve the monotony of driving on a long straight road it is an advantage to site it so
as to give a view of some prominent feature ahead.
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7. Controlling factors which influence the final location of urban roadways

1. Town planning considerations:
This is concerned with the present and future needs of the business, industrial,
residential and recreational elements. The road designer is actively participating in
town planning when locating a new facility and must be prepared to bow to non-
engineering needs where necessary.
2. Parking:
Problems and traffic congestion may be alleviated in a new major route if it can be
located as close as possible to existing/potential parking areas.
3. Existing transportation system:

New facilities must be integrated with the existing road system to obtain optimum
usage. Railways and harbours may also benefit from the new routes(s).
4. Existing public utilities:

Sufficient information regarding existing stormwater pipes, sewer pipes, water, gas
and electricity utilities are required.
Introduction
Transport, in its broadest sense is concerned with all aspects of the movement of
people and goods by any means, over any distance for any reason.
Transportation Planning is the process of making decisions related to the future of
the transportation system.
It is also a technical and/or political process of identifying problems and issues and
taking transport-related steps designed to overcome those problems.
Its purpose is to resolve transport issues and problems in accordance with the goals
and objectives of the community.
Focuses on issues such as:

Future demand for transportation,
Interaction among different transportation systems and facilities,
Relationships among land use,
Social, economic, and environmental impacts of the proposed system,
Financial and institutional arrangements needed to implement transportation
proposals.
14.1 Perspectives on the planning process

Decision-making process involved may be viewed as either technical or as political
process.
The Rational Planning Process

Here planning is regarded as an orderly and rational way of solving certain kinds of
problems:-
The rational planning process is given in Figure 14.1
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Fig 14.1: The rational planning process
The Political Planning Process

Focuses on the way in which planning decisions are made.
The rational view of planning is incorporated in the political planning process
primarily as a means of persuasion.
Transportation professionals who subscribe to the values underlying the rational
planning process are also involved.
The political planning process is given in Figure 14.2
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Fig 14.2: The political planning process
14.2 Planning regulations

The 2001 federal transportation planning regulations require the following:
At the metropolitan level, the three (3) required products are:
a unified planning work programme,
a plan, and
transportation improvement programme (TIP)
At the state level, the requirements are:
a state-wide transportation plan, and
a state-wide transportation improvement programme (STIP)
This process must comply with various state laws and must address the following seven (7)
specific issues:
The economic vitality of the area,
Safety and security,
Accessibility and mobility options for passengers and freight,
Environmental protection, energy conservation, and quality of life,
Integration and connectivity of the transportation system across and between modes,
Efficient system management and operation, and
Preservation of the existing transportation system.
14.3 Transportation and air quality planning
Clean Air Act Provisions

The Act of 1990 (as amended) contains stringent provisions.
These provisions were prompted by frustration with tendency for the growth in travel
to negate gains in emissions control.
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Provisions make states responsible for defining air quality regions and submission of
state implementation plans (SIPs)
Under the Act, four (4) levels of nonattainment are designated for ozone
(hydrocarbon) concentrations:
Moderate,
Serious,
Severe, and
Extreme
Coordination of Air Quality and Transportation Plans

In air quality nonattainment and maintenance areas, both the transportation plan and
the TIP must be certified for conformity with the portion of the SIP applying to the
corresponding air basin.
In order for transportation plans and TIPs to be found in conformity with the SI, a
regional air quality analysis must be performed, using specific air quality models.
In addition, conformity requires that there be enforceable commitments to undertake
transportation control measures from the agencies responsible for them, and that
TCMs be implemented in a timely manner.
Conformity process is shown in Figure 14.3.
Fig 14.3: Conformity process
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Air Quality Models

Specified air quality models are required to predict emissions resulting from
proposed transportation projects.
Familiarise yourself with the modus operandi (methodology) of these air quality
models.
14.4 Planning studies

Types
Corridor studies
Sub area studies
Alternatives analyses for major transportation investments
Institutional studies
Financial studies
Impact studies
7.1 Planning study organisation
Procedures for transportation planning vary with the scope and exact nature of the study. The
activities listed below are involved in some form or another:
Preparation of a request for proposals (RFP) or problem statement
Preparation of proposals or a work plan
Study organisation
Identification of data sources and data collection
Analysis of data
Report preparation
Coordination between client and consultant
Activities involved in a typical transportation planning study are given in Figure 14.7
Fig 14.7: Activities involved in a typical transportation planning study
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14.6 Summary
Planning should be done to overcome various issues related to the future.

Planning is viewed as either a rational intellectual or a political process in which the
elements of both views are contained in the current regulations and practices.
In the US, planning is carried out under a set of federal regulations, where in SA
these are national policies.
Planning studies are also of importance.
Revise the lecture and attempt the EXERCISES
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(Supplementary notes to Chapter 1 Introduction to Transportation Engineering)

Lecture 2:
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
1.1 Introduction
Transportation Engineering is the application of scientific principles to the

planning, design, operation, and management of transportation systems.
It is organised around the societys needs to provide an adequate transportation
system and involves interaction with many other disciplines.
1.2 The transportation system
Scope and Functional Organisation
This is a functional system in the context of society as a whole because it provides a

service the movement of goods and people from place to place that is essential
to the functioning of the community as a whole.
It is a major functional system because it is an essential feature in the economy and
the personal lives of people everywhere, most especially in the developed nations.
The transportation system in functional terms includes the following components:
Physical facilities
Fleets
Operating bases and facilities
Organisations
Operating strategies
Objectives and Constraints
The motivation for public and private investment in transportation systems have been
on the bases of:
military,
political, and
economic
Familirise yourself with these objectives and constraints.
1.3 Modes of transportation
These are the kinds of transportations which are distinguished in terms of their
physical characteristics, for example;highway, rail, air, and water transportation
(Refer to Table 1.1)
The descriptions of the modes focus on their effectiveness in providing transportation
service, their costs, and the specialised markets they serve.
Effectiveness is described in terms of the accessibility of the mode, the level of
mobility it provides, and its productivity.
Refer to Page 7 and study the descriptions and characteristics of the above-
mentioned modes.
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Table 1.1: Characteristics of made of transportation

Characteristic Road Rail Pipeline
Accessibility Very high Moderate Low
Productivity High Low Very Low
Capital costs Moderate High Very high
Operating costs High Low Very low
Market High Moderate Low (Oil/gas)
Technology High Moderate Low
Ownership State/Private State Private
Capacity High Moderate High
Pathway Land Rail Pipe/Land
1.4 Institutional structure
This is where the state (government) is involved in the transportation system.

The role of the state in the provision of transportation facilities and services centres
around the formulation of national policy, research and development, and funding of
transportation systems that are actually constructed and operated by:
state (national government),
provincial governments, or
local governments.
Government play the primary role in the provision of major highways.
Its involvement is in the development and planning of transport facilities which
among others are to:
design,
govern the safety of travellers,
avoidance of damage of roads by vehicles,
provision of maintenance of roads,
financing of road construction and maintenance,
regulation of monopolies and the operation thereof (of the highway system e.g.
toll roads)
Provincial and local governments are responsible for the following:

Setting design standards,
Maintenance,
Operation (i.e. traffic control),
Transit services (e.g. municipal busses)
1.5 Civil Engineering involvement in transportation
It is the provision of physical facilities and the devising of operating strategies for
them.
Refer to Figure 1.13 for the illustration.
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1.6 Careers in transportation engineering
Employment in consulting discipline and government agencies.

Employment also in academic fields:- i.e. in teaching, lecturing, facilitating and
research.
Aspects that make it attractive as a career included opportunities to:
Interact with the public and other professionals
Contribute to the needs of society
Contribute to the protection and enhancement of the environment
Be involved in the application of advanced technology
Work outdoors
Own a business or work in management
1.7 Summary
Transportation engineering is the application of scientific principles to the planning,

design, operation, and management of transportation systems.
This speciality is organised around the societys need to provide an adequate
transportation system and broad interaction with many other disciplines.
Primary goals of transportation are economic and environmental.
The system may be analysed in functional terms of modes of transportation.
The system is financed through a combination of means, including user charges, tax
revenue, private investments, and cross- subsidisation.
Civil engineering involvement in transportation includes both physical (related to
facilities) and systems engineering (related to the planning and operation of the
system).
Revise the lecture and attempt the EXERCISES
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(Supplementary notes to Chapter 4 Geometric Design)

Lecture 4:
CHAPTER 3: PHYSICAL DESIGN OF TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES
EXERCISES
(a) Determine the passing sight distance for the vehicle with an average speed of 70 km/h with
the perception time of 3 sec.
(b) Determine the design stopping sight distance on a road which has a design speed of
80 km/h, friction factor of 0.3 and downgrade slope of 5.65%. (Do it yourself)
PASSING SIGHT DISTANCES

SPEED GROUP (km/h) 48 64 65 80 81 96 97 112
Reaction/perception time (s) 3.60 4.00 4.30 4.50
Average acc. of passing veh.(m/s) 2.25 2.30 2.37 2.41
Average speed of passed (veh. (km/h) 40.10 54.40 68.50 83.70
Time in opposing lane (t2 - sec) 9.30 10.00 10.70 11.30
Average speed of passing veh. (km/h) 56.10 70.40 84.60 99.70
Safety distance (d3 - m) 30.50 54.90 76.20 91.50
SOLUTION (a)
1 000 m / km
54.4 km / h 70.4 km / h
v1 v 2 3 600 s / h
d1 t r . 3 s = 52.000 m
2 2

1 000 m / km
d2 v 2 .t 2 70.4 km / h 10 s = 195.556 m
3 600 s / h
d3 read-off from the Table = 54.900 m
2 2
d4 .d 2 195.556 m = 130.371 m
3 3
PSD d1 d2 d3 d4
PSD = = 432.827 m
SAY = 440 m*
*always round-off to the next ten
SOLUTION (b)
SSD = 158.922 m, SAY SSD = 160 m
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Lecture 5:
CHAPTER 4: GEOMETRIC DESIGN
Vertical Alignment
EXAMPLE in Table 4.2 on page 69
Entry slope (g1) = +1%

Exit slope (g2) = +6%
Vertical curve length = 300 m
Level (elevation) at point of intersection (P.I.) = 151.500 m
Stake value (peg distance) at point of intersection (P.I.) = 10150 m
Stake value (peg distance) interval = 25 m
The idea is to develop/determine a vertical curve based on the above-mentioned information.
Solution
L 300
Stake value (SV)/Peg dist. at BVC = Peg at P.I. = 10150 = 10 000 m
2 2
L 300
Stake value (SV)/Peg dist. at EVC = Peg at P.I. = 10150 = 10 300 m
2 2
L 300
Tangent Level/elevation at BVC = Level at P.I. g1 = 151.50 0.01 = 150.00 m
2 2
L 300
Tangent Level/elevation at EVC = Level at P.I. g2 = 151.50 0.06 = 160.50 m
2 2
Peg Dist./ Slope Tangent

x-distance Offset Profile Level
Stake Value (Grade) Level
+1%
10 000 BVC 150.00
10 150 P.I. 151.50
10 300 EVC 160.50

+6%
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Tangent Level at SV 10 025 or after BVC
Level/elevation at SV 10 025 = Level at P.I. SV @ P.I. SV 10 025 g1

Level/elevation at SV 10 025 = Level at 151.50 10 150 10 025 0.01
Level/elevation at SV 10 025 = 150.25 m
OR
Level/elevation at SV 10 025 = Level at BVC SV 10 025 SV @ BVC g1

Level/elevation at SV 10 025 = 150.00 10 025 10 000 0.01
Tangent Level at SV 10 175 or after P.I.
Level/elevation at SV 10 175 = Level at P.I. SV @ 10 175 SV @ P.I. g2

OR
Level/elevation at SV 10 175 = Level at EVC SV @ EVC SV @ 10 175 g2

Offset
Offset @ SV 10 025 m
rx 2
Offset =
2
where r = 2
g g1
L
x = Dist. from BVC to the SV in question
r
0.06 0.01 0.000167
300
x = (10 025 10 000) = 25 m
Offset =
0.000167 25 0.052 0.05
2
Offset @ SV 10 050 m
x = (10 050 10 000) = 50 m
Offset =
0.000167 50 0.208 0.21
2
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Final Level at SV 10 025 or after BVC
Final Level @ 10 025 = Tangent Level @ 10 025 + Offset @ Peg 10 025

Final Level @ 10 025 = 150.25 + 0.05
Final Level @ 10 025 = 150.30 m
OR
rx 2
Final Level @ 10 025 = y 0 g1x
2
Final Level @ 10 025 = 150.00 0.01 (10 025 10 000)
0.000167 25 2
2
Final Level @ 10 025 = 150.302 m
Peg Dist./ Slope

x-distance Tangent Level Offset Profile Level
Stake Value (Grade)
9 975 +1% 149.75 149.75
10 000 BVC 150.00 150.00
10 025 25 150.25 +0.05 150.30
10 050 50 150.50 +0.21 150.71
10 075 75 150.75 +0.47 151.22
10 100 100 151.00 +0.83 151.83
10 125 125 151.25 +1.30 152.55
10 150 P.I. 150 151.50 +1.88 153.88
10 175 175 153.00 +1.30 154.30
10 200 200 154.50 +0.83 155.33
10 225 225 156.00 +0.47 156.47
10 250 250 157.50 +0.21 157.71
10 275 275 159.00 +0.05 159.00
10 300 EVC 160.50 160.50
10 325 +6% 162.00 162.00
Vertical curve (sag)
163.00
161.00
159.00
Profile Elevation (m)
157.00
155.00
153.00
151.00
149.00
9950
9975
10000
10025
10050
10075
10100
10125
10150
10175
10200
10225
10250
10275
10300
10325
10350
Peg Distance (m )
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Example Problem 4.1
SV of the low point:
At low point, g (slope) = 0 [it shall be from BVC towards P.I. (sag curve))
g = g1 + rx = 0
g1 = 0.025
r
g2 g1 0.01 (0.025) 0.0001944
L 180
g 0.025
x 1 128.6 m
r 0.0001944
180
SV @ BVC = 10 000 9 910 m
2
SV of low point = SV @ BVC + x = 9 910 + 128.6 = 10 039 m
Level of BVC:
Level @ BVC = 100 m [0.025x(180/2)] = 102.25 m
Level of the low point:

rx 2 0.0001944 128.6 2

y y 0 g1x 102.25 0.025 128.6
100.642 m
2 2
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Horizontal Alignment
EXAMPLE in Table 4.3 on page 79
Given
R = 500 m
Chords (cx) are at 20 m intervals
Deflection angle = 15
Chainage at Tangent-to-curve (TC)/Beginning of Horizontal Curve (BHC) = 1725 m
Solution

= 15 = 0.261799 rad
180
Length of circular curve (L) = R.rad = 500 x 0.261799 = 130.900 m
Curve-to-tangent (CT)/End of Horizontal Curve (EHC) = TC/BHC + L

1725 m + 130.900 m
1855.900 m
x 15
dx 0.0150
2 R rad 2 x500 rad
c x 2R sin d x 2 x500sin 0.0150 14.999 m
Stake Deflection angle Deflection angle Chord length

x-value (m)
Value (SV) (rad) (deg) (m)
BHC/TC 1725.000 0.0 0.0000 0.0000 0.000
1740.000 15.0 0.0150 0.8594 14.999
1760.000 35.0 0.0350 2.0054 34.993
SV values inside the 1780.000 55.0 0.0550 3.1513 54.972
curve, where the 20 m 1800.000 75.0 0.0750 4.2972 74.930
interval apply
1820.000 95.0 0.0950 5.4431 94.857
1840.000 115.0 0.1150 6.5890 114.747
EHC/CT 1855.900 130.9 0.1309 7.5000 130.526
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PROBLEM 4.22 on page 103
Given
R = 450 m
Chords (cx) are at 20 m intervals (+20 points)
Deflection angle = 17
Chainage at Tangent-to-curve (TC)/Beginning of Horizontal Curve (BHC) = 2240 m
Solution
= 17 = 0.296706 rad
L = R.rad = 450 x 0.296706 = 133.518 m
CT/EHC = TC/BHC + L = 2240 m + 133.518 m = 2373.518 m
x 20
dx 0.0222
2 R rad 2 x450 rad
c x 2R sin d x 2 x450sin 0.0222 19.978 m
Deflection angle Deflection angle Chord length

Chainage x-value (m)
(rad) (deg) (m)
BHC/TC 2240.000 0.0 0.0000 0.0000 0.000
2260.000 20.0 0.0222 1.2720 19.978
2280.000 40.0 0.0444 2.5439 39.947
2300.000 60.0 0.0667 3.8216 59.985
2320.000 80.0 0.0889 5.0936 79.905
2340.000 100.0 0.1111 6.3656 99.784
2360.000 120.0 0.1333 7.6375 119.615
EHC/CT 2373.518 133.518 0.1484 8.5027 133.070
ALIGNMENT DESIGN AND CO-ORDINATION
When attempting to fit a horizontal alignment to a particular situation the following guidelines
should be borne in mind;
A generous, flowing alignment in one plane is not compatible with small and frequent
breaks in the other.
Vertical curves should coincide with horizontal curves with respect to both position and
length.
The length of the vertical curve should be slightly less than that of the horizontal curve,
and should be fully contained within the horizontal curve. This is particularly important in
the case of crest vertical curves.
Long tangent - short curve alignments should be avoided.
Compound curves where a short curve follows a long flat curve mislead the driver and
should be avoided.
Loss of sight of the road due to the roller coaster effect of a series of vertical curves on a
straight horizontal alignment is highly undesirable.
Horizontal curves should not be introduced just beyond a crest.
A sag vertical curve on a long straight road alignment has the tendency to appear as a
sharp break in the profile.
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LECTURE 6: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 1) ROAD TRAFFIC COUNTS AND SURVEYS

Lecture 6:
CHAPTER 8: TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 1)
Road traffic counts and surveys
Study objectives
Understand the principles of traffic engineering.

Define and describe the concept road traffic counts and surveys.
Describe the process of carrying out traffic counts.
Distinguish the various methods used to carry out traffic counts.
Describe the traffic prediction components.
Estimate future traffic from the reliable existing counts.
Analyse traffic patterns by means of different techniques to develop solutions.
Compile a report to provide insight into the traffic patterns and usage of vehicles on specific
routes and justify your decision.
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 Definition of traffic engineering
Traffic engineering is that phase of engineering which deals with the planning and geometric design
of streets, highways and abutting lands, and traffic operation thereon, as their use is related to the
safe, convenient and economic transportation of persons and goods.
8.1.2 Road classification system
The functional effectiveness of a road is measured in terms of its ability to assist and accommodate
the traffic with both safety and efficiency. The basic classification system of roads consists of the
following four (4) components:
Residential: A residential street functions only to serve a local residential community and
does not connect any higher classified roadways.
Local: The primary functions of a local street or roadway is to serve the adjacent property
by providing the initial access to the highway network. These facilities are characterised by
short trip lengths, low speeds and small traffic volumes. The design of the networks should be
directed toward eliminating through traffic from these facilities.
Collector: Collectors are intended to serve as the connection link for local streets and highways
and to provide intra-neighbourhood transportation. The traffic characteristics generally consist
of relatively moderate trip lengths and moderate speeds and volumes. Access to collectors
should be restricted to local streets and highways and major traffic generators. Collectors
should penetrate neighbourhoods without forming a continuous network, thus discouraging
through traffic which is better served by arterials.
Arterials: Arterial streets and highways are intended to serve moderate to large traffic volumes
travelling relatively long distances. Requirements for speed and level of service are usually
quite high. Access to arterials should be well controlled and, in general, limited to collector
streets and highways. Arterials are used to surround neighbourhoods and connect widely
separated rural and suburban communities. The arterial system should form a continuous
network designed for a free flow of through traffic.
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8.1.3 Road traffic counting
The measurement of road traffic volumes is one of the most basic functions of route planning and
management. Road traffic counts and surveys are carried out to establish and quantify these
volumes of traffic on roadways for the purposes of functional effectiveness, efficiency, safety,
planning, design and management. Before any road scheme is contemplated, a traffic survey of
some kind or other should be carried out to gather information regarding the nature and intensity of
the traffic expected. This survey should provide the data on which the proposed road layout can be
based, and failure to obtain this information may result in the inability of the road to handle the
volume of traffic. The design of new routes or improvements to existing routes should be based on
projected traffic volumes.
Counts normally provide estimates of the movement, whilst the survey provides simplicity
because it classifies and analyses the traffic patterns. Existing traffic situations are often used to
ascertain and forecast the future conditions. Different types of counts and surveys exist, and
include:
Vehicle flow surveys,

Speeds surveys,
Delays/queuing surveys,
Volume counts surveys, and
Area-wide surveys.
8.2 Vehicle flow surveys
8.2.1 Introduction
Vehicle flows are conducted to collect data on the number of vehicles that passes a point on a
roadway facility during a specified time period. Traffic counts are carried out in different ways and
periods. Irrespective of how the counts were conducted, it is customary to require estimates of flow
for typical days within a year to obtain the annual average daily traffic (AADT) flows. AADT is
simply the average of 24-hour counts collected every day in the year. Hence, it is advisable to
collect such traffic flow data continuously for a year or more. AADT is derived from the average
daily traffic (ADT), which is the average of 24-hour counts collected over a number of days greater
than 1 but less than a year.
Sometimes counts are classified under the peak hour volume (PHV), which is the maximum
number of vehicles that pass a point on a roadway facility during a period of 60 consecutive
minutes. An hourly volume expanded from a counter taken in a period shorter than 60 minutes is
referred to as an hourly flow rate. The typical one is the peak hourly flow rate which is 4 minutes
the peak 15-minute count. Traffic flows may be counted either manually (physical counting by
human beings) or by automatic means (counting by means of machines). These traffic counting
methodologies are non-interventionalist, that is they do not affect the traffic flow being measured.
8.2.1.1 Manual counts
Manual counts are measured by manual observation. In manual counting, an observer counts the
traffic that flows past a survey point. These counts are typically used to gather data for
determination of vehicle classification, turning movements, direction of travel, pedestrian
movements, or vehicle occupancy. Manual counts are typically used when:
o small data samples are required,

o automatic equipment is not available, or the effort and expense of using automated equipment are
not justified, and
o the count period is less than a day or seven consecutive days.
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Irrespective of the limited period of counting, counts should be taken at the busiest time of the year
or else the figures should be adjusted to take account of this seasonal fluctuation, because traffic
flows vary from one month to another. Traffic counts during a Monday morning rush hour and a
Friday evening rush may show exponentially high volumes and are not normally used in the
analysis; therefore, counts are usually conducted on Tuesday, Wednesday, or Thursday.
Manual counts are typically used to gather data about the following:
o vehicle classifications,
o turning movements,
o direction of travel,
o pedestrian movements, and
o vehicle occupancy.
The number of people needed to collect data depends on the length of the count period, type(s) of
data being collected, number of lanes being observed, and traffic volume. Observers can manually
record data using any of three (3) methods. From least to most expensive, they are tally sheets,
mechanical counting boards, and electronic counting boards.
Manual count recording methods
Tally sheets:
It is a form such as the one shown in Table 8.1 where the observer record tick marks in the
appropriate spaces provided typically using a five-bar-gate counting technique (see Figure 8.1).
Traffic flow can also be recorded using either a tally counter (see Figure 8.2), and then
transferring the information to the tally sheet. For different directions of movement, the volumes
of the different categories of vehicles should be noted.
Figure 8.1: Five-bar-gate counting technique
Figure 8.2: Types of tally counters (Source: www.miniscience.com)
Mechanical count boards:

These are solid boards similar in design to the tally sheets and consist of board-mounted,
mechanical counters, one for each direction of travel. After data have been mechanically
collected for an interval, the observer records the totals on a data sheet. Mechanical
accumulating push buttons are installed in place of the tally ticks used in the tally sheets. Each
push button represents a specific movement or vehicle type as in Figure 8.3. Mechanical
boards are convenient for pedestrian, bicycle, vehicle classification, and traffic volume counts.
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Figure 8.3: An example of a mechanical count board (Source: Technology News, 2004)
Electronic count boards:

These boards are basically the mechanical count board equipped with electronic data
processor as shown in Figure 8.4. These boards are battery-operated, hand-held devices that
are light, compact, and easy to handle compared to tally sheets and mechanical boards.
Electronic boards have counting buttons on their faces and an internal clock that automatically
separates data by time intervals. In both the mechanical and electronic count boards, the
observer pushes the button representing the turning movement or vehicle type observed.
Recorded data can be downloaded to a computer.
Figure 8.4: An example of an electronic board used for traffic counting

(Source: Technology News, 2004)
The three (3) steps to a manual traffic count are:
Prepare. Determine the type of equipment to use, the field procedures to follow, and the
number of observers required. Label and organise tally sheets. Each sheet should include
information about the location, time and date of observation, and weather conditions (where
necessary).
Select observer location(s). Observers (data collectors) should be positioned where they
have a clear view of traffic and are safely away from the edge of the roadway.
Record observations on site.
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Table 8.1: Manual traffic count sheet

TRAFFIC COUNT SHEET
Observer:________________________________ Date:______________________ Day:__________
Location:_____________________________________________________________________________
Count Direction From/Towards:__________________________________________________________

Sketch of the survey area under consideration
TIME DIRECTION:
DURATION
TRAFFIC TYPE TOTAL
RIGHT STRAIGHT LEFT
PASSENGER CARS
MOTORCYCLES
DELIVERY VANS
:
BUSES
T RUCKS
TOTAL
DIRECTION:
TIME TRAFFIC TYPE TOTAL
RIGHT STRAIGHT LEFT
PASSENGER CARS
MOTORCYCLES
DELIVERY VANS
:
BUSES
T RUCKS
TOTAL
DIRECTION:
RIGHT STRAIGHT LEFT
PASSENGER CARS
MOTORCYCLES
DELIVERY VANS
:
BUSES
T RUCKS
TOTAL
DIRECTION:
RIGHT STRAIGHT LEFT
PASSENGER CARS
MOTORCYCLES
DELIVERY VANS
:
BUSES
T RUCKS
TOTAL
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8.2.1.2 Automatic counts
Automatic counters mechanically measure the volume of traffic that flows past a survey point.
Automatic counting methods are used to gather large amounts of traffic data over an extended
period of time. These counts are typically used to gather data for determination of vehicle hourly
patterns, daily or seasonal variations, and pattern and growth trends, or annual traffic estimates.
Counts are generally collected for 1-hour intervals in 24-hour periods. Automatic counts are
recorded using one of three (3) methods, namely, portable counters, permanent counters, and
video tape.
Automatic count recording methods
Portable counters:
Portable counting is a form of manual observation. They consist of automatic recorders
connected to pneumatic road tubes. They are typically used to collect the same kind of data
collected in manual counts, but for longer periods, usually 24 hours. Pneumatic tubes are used
to conduct this method of automatic counts. Automatic counters normally use a pressure tube
or an inductive loop which is fixed across the road at the census point. This pressure tube is
compressed each time the axle of a vehicle traverses it. This event transmits a pulse along the
length of the tube, which is counted and hence the vehicular flow can be estimated. The
counter mechanism estimates the flows by counting the number of impulses and then dividing
them by a value equivalent to the most common number of axles per vehicle. A sketch of a
typical automatic traffic counter (ATC) installation is shown in Figures 8.5.
Figure 8.5: An installation of a typical automatic

traffic counter (Source: Slinn et al,
1998)
Permanent counters:
Permanent counters are sometimes built into the pavement and used for long-term counts. The
equipment is expensive, hence this method is not cost-effective, and relatively few authorities
have access to it. The counts could be performed everyday for a year or more. The data
collected may be used to monitor and evaluate traffic volumes and trends over a long period of
time.
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Video tape:
Observers can record data by videotaping traffic. Traffic volumes can be counted by viewing
videotapes recorded with a camera at a collection site. A digital clock in the video image can
prove useful in noting time intervals. Video taping is not a cost effective option in most
situations. Few authorities have access to this equipment.
Advantages and disadvantages of the automatic methods
Advantages
-Little labour is required and measurements can be made for long periods.
Disadvantages
-Counters do not classify the vehicles in different groups and therefore the results are generally
supplemented by a sample manual count.
-Errors can be incurred with multi-axle vehicles.
-Light vehicles may fail to register.
-Difficulties may occur in finding suitable sites for the equipment to prevent wilful and deliberate
damage.
The three (3) steps to a traffic volume study using automatic counting equipment are:
Prepare. Coordinate data activities with appropriate state and local officials. For example,
you may need to coordinate traffic control activities. Assemble and inspect tools, supplies,
and equipment. Test all equipment.
Deploy and calibrate data collection equipment. Provide traffic control to protect workers in
lanes of traffic. After the equipment is placed, make sure it is functioning properly. Secure it in
place.
Check data and retrieve equipment.
EXAMPLE 8.1
The 24-hr traffic counts conducted on a certain collector road are indicated in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2: Traffic counts

DAYS OF THE WEEK
COMPOSITION
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
Motorbikes 23 10 11 7 20 5 25
Passenger Cars 162 105 97 119 170 95 120
Trucks 17 10 11 10 12 8 4
Buses 23 18 19 11 25 11 8
Provide the client with detailed information of the traffic analysis by answering the questions below:
(a) Present the combined traffic pattern for each day for the seven-day (7) period of the week in a
graphical form and describe the scenarios of the Monday and Friday traffic patterns.
(b) Determine the average passenger cars per day and calculate the total number of vehicles over
a two-year period, i.e. average annual daily traffic over two years.
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SOLUTION
(a) Presentation of the combined traffic pattern for each day for the seven-day (7) period of the
week in a graphical form.
DAYS OF THE WEEK

COMPOSITION
Mon Tue Wed Thurs Fri Sat Sun TOTALS
Motorbikes 23 10 11 7 20 5 25 101
Passenger Cars 162 105 97 119 170 95 120 868
Trucks 17 10 11 10 12 8 4 72
Buses 23 18 19 11 25 11 8 115
TOTALS 225 143 138 147 227 119 157
TRAFFIC PATTERNS PER DAY

240
220
200
Number of Vehicles
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
Days
Traffic counts during a Monday morning rush hour and a Friday evening rush may show
exponentially high volumes and are not normally used in the analysis; therefore, the counts
conducted on Tuesday, Wednesday, and/or Thursday should be the ones used in the analysis.
The Monday traffic pattern may be that most travellers were coming back from home to their
place of residence close to their work, where as the Friday traffic pattern was that most
travellers were going home for the weekend.
(b) Average passenger cars per day and AADT over two years.
162 105 97 119 170 95 120 868
Average passenger cars per day = = = 124 pc/h
7 7
ADDT over two years = 124 vehs / day 365 days / yr 2 yrs = 90 520 vehs
8.3 Speed surveys
8.3.1 Introduction
When planning a new or improved road or road system, it is necessary to know the distribution and
performance of the traffic on existing roads. In almost all planning studies, measurements of traffic
flows and speeds are needed. The speed of traffic can be measured in four (4) distinctive ways:
At one particular point on a roadway (spot speed/time mean speed),

Between two discrete points along a roadway (space mean speed),
Over a given route while the vehicle is in motion (running speed), or
Between the start and finishing point of a journey (journey speed).
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8.3.1.1 Spot speed
This speed can be used to measure the average speed of vehicles passing a point (e.g. at a speed
trap) over a specified time period. Spot speeds are used to assess the need for traffic
management or control measures along a link. The uses of spot speeds are to:
a) Measure the effect on traffic flow constrictions, different road configurations etc. For example
it can be used to determine whether speeds increase after introducing parking restrictions,
one way systems etc.
b) Determine enforceable speed limits.
c) Verify speeds used in the geometric design of new or improved facilities.
8.3.1.2 Space mean speed
This speed measures the speed of a vehicle over a given distance rather than at a discrete single
location.
8.3.1.3 Running speed
This speed is the average speed maintained over a given route while the vehicle is in motion. Thus
in determining the running speed, the times en route when the vehicles are at rest are excluded in
the calculations. Normally only the average running speed and the standard deviations are the
variables determined. Running speed is used to:
a) Determine the speed value used for the purpose of the capacity determinations.
b) Measure the level of service offered by the roadway section.
c) Estimate the value of roadway alterations and assessing priorities for improvement in
economic studies.
8.3.1.4 Journey speed
This speed is obtained by dividing the total distance by the total time taken to get from one end to
the other. Journey speed is used for:
a) Calculating commuting costs.

b) The overall relative qualities of road networks.
c) Roadway economic studies.
Both running and journey speeds may be calculated by including and excluding stationary
periods as necessary. The advantages of this method are:
May be used with high traffic volume (it is less accurate with very low flows).
Economical in manpower - a small team of observers with one or two cars can collect reliable
data over considerable lengths of roadway in a relatively short period of time.
Other important information can be collected at the same time, for instance journey times and
speeds, delays, congestive conditions, etc.
Speed survey determination methods
The moving observer method used to determine the Mean Journey Speed:
This method involves an observer car being driven over the designated route at a safe speed
both with and against the traffic stream being analysed. That section with relatively uniform
traffic flow conditions is selected of length L. In each case, the journey time of the observer car
is noted along with the flow of the traffic stream relative to it. When travelling against the flow,
the relative flow is calculated based on the number of vehicles met. When travelling with the
stream, the relative flow is given by the number of vehicles overtaking the observer car minus
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the number it overtakes. Based on these observations, the flow, qi and average travel time, t of
that particular stream can be calculated as follows:
Nj Fi Si
Traffic flow: qi veh/hour (8.1)
Ti Tj
Average time: t Ti
Fi Si min (8.2)
qi
L
Space mean speed: Xs km/min (8.3)
t
qi = traffic flow (veh/hr)
t = average travel time (min)
Xs = space mean speed (km/hr)
Nj = the number of vehicles moving in direction "j" met by test vehicle when moving in the
opposite direction "i"
Fi = the number of vehicles moving in direction "i" which overtake the test vehicle when it is
moving in direction "i".
Si = the number of vehicles moving in direction "i" which are passed by the test vehicle when
moving in direction "i".
Ti = this is the travel time of the test vehicle through the section when moving in the direction
"i" (opposite direction is called "j", hence Tj).
EXAMPLE 8.2
The following observations were made by an observer travelling both with and against a traffic
stream (see Table 8.3). The section length of the roadway over which the observations were
made was 2.159 km. Calculate the volume of traffic, its average journey time and speed.
Table 8.3: Moving car observations

Number of vehicles met by observer whilst travelling Travel time of observer
against the traffic stream (in minutes)
(Nj) (Tj)
83 1.99
82 1.52
78 1.21
85 1.82
93 1.13
83 2.39
99 2.00
81 1.62
79 1.54
75 1.23
Number of vehicles passing the observer minus the Travel time of observer
number passed by the observer (in minutes)
(Fi-Si) (Ti)
-2 1.97
-2 1.29
-3 0.87
3 2.97
-2 0.69
0 1.35
-7 0.73
-4 1.98
-1.9 1.92
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SOLUTION:
Nj = 83.80; Tj = 1.65; (Fi - Si) = -2.10; Ti = 1.53
Nj Fi Si 83.80 2.10
Traffic flow: qi 25.69 veh / min
Ti Tj 1.53 1.65
But traffic flow is never expressed in veh/min and it must therefore be converted to veh/hr, and
it is = 1 542 veh/hr
Average time: t Ti
Fi Si 1.53 2.10 = 1.61 min
qi 25.69
L 2.159
Space mean speed: Xs 1.34 km / min
t 1.61
Again, speed is not expressed in km/min but km/hr and therefore it must be converted, and it is
= 80.40 km/hr
8.4 Delays/queuing surveys
Delays/queuing surveys can be carried out separately at particular locations or in conjunction with
studies determining running and journey speeds. These surveys pinpoint locations where
conditions are unsatisfactory in terms of delay times and queuing lengths and should determine the
reasons for and extent of those delays.
There are two (2) forms of delays, namely fixed and operational delays. Fixed delays occur mostly
at roadway intersections, while operational delays are a primary reflection of the interacting effects
of traffic on the roadway. The former is literally the result of some fixed roadway condition, and
hence it can occur irrespective of whether the roadway is crowned or not. Typical roadway fixtures
causing this type of delay are traffic signals, railway crossings, traffic circles and stop signs.
Operational delays can be caused by parking and under-parking vehicles, by pedestrians, by

crossing and turning vehicles at uncontrolled intersections, as well as by vehicles stalling in the
middle of the traffic stream.
8.5 Volume count surveys
8.5.1 Introduction
The terms traffic flow and traffic volume are used interchangeably to define the number of vehicles
that pass a given point on the roadway in a given period of time. The type of traffic volume data
collected at any given time and location depends upon the use to which the data will be put. For
example, the extent of the new construction or improvement proposed and its location with respect
to similar roads in the area. In rural areas, for instance in the case of a reconstruction of a short
length of the existing alignment, the anticipated volume of traffic along the new section could be
determined by counting the traffic using the existing road and allowing for the normal growth of
traffic over the design period. If the scheme involves an entirely new road, then it is likely that
traffic would be drawn from other roads in the area and the traffic surveys must then embrace all
these alternatives routes. Similarly the method of collecting the data is dependent upon its usage.
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8.5.2 Types of volume counts
Typical types of volume counts among others, includes the following:
Cordon counts: - these counts are conducted when vehicle accumulation pattern within an
area is needed.
Screen line counts:- these counts are conducted when changes in traffic flow from one area to
other needs to be evaluated.
Intersection counts:- these counts are conducted when turning movements are needed.
Pedestrian volume counts:- these counts are needed when pedestrian demand needs to be
evaluated.
Periodic volume counts:- these counts are conducted when traffic volume characteristics are
needed, these are, continuous, control and coverage counts.
Periodic counts should be adjusted for corrections and the following factors are useful in this
regard:
Hourly expansion factor (HEF) = Total volume for 24-hr period divide by volume for particular month.
Daily expansion factor (DEF) = Average total volume for week divide by average volume for
particular day.
Monthly expansion factor (MEF) = Average annual daily traffic divide by average daily traffic for
particular month.
EXAMPLE 8.3
Truck adjustment factors are needed when volume counts are made by checking the number of
axles. Consider the information in Table 8.4 which is from the automatic method, the axle weight
analyser (AWA). This is where the axles are weighed and total number of axles is counted. The
AWA is suitable for use in design of pavements. This kind of counting is very expensive.
Table 8.4: Traffic counts

VEHICLE TYPE NUMBER OF AXLES NUMBER OF VEHICLES NUMBER OF AXLES
Passenger cars 2 3 840 7 680
Trucks 3 1 180 3 540
Trucks 4 610 2 440
TOTAL 5 630 13 660
SOLUTION
Therefore, the truck adjustment factor = 13 660/5 630 = 2.43 axles/vehicle
8.5.3 Determination of Equivalent Vehicular Unit (E.V.U.)
Vehicles of different sizes have different operating characteristics. Besides being heavier, thus
exerting greater loads on the road pavement, trucks and buses are slower and consequently
impose a grater traffic effect on the road than passenger cars. The overall effect of one truck on
certain aspects of traffic operation is thus equivalent to several passenger car units.
It is thus practice to select a unit, called the equivalent vehicular unit (e.v.u.), and to express all
traffic in terms of this unit by the use of appropriate multiplying factors. For the structural design of
national roads in SA, for example, the unit in TRH4 (1996) is a single axle load of 80 kN or 8 000 kg
or 8 ton.
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The e.v.u. is characterised by the following factors:
o The overall effect of one truck on certain aspects of traffic operation is thus equivalent to
several passenger car units.
o Since of the different operating characteristics, different weightings must be given to allow for
the effects within the traffic stream.
o As a result the percentages of the different classes within the traffic flow should be determined
in order that the equivalent vehicular unit which is number of passenger car units can be
calculated.
EXAMPLE 8.4
Determine the e.v.u. rating of a two-lane road in rolling terrain with an AADT count of 2 000
vehicles of which 10% are heavy vehicles.
Table 8.5: Equivalent vehicular factors

EQUIVALENT VEHICULAR FACTORS (E.V.U.)
TERRAIN
LANES
Level Rolling Mountainous
Two-lane 3 5 10
Multi-lane 2 4 8
SOLUTION
Heavy vehicles = 2 000 x 10% = 200

Passenger cars = 2 000 200 = 1 800
e.v.u. rating = 1 800 + (200 x 5) = 2 800 units/day
8.6 Area-wide surveys
8.6.1 Introduction
These surveys involve the understanding of travel patterns over a wider area. The origin and
destination (O-D) surveys satisfies this process. The O-D surveys obtain information concerning
the place of origin and any intended intermediate stops within the survey area. The origin of the
journey is in this instance the last fixed point of call before entering the area covered by the survey,
and the destination is the next point of call after leaving the area.
Even for some improvement works of existing roads in urban areas the result can be a
considerable redistribution of traffic pattern, and in these circumstances, the survey would normally
take the form of an O-D. Survey stations must be established on all the main roads entering and
leaving the area concerned. The five (5) main methods of carrying out the O-D surveys are as
follows:
roadside interview;
giving postcards to drivers;
noting registration numbers;
placing tags on vehicles; and
selective interview.
(a) Roadside interview:

Vehicles are stopped and drivers are questioned as to the O-D of the journey and the location
of proposed intermediate stops. This is entered on a card, also noting the time of the day, the
direction of travel, the type of vehicle and the number of passengers. When the traffic flow is
heavy some king of sampling procedure is used to avoid long delays.
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(b) Prepaid Postcards:

To reduce the delays in the previous method each driver is handed a prepaid postcard
suitably numbered to indicate the survey station and the approximate area. On this the driver
is requested to answer questions similar to those asked by the interviewer and to return the
card by post. In practice this method often results in a poor response.
(c) Registration numbers:

Observers, stationed at points forming a cordon, record registration numbers of vehicles
entering and leaving an area. The results are analysed by comparing the two lists of
registration numbers; one for vehicles entering the area and the other for vehicles leaving it.
Each registration number that occurs in both lists corresponds to a vehicle movement
between the two points where the number was observed. Registration numbers that occur in
one list only are assumed to represent journeys which originate or finish inside the area.
An advantage of this method is that traffic is not normally delayed.
(d) Tags on vehicles:

At the incoming survey station, a tag of distinctive colour is stuck on the windscreen of the
vehicle, a different colour and shape being used at each point. Observers at the outgoing
survey stations note the colour designation for each vehicle leaving the area. Alternatively
registration numbers of vehicles could have been noted, the main disadvantage being the
amount of correlation and analysis of data involved.
(e) Selective interview:

This where a sample of population is interviewed, either at home or at their place of
employment, to obtain information concerning details of all journeys made. This method is
particularly suitable for studying traffic demands in large urban areas. Unlike other methods
described, it enables information to be obtained on journeys by public transport and on foot as
well as by car.
8.7 Traffic prediction components
Design traffic volumes for a future date are derived from knowledge of current traffic and estimates
of future traffic. There are two values of current traffic and three forms of future traffic to consider.
8.7.1 Current traffic
This is the number of vehicles that would use the new or improved facility if it were opened at the
time the initial measurements were taken. In urban areas current traffic can be determined by traffic
counts or existing counts on existing roadways likely to be affected, and/or from roadside
interviews, origin and destination surveys, and studies.
On low volume rural highways classified volume counts may be adequate. Knowledge of the area
is also essential to estimate the effect of the new facility. On high volume rural roads through
smaller urban areas a combination of classified counts and roadside interviews is required. For
major highways in large urban areas information can best be obtained from comprehensive
transport demand studies.
8.7.2 Future traffic
It is divided into a number of different types:
(i) Normal traffic growth - this is the increase in traffic volume due to the normal general increase
in numbers and usage of motor vehicles.
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(ii) Generated traffic - this refers to future motor vehicle trips excluding public transport trips that
would not occur at all were it not for the new or improved road. There are three types of
generated traffic;
# Induced traffic is the traffic which did not previously exist in any form and which results
entirely from the new or improved facility. It is apparent that the maximum induced traffic
occurs where the maximum attraction occurs.
# Converted traffic - this traffic is created as a result of changes in the usual method of
travel. A new road facility may now be so attractive that people who used to travel by bus
or train may now use private vehicles. Therefore it is dependent upon convenience and
economy (perceived).
# Shifted traffic - where trips were previously made to entirely different destinations but
changed as a result of the attractiveness of the new highway e.g. access to shopping
centres.
In summary, generated traffic can be attributed to the convenience, attractiveness of, and better
accessibility provided by the new roadway.
(iii) Development traffic - this is traffic that occurs due to development alongside the new facility
over and above that which would normally have occurred.
8.7.2.1 Traffic growth
Normally traffic grows exponentially.

For stepped yearly growth: AADT f AADT b 1 p
f b

For continuous growth: AADT f AADT b .e f b p
where,
AADTf = the estimated average annual daily traffic volume in the future year,
AADTb = traffic volume in the base year, and
p = the estimated average annual daily the growth rate factor.
Growth rate can be calculated when AADTf has been estimated.

1

f b
1
AADT
For stepped yearly growth: p f

AADT b

AADT f
Ln
p b
AADT
For continuous growth:
f b
EXAMPLE 8.5
Traffic was counted on a certain road at the end of the year 2000 and was found to be an average
of 5 450 vehicles per day. At the end of 2008 the count recorded 8 950 vehicles per day. Calculate
the percentage growth in traffic and estimate the traffic demand for the year 2012 as well.
SOLUTION
1
1

AADT f f b 8950 20082000
Percentage growth in traffic: p 1 1 = 6.40%
AADT b 5450

Estimated traffic, 2012: AADT f AADT b 1 p 89501 6.4%
f b 20122008
= 11 471 vehs/day
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8.8 Exercises
a) A civil engineering technician carried out the traffic demand study and found out that a
certain freeway was carrying 10 000 vehicles per day. After the calculations and analysis it
was also discovered that in 5 years time, the same freeway was expected to carry at least
15 000 vehicles per day. Calculate the exponential growth rate and determine the expected
traffic flow after 5 years as well.
b) The starting point in defining a traffic survey is to decide what question has to be answered
and choose the type of survey accordingly. There are a number of survey methodologies
available to help understand traffic movement. The 24-hour traffic survey indicated in the
table on the next page was conducted during a certain busy period of the year.
THE 24-HR TRAFFIC COUNTS

ROUTE MR400
DIRECTION OF TRAFFIC
DAY TRAFFIC TYPE
NORTH LANE SOUTH LANE
Passenger cars 98 80
Sunday Busses 24 20
Heavy vehicles 12 9
Monday Busses 21 30
Heavy vehicles 9 8
Tuesday Busses 18 19
Heavy vehicles 6 5
Wednesday Busses 12 13
Heavy vehicles 8 9
Thursday Busses 14 10
Heavy vehicles 11 7
Friday Busses 12 15
Heavy vehicles 9 11
Saturday Busses 22 17
Heavy vehicles 6 5
Refer to the passenger car traffic information provided in the traffic surveys table above and
determine:
the total average daily traffic (ADT).

the total average annual daily traffic (AADT), assuming the growth rate was constant.
the duration period in years of the expected traffic of 78 897 passenger cars per year, if
the growth rate is assumed to be 2.06% per annum.
c) The starting point in defining a traffic survey is to decide what question has to be answered
and choose the type of survey accordingly. There are a number of survey methodologies
available to help understand traffic movement. The 24-hour traffic survey indicated in the
figure below was conducted during a certain busy period of the year, while traffic information
from Road 1 at point D is presented in the table on the next page.
35 of 74
Layout of the road
POINT D: TRAFFIC MOVEMENT DIRECTION (Left turn)

TRAFFIC COMPOSITION
DAY TIME
Motorbikes Passenger cars Heavy vehicles
06:00 07:00 10 55 9
07:00 08:00 9 103 11
08:00 09:00 17 81 15
Monday 09:00 15:00 No Count No Count No count
15:00 16:00 11 129 7
16:00 17:00 20 198 25
17:00 - 1800 21 143 26
Refer to the traffic count information in the figure on the previous page and the table above,
and answer the questions that follow.
Indicate the total morning (AM) and afternoon (PM) peak traffic per category in a barchart
format.
Which peak period had more traffic and by what percentage?
d) The information presented in the table below was obtained from a certain traffic count study.
TRAFFIC COUNTS BETWEEN 1997 AND 2006

YEAR* COUNT (Veh/day) GROWTH (%)
1997 5 430
2004 6.05
2006 10 000
*Traffic counts were conducted at the end of the year
Refer to the information provided and answer the questions below:
Calculate the following parameters:

o Traffic volume of 2004, and
o Traffic growth between the years, 2004 and 2006.
What would the traffic have been in 2005?

Estimate the traffic demand for the year 2009.
e) Traffic counts are conducted on road networks to assess among others, the current average
annual daily traffic (AADT), average daily traffic (ADT), and weekly traffic for a particular
road. The counts can be done up to one year using permanent data collection equipments,
however removable equipment can be used to conduct surveys for periods of seven days
as well. The table below presents the collected traffic data from a certain busy main road,
both counted in 12 and 24 hours respectively.
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TRAFFIC DATA FROM THE COUNTING

MAIN ROAD
T RAFFIC
EASTERN BOUND WESTERN BOUND
COMPOSITION
12 hrs 24 hrs 12 hrs 24 hrs
Light vehicles 1 230 1 711 2 003 2 632
Heavy vehicles 180 113 210 273
To analyse the traffic situation, determine the following:
The increase/decrease in traffic (in percentage) of both the light and heavy vehicles from
the 12-hour to the 24-hour counting.
The total traffic per direction and time duration, and
Indicate the seven-day traffic for the 12-hour light vehicles data if the extrapolation factor
to convert to a 24-hour count was 1.75.
8.9 Solutions to Exercises
a) Traffic demand study:
i. The exponential growth for this continuous growth is determined as follows:
AADT f 15 000
Ln Ln
p AADT b 10 000 8.1%
f b 5
ii. The expected traffic flow after 5 years is determined as follows:
AADT f AADT b ef b p 15 000 e58.1% 22 490 veh/day
b) Passenger car traffic information:
Total passenger car traffic for the 7-day period = 1 377 (North = 736 & South = 641)
Total traffic 1 377

o total average daily traffic (ADT): = = = 197 cars/day
7 days 7 days
total average annual daily traffic (AADT), based on the assumption that growth rate was
constant:
AADT = (197 cars/day) x (365 days/year) = 71 905 cars/year
duration period in years for the expected traffic of 78 897 passenger cars per year, based on the
2.06% growth rate per annum:
AADTf AADT f 78 897

Ln Ln Ln
p
AADTb
, f b
AADT b 71 905 4.5 years
f b p 2.06%
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c) Traffic count information:
Indication of the total morning (AM) and afternoon (PM) peak traffic per category in a bar chart
format:
Morning & Afternoon peak traffic per category of

Road 1 Point D
500 470
450
400
350
Total Traffic
300
239
250
200
150
100 52 58
36 35
50
0
Motorbikes Passenger Cars Heavy Vehicles
Traffic com position
AM PM
Indication of the peak period per traffic composition per time with the most traffic by percentage:
Traffic Time
Percentage indication
composition AM PM
52 36
Motorbikes 36 52 100 30.8% 31% , PM was more by 31%
52
470 239
Passenger Cars 239 470 100 49.1% 49% , PM was more by 49%
470
58 35
Heavy Vehicles 35 58 100 39.7% 40% , PM was more by 40%
58
d) Traffic count study information:
Calculation of the following parameters:

o Traffic volume of 2004
1
1
AADT f
0.143
f b AADT f 20041997 0.0605 1

1 1
AADT
p f
0.0605
AADT 5 430 5 430
b

0.143 1
AADT f AADT f
1.0605 AADT
0.143 0.143
1.508
1.0605
1
f
5 430
5 430 0.143
5 430
AADTf = 8 189 veh/day
o Traffic growth between the years, 2004 and 2006
1
1

AADT f f b 10 000 20062004
p 1 1 10.5%
AADT b 8 189

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The 2005 traffic:
AADT f AADT b 1 p 8 1891 0.0605

f b 20052004
8 685 veh/day
Traffic demand for the year 2009:
AADT f 10 0001 0.105

20092006
13 493 veh/day
e) Traffic count analysis:
The increase/decrease in traffic (in percentage) of both the light and heavy vehicles from the 12-
hour to the 24-hour counting
T RAFFIC
COMPOSITION
Light 1711 1230 2632 2003
vehicles 100 = 39.1% 100 = 31.4%
1230 2003
Heavy 113 180 273 210
vehicles 100 = 37.2% (decrease) 100 = 30%
180 210
The total traffic per direction and time duration
MAIN ROAD
T RAFFIC
COMPOSITION
12 hrs 24 hrs 12 hrs 24 hrs
Light vehicles 1 230 1 711 2 003 2 632
Heavy vehicles 180 113 210 273
TOTALS 1 410 1 824 2 213 2 905
Indicate the seven-day traffic for the 12-hour light vehicles data if the extrapolation factor to convert
to a 24-hour count was 1.75
EASTERN BOUND (Light Vehicles) EASTERN BOUND (Light Vehicles)
1230 7 1.75 = 15 068 veh/week 2003 7 1.75 = 24537 veh/week
8.10 References and Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements and appreciation is given to all the authors and editors of the consulted and referenced material(s),
which helped in various ways to enhance the quality of this work, which in the end ensured that the subject
Transportation Engineering II at S3 level for the National Diploma (Engineering: Civil) is presented comprehensively and
with dignity. Hopefully the students will earn and learn. Once more, thanks to you all the greats, keep on educating the
nation with your out-of-this-world research.
8.10.1 Committee of State Road Transport (CSRA). 1988. Technical Recommendations for
Highways 17 (TRH17)Geometric design of rural roads. Department of Transport.
Pretoria, South Africa.
8.10.2 Leduc, G. 2008. Road traffic data: Collection methods and applications. Technical
Notes. European Commissions Joint Research Centre. Seville, Spain.
39 of 74
8.10.3 OFlaherty, C.A. 1974. Highways and traffic, Volume 1, Edward Arnold publishers,
London, United Kingdom.
8.10.4 Robertson, H.D. 1994. Volume studies. In Manual of Transportation Engineering

Studies, ed. H.D. Robertson, J.E. Hummer, and D.C. Nelson. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
Prentice Hall, Inc.
8.10.5 Rodrigue, J-P., Comtois, C and Slack, B. 2009. The geography of transport systems.
Second Edition. Routledge Publishing. New York, United States of America.
8.10.6 Rogers, M. 2008. Highway Engineering. Second Edition, Blackwell publishing, Oxford.
United Kingdom.
8.10.7 Slinn, M., Matthews, P. and Guest, P. 1998. Traffic engineering design principles and
practice, Arnold publishers. London, United Kingdom.
8.10.8 Technology News. 2004. Traffic data collection methods you can count on. Iowa State
University Library, November December 2004.
www.intrans.iastate.edu/LTAP/Tech_News/2004/index.htm (Accessed 9 February 2010).
8.10.9 Traffic monitoring guide. 2001. Section 3: traffic volume monitoring.

www.fhwa.dot.gov/ohim/tmguide/tmg3.htm (Accessed: 9 February 2010).
8.10.10 Wardrop, J.G. and Charlesworth, G. 1954. A method of estimating speed and flow of
traffic from a moving vehicle. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE),
Engineering Divisions, Paper No. 5925, Vol 3, No. 1, pp 158171, February.
8.10.11 www.wikipedia.org (2010)
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LECTURE 7: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 2) TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY

Lecture 7:
CHAPTER 9: TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 2)
Traffic flow theory
(Study this lecture in conjunction with Chapter 9 in the Text-book)
Study objectives
Describe the concept traffic flow theory
Describe the traffic flow models to trace the evolution for flow states over time
Illustrate graphically the relationship between the traffic flow models
Describe the movements of flow conditions in the traffic stream
Analyse traffic data by means of a number of statistical techniques
Use shock wave analysis to map space-time regions
Use the probability theory of Poisson distribution to express the probability of a number of
events occurring in a fixed period of time
Compile a brief design report to describe the interactions among vehicles and infrastructure,
discussing techniques for collection and analysis of traffic flow data and justify your
solutions
9.1 Introduction
Traffic flow theory provides the basic concepts and theories that form the foundation for the
understanding a variety of traffic flow characteristics and the associated analytical techniques. It
seeks to convey a conceptual understanding of different traffic processes through the development
of mathematical models of these processes. Traffic flow theory is intended to provide
understanding of phenomena related to the movement of individual vehicles along a roadway as
they interact with neighbouring vehicles. It is the consequences of such interactions that determine
the fundamental characteristics of roadways, such as their capacity and their ability to sustain
various levels of traffic flow.
The descriptors of significance in traffic flow theory are speed and the density or concentration,
which describe the quality of service experienced by the stream; and the flow or volume, which
measures the quantity of the stream and the demand on the roadway facility. Traffic flow theory is
concerned with three major characteristics, namely speed, time intervals, and distance intervals,
between moving vehicles.
9.2 Traffic flow parameters
Traffic streams are not uniform; they vary over both space and time. For this reason, measurement
of the variables of interest for traffic flow theory is in fact the sampling of a random variable.
Common types of traffic data includes flows or volumes, speeds, travel times, densities,
occupancies, headways, and gaps. Volume is simply the number of vehicles that pass a point on
the roadway in a specified period of time. Flow is defined as the rate at which a number of vehicles
per unit time pass a point on the roadway, and it is expressed in vehicles per hour. The reciprocal
of flow is the average time separation or headway of vehicles in the traffic stream and is measured
in seconds. Headways are measured between common points (for example, front bumper) on
successive vehicles; time gaps are measured from the rear of the lead vehicle and the front of the
following vehicle.
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The speed of a vehicle defined as the distance it travels per unit of time, and is measured in
kilometres per hour. The reciprocal of speed is the rate of travel and is measured in minutes per
kilometres. Two measures of average speed commonly used in traffic analysis are, time-mean
speed and space-mean speed. Time-mean speed is the arithmetic mean of the speed of vehicles
passing a point during a given time interval, while space-mean speed is the arithmetic mean of the
speed of those vehicles occupying a given length of road at a given instant.
Time-mean speed is given by:
ut
u i
.(Equation A)
n
where u t time-mean speed
ui individual speed measurements
n sample size
And, space-mean speed is given by:

n
us .(Equation B)
1 ui
where u s space-mean speed
n sample size
ui individual speed measurements
EXAMPLE 9.1
Determine the time-mean and space-mean speeds for a roadway with the spot speeds, 50; 40; 60;
54; and 45 km/h.
SOLUTION TO EXAMPLE 9.1
Time-mean speed u t is the average of spot speed.
Therefore, u t
u i

50 40 60 54 45
49.8 km/h
n 5
Space-mean speed u s is the average of spot speed.

n 5
Therefore, u s 48.8 km/h
1 ui 150 140 160 154 145
Density is defined as the number of vehicles per unit distance occupying a section of roadway at a
given instant in time, and is measured in vehicles per kilometre. The reciprocal of density is the
average distance separation or spacing of vehicles in the traffic stream and is measured in metres.
As in the case of time headways, distance separations are measured between common points on
vehicles; distance gaps are measured from the rear of one vehicle to the front of the next. Density
is a measure of the concentration of traffic, an alternative concentration measure, commonly used
by automatic data collection systems, is occupancy. Occupancy is defined as the fraction of the
time that vehicles are present at a point in space.
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9.3 Traffic flow models
Traffic flow models describe the relationship among traffic states such as speed, flow and density.
These models are often classified as microscopic and macroscopic.
9.3.1 Microscopic models

Microscopic models describe the motion of individual vehicles and their interactions with one
another. Common microscopic models include car-following models, which attempt to describe the
motion (in terms of position, velocity, acceleration, et cetera) of vehicles following one another in a
jam traffic, and gap-acceptance models, which apply to situations in which vehicles have to pass
through gaps in conflicting traffic flows, for instance at non-signalised intersections.
Figure 9.1 presents two vehicles are in the same lane in a traffic stream: a follower i and its leader
i+1. It can be seen that vehicle i has a certain space headway hsi to its predecessor (it is expressed
in metres), composed of the distance called the space gap gsi to this leader and its own length li.
hsi gsi li .(Equation C)
By taking as mentioned before, the rear bumper as a vehicles position, the space headway
hsi x i 1x i . The space gap is thus measured from a vehicles front bumper to its leaders rear
bumper.
Figure 9.1: Two consecutive vehicles (a follower i at position xi and a leader i+1) in the same
lane in a traffic stream. The follower has a certain space headway hsi to its leader,
equal to the sum of the vehicles space gap gsi and its length li.
9.3.2 Macroscopic models

Macroscopic models describe the traffic as a continuum similar to a fluid moving along a duct which
is the roadway. Traffic is regarded along a reasonably crowded road, with no appreciable gaps
between individual vehicles. In this case, traffic may be viewed as a continuum, and its
characteristics correspond to the physical characteristics of the imaging fluid. These models
represent how the behaviour of one parameter of traffic flow changes with respect to another. The
basic microscopic characteristics, that is speed, flow and density defines traffic flow theory. The
fundamental relationship shown below exists between these characteristics:
q uk .(Equation D)
where q flow (expressed as vehicles per hour)
u speed (expressed as kilometres per hour)
k density (expressed as vehicles per kilometre)
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Because flow is the product of speed and density, it is equal to zero when one or both of these
parameters is/are zero. It is also possible to deduce that flow is maximised at some critical
combination of speed and density.
9.3.2.1 Speed-density model

The first and most simple relation between these parameters was proposed by Greenshield (1935)
in which a linear speed-density relationship as illustrated in Figure 9.2 to derive the model was
assumed.
Figure 9.2: Relation between speed and density
The equations for this relationship are show below.
u
u u f f k .(Equation E)
k j
k j
k k j u .(Equation F)
uf
where u mean speed at density k
u f free-flow speed
um speed when density is at maximum
k j jam density
k m density when speed is at maximum
The equations above indicate that:

when there is one vehicle on the roadway, the density is very low, this means the driver can
choose to travel at any speed, which is normally close to the design speed.
as more vehicles are added, the density increases and the average speed (the speed at which
the motorists can travel) will decline to allow for other drivers manoeuvres and the number of
vehicles. Eventually it will become so congested (high density) that traffic will come to a stop,
because there is no movement anymore, hence the speed is zero (u = 0), and then the density
is the total length of vehicles plus spaces in between. This high-density condition is known as
the jam density (kj).
in summary, when density (k) becomes zero, speed (u) approaches free-flow speed (uf) (that is,
u u f when k 0 , inversely k k j when u 0 ). Free-flow speed (uf) is the speed of a
single vehicle.
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9.3.2.2 Flow-density model

Once the relation between speed and flow is established, the relation with flow can be derived.
This relation between flow and density is parabolic in shape and is illustrated in Figure 9.3.
Figure 9.3: Relation between flow and density
When substituting Equation (E) into (D), the equation for the flow-density model shown below is
yielded.
u
q u f .k f k 2 .(Equation G)
k j
9.3.2.3 Speed-flow model

q
Similarly the relation between speed and flow can be determined. For this, put k in Equation
u
(E) and solving, the relation shown below is yielded.
k j
q k j .u u 2 .(Equation H)
uf
This relationship is again parabolic and is illustrated in Figure 9.4.
Figure 9.4: Relation between speed and flow
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9.3.2.4 Boundary conditions

Once the relationship between the fundamental variables of traffic flow is established, the boundary
conditions can be derived. The boundary conditions that are of interest are jam density (k j), free-
flow speed (uf), and maximum flow (qm). To find density at maximum flow, differentiate Equation
(G) with respect to k and equate it to zero.
dq
0
dk
u
u f f .2k 0
kj
kj
k
2
Denoting the density corresponding to maximum flow as k 0 ,
kj
k0 .(Equation I)
2
Therefore, density corresponding to maximum flow is half the jam density. Once k 0 is
determined, derivation for maximum flow, qmax can be done. Substituting Equation (I) in Equation
(G), then:
2
u k j
kj
qmax u f . f .
2 kj 2
kj kj
qmax uf . uf .
2 4
u f .k j
qmax .(Equation J)
4
Thus the maximum flow is one fourth the product of free-flow and jam density. Finally to get the
speed at maximum flow, u 0 , Equation (I) is substituted in Equation (E), and solving yields:
uf k j
u0 u f .
kj 2
uf
u0 .(Equation K)
2
Therefore, speed at maximum flow is half of the free-flow speed.
46 of 74
9.3.2.5 Examples
EXAMPLE 9.2
Determine the maximum speed and maximum density from the graphic representation shown
below.

u f 68 k j 95
um 34 km/h km 47.5 48 veh/km
2 2 2 2
TEST: k 95 1.4u 95 1.4 34 47.5 48 veh/km
EXAMPLE 9.3
Free-flow speed of a lane of a road is 120 km/h and the jam density is 80 veh/h. Prove that the
maximum flow will be 2 400 veh/h and what is the other term for maximum flow?

Maximum flow:
u
q u f .k f k 2 .(from Equation G)
k j
dq dq 2k
It is thus for maximum flow: 0; u f 1 0
dk dk k
j
kj uf
From above: km and um
2 2
80 120
km 40 veh/km um 60 km/h
2 2
And: qm um k m 60 40 2 400 veh/h

k j
OR: q k j .u u 2 .(from Equation H)
uf
80 2
qm 80 60 60 2 400 veh/h
120
Another term for maximum flow is the capacity of the roadway at the specified safety regime.
47 of 74
EXAMPLE 9.4
Calculate the mean speed if free-flow speed is 80 km/h, maximum flow is 1 800 veh/h, and flow is
1 200 veh/h.

uf k j 4qm 4 1 800
qm ; therefore, kj 90 veh/km
4 uf 80
From the fundamental relation: q uk
q
k
u
u
u u f f k (Equation E)
k j
q u q
Substitute k into Equation (E): u u f f
u k j u
u q
u2 u uf f 0
kj
Replace the variables with values and solve:
80 1 200
u 2 80u 0
90
u2 80u 1 067 0 (Quadratic equation, factorise as follows:)
Therefore;
b b 2 4ac
u
2a
80 802 4 1 1 067
u
2 1
80 2 132 80 2 132
u OR u
2 2
u = 63.1 km/h OR u = 16.9 km/h
The mean speed is 63.1 km/h (the worst case scenario)
EXAMPLE 9.5
The flow-density relationship, q 60uln u 250u , is assumed for a certain roadway link.
Determine the free-flow speed, the speed at maximum flow, the maximum flow, and the density at
maximum flow.

Free-flow speed occurs when flow is zero; therefore: 0 60uln u 250u
0 u250 60 ln u
250
ln u 4.17...
60
u e 4.17... 64.5 km/h
48 of 74
To determine speed at maximum flow, differentiate q with respect to u and put it equal to zero.
q 250u 60uln u , therefore; 250 60 ln u 60 u u

250 60 60 ln u
190 60 ln u
Putting this expression equal to zero yields the speed at

maximum flow. Therefore;
190
u qmax e 60
23.7 km/h
qmax 250 23.7 (60 23.7) ln 23.7 1 424 veh/h
In order to calculate the density at maximum flow, the fundamental relation, q = uk is utilised as
follows:
1 424
k qmax 61 veh/km
23.7
9.4 Shock waves in traffic
Shock waves that occur in traffic flow are very similar to the waves produced by dropping stones in
water. A shock wave propagates along a line of vehicles in response to changing conditions at the
front of the line. Shock waves can be generated by collisions, sudden increases in speed caused
by entering free flow conditions, or by a number of other means. Basically, a shock wave exists
whenever the traffic conditions change. The equation that is used to estimate the propagation
velocity of shock waves is given below.
qb q a
Usw .(Equation L)
kb ka
where Usw propagation speed of shock wave (km/h)
qb flow prior to change in conditions (veh/h)
qa flow after change in conditions (veh/h)
k b traffic density prior to change in conditions (veh/km)
k a traffic density after change in conditions (veh/km)
Note the magnitude and direction of the shock wave.
(+) Shock wave is travelling in same direction as traffic stream.

(-) Shock wave is travelling upstream or against the traffic stream.
For example, assume that an accident has occurred and that the flow after the accident is reduced
to zero. Initially, the flow was several vehicles per hour. Also, the density is much greater after the
accident. Substituting these values into the shock wave equation yields a negative (-) propagation
speed. This means that the shock wave is travelling against the traffic. If you could look down on
this accident, you would see a wave front, at which vehicles began to slow from their initial speed,
passing from vehicle to vehicle back up the traffic stream. The first car would notice the accident
first, followed an instant later by the second car. Each vehicle begins slowing after its driver
recognises that the preceding vehicle is slowing.
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EXAMPLE 9.6
Traffic stream on a certain road was of flow 800 veh/h, and the density was of 20 veh/km which
travelled at an average speed of 40 km/h. A fully-loaded slow moving delivery van with a speed of
10.6 km/h entered the stream and travelled for a distance of 1.8 km. Drivers tried to overtake this
vehicle but failed; even the taxi drivers did not get it right that time, then a platoon of density of
90 veh/km formed behind it and flow dropped. How many vehicles were in the platoon when this
slow moving vehicle left the road?

i) Flow after the slow moving vehicle joined was: qb ubk b 10.6 90 954 veh/h
ii) A shockwave was formed at the rear of the platoon which travelled at a speed of:
qb qa 954 800
Usw 2.2 km/h
kb ka 90 20
This indicates that the rear of the platoon is moving
forward with a speed of 2.2 km/h, while the front is
moving at a speed of 10.6 km/h
iii) The length of the platoon therefore grew at a rate (relative speed) of:
ur ub usw 10.6 2.2 8.4 km/h
(relative speed is travel speed subtract wave speed)
iv) The time spend by the slow moving vehicle on the road was:
Dis tan ce travelled 1.8
0.17 h = 10.2 min
Speed 10.6
v) Length of the platoon Lp, (not a standing queue) was:
The slow moving vehicle required 0.17 hours for the 1.8 km trip so that at the end of trip, the
length of the platoon is: 8.4 0.17 1.43 km
vi) The rate at which the queue grew, in units of vehicles per hour was:
qb q a
Usw
kb ka
qa k aUsw qb k bUsw 800 (20 2.2) 954 (90 2.2) 756 veh/h
vii) The number of vehicles in the platoon when the slow moving vehicle left the road was:
No of vehicles Lp k b
1.43 km 90 veh / km
= 129 vehs
OR
756 veh / h 0.17 h

= 129 vehs
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EXAMPLE 9.7
A 24 km/h school zone is in effect from 7:30 to 9:30. Traffic measurements taken on 31 March
2010 showed that at precisely 09:00 the conditions presented in the figure below prevailed. How
long did it take for the 5 km platoon to disappear and what was the speed of the shockwave that
commenced at the moment when the platoon dissipated completely?
First solve for the unknowns:

1 200 900 1 000
k 25 veh/km k a 38 veh/km k b 16 veh/km
48 24 64
q qa 1 200 900
At point A: USWA b 23.1 km/h
kb ka 25 38
900 1000
At point B: USWB 4.5 km/h
38 16
Point A approaches point B at 23.14.5 = 18.6 km/h
5 km
Therefore the time it took the 5 km platoon to disappear was: 0.27 h = 16.2 min
18.6 km / h
1200 1000
When platoon dissipated completely the speed was: USW = 22.2 km/h
25 16
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9.5 Headway distributions
The reciprocal of flow is the average time separation headway of vehicles in the traffic stream and
measured in seconds. Headways are measured between common points on successive vehicles.
The maximum flow rate is the reciprocal of the minimum average headway that can be attained
under a given set of conditions.
When the arrival of vehicles at a particular point on the roadway is detailed, the distribution maybe
either the number of vehicles arriving in a time interval (the counting distribution) or the time interval
between the arrivals of successive vehicles (gap distribution).
Given its importance as a characteristic of vehicular traffic, statistical/probability methods have

been employed in order to find theoretical representations of observed headway distributions. The
problem then becomes one of selecting a probability distribution that is reasonable representation
of traffic patterns observed on site.
The Poisson process has found very important applications in the theory of traffic flow because of
its simplicity, especially if traffic flows are low and random. However, when traffic tends to become
congested and start to form platoons, the random hypothesis breaks down and the Poisson
distribution becomes invalid.
The Poisson distribution is a discrete probability that expresses the probability of a number of
events occurring in a fixed period of time if these events occur with a known average rate and
independently of the time since the last event.
For a traffic flow that is random, the probability of precisely n vehicles arriving at a given location on
the roadway in any time interval t is obtained from the Poisson distribution shown below:
Pn
t n e t .(Equation M)
n!
where P(n) = probability of having n vehicles arriving in time interval t
= mean arrival rate in time interval t
t = duration of time interval over which vehicles are observed
e = base of the natural logarithm (e = 2.718)
n = number of incident vehicles
This distribution is referred to as the counting distribution, as it relates to the number of vehicles
arriving during a given time interval. However, when describing headway distributions (the intervals
between arriving vehicles), the negative exponential distribution is most often used. The negative
exponential distribution can be obtained from the Poisson distribution if it is assumed that no
vehicles arrive in a given interval t, in which case the headway must be equal to or exceed t (that is,
the probability of having no vehicles arrive in a time interval t is equivalent to the probability of a
headway h). Thus, taking Equation L and assuming n equals zero (no cars arriving in interval t),
P0 Pheadway t
t 0 e t e t .(Equation N)
1
The mean arrival rate q is the reciprocal of the mean headway, which can be estimated based on
observed headways on site.
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EXAMPLE 9.8
Traffic flows are collected along an uncongested roadway in 60-seconds intervals over a
15-minutes period as shown in the table below.
120 seconds time period Number of vehicles observed

01 3
12 4
23 5
34 4
45 4
56 6
67 3
78 5
89 7
9 10 4
10 11 5
11 12 8
12 13 6
13 14 5
14 15 5
If it is assumed that all traffic arrivals are Poisson distributed, and continue at the same rate as
observed for the 15-minutes period above, estimate the probability that 7 or more vehicles will
arrive in each of the next three 1-minute intervals?

Summing up the values in the table above, 74 vehicles are observed over the 15-minutes time
frame. This equates to an average arrival rate of 0.082 veh/s (74 veh/900 s). Using Equation (M),
with = 0.082 veh/s and t = 60 s, and thus t = 4.92, the probability of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 vehicles
arriving can be calculated as follows:
P0
4.92 e 4.92
0
= 0.0073 P1
4.92 e 4.92
1
= 0.0359 P2
4.92 e 4.92
2
= 0.0883
0! 1! 2!
P3
4.92 e 4.92
3
= 0.1449 P4
4.92 e
4 4.92
= 0.1782 P5
4.92 e 4.92
5
= 0.1754
3! 4! 5!
P6
4.92 e 4.92
6
= 0.1438
6!
From the summation of the six evaluations above, the probability of arrival of 06 vehicles is
obtained.
6
Thus, Pn 6 P(n) =0.0073+0.0359+0.0883+0.1449+0.1782+0.1754+0.1438 = 0.7738
n 0
So 1 minus the above value gives the probability that 7 or more vehicles will arrive in any given
time interval.
Thus, Pn 7 1 P(n 6) = 0.2262
The probability that 7 or more vehicles will arrive within any given 60-seconds time interval is thus
shown to be 22.62%. The probability that 7 or more vehicles will arrive within three successive time
intervals is simply the product of the three probabilities, that is,
Pn 7 for three consecutive time intervals = (0.1449)3 = 0.003

There is thus a 0.3% chance that 7 or more vehicles will arrive in three consecutive time intervals.
53 of 74
EXAMPLE 9.9
A vehicle reverses out onto a main road that has an average flow rate of 90 veh/h. The driver does
not look out for oncoming traffic. If the total reaction plus braking time required by an oncoming
driver to stop safely is 5 seconds, estimate the probability that an oncoming driver travelling along
the main road will collide with the reversing car.

Pheadway 5 e t
Main flow, q = 90 veh/h = 0.025 veh/sec
Therefore, Pheadway 5 e 0.0255 0.882

Pheadway 5 1 Pheadway 5
Pheadway 5 1 0.882
Pheadway 5 0.118
There is thus an 11.8% chance that a collision will occur.
EXAMPLE 9.10
At a given location on a road, vehicles arrive at a flow rate of 30 veh/min. How many vehicles
arrives between 6 and 12 seconds?

Pheadway 6 e t
Main flow, q = 30 veh/min = 1 800 veh/h = 0.5 veh/sec
Therefore, Pheadway 6 e 0.56 0.050

Pheadway 12 e 0.512 0.002
P6 headway 12 0.050 0.002
P6 headway 12 0.048
4.8 5 vehicles arrive between 6 and 12 seconds.
9.6 Exercises
(a) Given that the relationship between speed and concentration (density) obtained from actual
data is u = 54.5 0.24k, determine, jam density, free-flow speed, maximum flow, and
sketch the model in question.
0.768
(b) Given, s , where s is the spacing in kilometers and u is the speed in kilometers per
96 u
hour, derive these relationships; speed-density (u-k), speed-flow (u-q), flow-density (q-k),
and estimate the capacity (that is, maximum flow, qm) of the roadway as well.
(c) For the data of Question (b) above, plot spacing in meters versus headway in seconds.
(d) The relationship, q 171u 44uln u applies to a particular urban freeway, calculate
maximum flow, maximum speed, maximum density, and free-flow speed.
54 of 74
(e) The speed-density relationship for a particular freeway lane was found to be,
u 4.2 0.0041k 150 . Given that the speed is in kilometers per hour and concentration
2
(density) is in vehicles per hour, determine free-flow speed, jam-density, lane capacity, and
speed at capacity.
188
(f) Given the following speed-density relationship, u 48 ln , determine jam-density,
k
and capacity of the shock wave between conditions ua = 96 km/h and ub = 64 km/h.
(g) Consider a traffic stream with the characteristics; flow is 1 200 veh/h, speed is 10 km/h and
density is 120 veh/km. A truck exited the traffic stream 10 minutes after slowing down.
Vehicles at the front of the platoon were then released to a speed of 20 km/h and had a
density of 70 veh/km. Calculate the amount of time it took the 10 km/h platoon to disappear
if the speed of the shockwave at the rear of the platoon is 2.1 km/h.
(h) Assume the approach conditions of Question (g) above, were flow = 1 000 veh/h and
density = 25 veh/km, and calculate the speed of the shock wave that commenced at the
instant when the 10 km/h platoon was totally eliminated.
(i) Consider the traffic stream at a fixed point on the road, which has the characteristics, speed
is 40 km/h and density is 10 veh/km. Estimate the probability that vehicles will pass that
fixed point in 10 s.
(j) At any given location on a road, assuming that vehicle arrivals are Poisson distributed,
vehicles are counted in intervals of 15 s. Fifty such counts are taken, and it is noted that no
vehicles arrive in 7.5 of these 50 intervals. In how many of these 50 intervals will 3 vehicles
arrive?
9.7 Solutions to Exercises
(a) Determination of jam density, free-flow speed, maximum flow, and sketch of the model
in question from u = 54.5 0.24k:
Jam density (kj):

To determine kj, the given equation is evaluated at u = 0: u 54.5 0.24k
0.24k 54.5
kj = 228 veh/h
Free-flow speed (uf):

uf occurs at k = 0: u 54.5 0.24k , uf 54.5 0.24(0) = 54.5 km/h
Maximum flow (qm):

uf kj 54.5 228
qm um k m , but um , and k m , qm = 3107 veh/h
2 2 2 2
55 of 74
Sketch of the model (speed-density) from the information determined in (a) to (c)
above
(b) Derivation of the relationships; speed-density (u-k), speed-flow (u-q), flow-density (q-k),
and estimation of the capacity (that is, maximum flow, qm) of the roadway from the
0.768
expression s , where s = spacing (km), and u = speed (km/h):
96 u
The reciprocal of density (k) is the average distance separation or spacing of vehicles in the
traffic stream and is measured in metres (m).
Speed-density (u-k):
1
s k
96 u
k 0.768
96
k 1.302u
0.768
k = 125 1.302u or u = 96 0.768k.................(1) (uk)
Speed-flow (u-q):
q q
q uk k , 125 1.302u , q = 125u 1.302u2(2) (qu)
u u
Flow-density (q-k):
From Equation (1): u 96 0.768k
q q
q uk u , 96 0.768k
k k
q = 96k 0.768k2...(3) (q k)
Capacity (maximum flow, qm) of the roadway:

From Equation (2): q 125u 1.302u2
To find speed at maximum flow, differentiate Equation (2) with
respect to u and equate it to zero:
dq
125 2.604u 0
du
2.604u 125
um = 48.0 km/h, therefore, qm 12548 1.30248
2
qm = 3 001 veh/h
56 of 74
(c) Plotting of spacing (m) versus headway (s) for data in Question (b):
0.768
Given the expression: s
96 u
From, s
0.768 1
, since s , then k
96 u
96 u k 0.768
The reciprocal of flow (q) is the average time separation headway of vehicles in the traffic
stream and measured in seconds (s).
h
1
, then from q uk , and from k
96 u ,
q 0.768
q u

96 u 96u u
2
therefore h
0.768

,
0.768 0.768 96u u 2
Therefore using the equations for spacing (m) and headway (s), the table below can be
established. The only variable in the spacing and headway equations is speed (u), choose
any interval to determine, spacing and headway.
0.768 0.768
h 0.00089 h 3.2 s/veh and s 0.0089 km 8.9 m/veh

96(10) (100) 2
96 10
57 of 74
(d) Calculation of maximum flow, maximum speed, maximum density, and free-flow speed
from, q 171u 44uln u :
Maximum speed (um):

q 171u 44uln u (1)
To find speed at maximum flow, differentiate Equation (1) with respect to u and equate it to
zero:
dq
171 44 ln 44 0 , 171 44ln u 44 0
du
44ln u 127
ln u 2.886
u e 2.886
uf
um = 18.0 km/h [NB: um only applies to a linear case]
2
Maximum flow (qm):

Substitute into Equation (1): qm 17118 4418 ln 18 = 789 veh/h
Maximum density (km):

qm 789 veh / h
From, q uk , then, k m = 44 veh/km
um 18.0 km / h
From Equation (1): q 171u 44uln u , and q uk ,
uk 171u 44uln u
k 171 44ln u
When k = 0, u approaches, uf, hence:
k 171 171
ln u 3.886
44 44
u f e 3.886 = 48.7 km/h
(e) Determination of free-flow speed, jam-density, lane capacity, and speed at capacity
from u 4.2 0.0041k 150 :
2

For uf, k = 0 u f 4.2 0.00410 150 = 88.1 km/h
2
Jam density (kj):

For kj, u = 0 4.2 0.0041k 150 ,
2

0.0041k 2 300k 22 500 4.2 0
0.0041k 2 1.23k 88.05 0
b b 2 4ac
kj
2a
1.23 1.232 4 0.0041 88.05
kj
2 0.0041
kj = 182 veh/km
58 of 74
Lane capacity (qm):
From u 4.2 0.0041k 150 , then u 0.0041k 150 4.2

2 2
q uk

qm k 0.0041k 150 4.2
2

For qm, kj should be at km, therefore:
kj
182
km
91 veh/km
2 2

qm 91 0.004191 150 4.2
2

qm = 917 veh/h
Speed at capacity (um):

qm 917
At capacity from, q uk , um = 9.8 km/h
km 94
(f) Determination of jam-density, and capacity of the shock wave between conditions u a =
188
96 km/h and ub = 64 km/h for u 48 ln :
k
Jam density (kj):
188
For kj, u = 0 u 48 ln 0 (1)
k
188
48 ln 0; kj = 188 veh/km
k
capacity of the shock wave between conditions ua = 96 km/h and ub = 64 km/h:
188 188
q uk but u 48 ln , q uk 48 ln
k k

q 48k ln 188k 1
To find density at maximum flow, differentiate with
respect to k and equate it to zero:
188k 2
dq

48 ln 188k 1 48k 1
0
dk 188k
188 1
48 ln 48k 0
k k
188
48ln 1 0 but 48 0
k
188
ln 1
k
188 188 188
e ; km = 70 veh/km
k e 2.718
59 of 74
188
Capacity of the shock wave: qm 4870 ln = 3 320 veh/h
70
Given, ua 96 km / h and ub 64 km / h
188 188u
From Equation (1): k U and q ku U
e 48 e 48
18896 2443
For u a 96 km / h , qa
96 48 =2 443 veh/h, k a 96 = 26 veh/km
e
18864 3172
For ub 64 km / h , qb
64 =3 172 veh/h, k b 64 = 50 veh/km
e 48
qb qa 3172 2443
Therefore, speed of shock wave: USW = 30.4 km/h
kb ka 50 26
(g) Calculation of the time it took the 10 km/h platoon to disappear for the speed of the
shockwave at the rear of the platoon which was 2.1 km/h for the conditions:
o traffic stream; q = 1 200 veh/h, u = 10 km/h, and k = 120 veh/km,
o truck exited the traffic stream 10 minutes after slowing down, and
o vehicles at the front of the platoon were released u = 20 km/h and had k = 70 veh/km.
The release conditions imply a flow (q) of: qb uk 20 km / h70 veh / km = 1 400
veh/h
Relative speed of the platoon = ur ub usw 10 km / h 2.1 km / h = 7.9 km/h
At the end of 10 min or 0.167 h, the platoon had grown to a length of:
L 7.9 km / h0.167 h = 1.32 km
Incidentally, at that instant the 120 veh/km platoon contained:

1.32 km120 veh / km = 159 vehs
After the truck exited the traffic stream, a shock wave between A the platoon conditions and B
the release conditions developed.
qb qa 1400 1200
The speed of this shock wave was, USW = 4 km/h relative to the
kb ka 70 120
road. Thus the shock wave at the front of the platoon moved upstream at 4 km/h, whereas
the shock wave at the rear of the platoon continued to move downstream at 2.1 km/h. The
relative speed of the two waves was 4 km / h 2.1 km / h 6.1 km/h. Since the platoon was
1.32 km
1.32 km long to begin with, it took = 0.216 h 12.96 13 min after the trucks
6.1 km / h
departure for the platoon to dissipate completely.
(h) Refer to Question (g) data, and q = 1 000 veh/h and k = 25 veh/km. Calculation of the
speed of the shock wave that commenced at the instant when the 10 km/h platoon was
totally eliminated.
After the last platoon vehicle was released, a shock wave commenced between (A) the
approach conditions behind this last vehicles and (B) the release conditions in front of it. The
speed of the shock wave was:
qb qa 1400 1000
USW = 8.9 km/h
kb ka 70 25
60 of 74
(i) Estimation of the probability that vehicles of u = 40 km/h and k = 10 veh/km) will pass the
fixed point in 10 seconds is calculated as follows:
400 veh / h
Main flow, q uk 40 10 400 veh / h , 0.111 veh / s
3600 s / h
P0 Pheadway t e t
Pheadway 10 e 0.11110 0.330
Pheadway 10 1 Pheadway 10
Pheadway 10 1 0.330
Pheadway 10 0.670
There is thus a 67% chance that vehicles will pass the fixed point.
(j) Calculation of in how many of the 50 intervals will 3 vehicles arrive:
t = 15 s
7.5
P(0) 0.15
50
( t ) n e t
P(n)
n!
Since
( t ) 0 e t
P(0) 0.15
0!
Therefore,
e t 0.15
t ln(0.15) 1.89712
1.89712
0.1265 veh/s
15
Therefore,
(0.1265 15)3 e ( 0.126515 ) 1.8975 e (1.8975)
3
P(3) 0.1707
3! 3 2 1
There is thus a 17.07% chance that 3 vehicles will arrive within any one interval.
Therefore, over the 50 counts taken, assuming that traffic is Poisson distributed, 3 cars
will arrive in just greater than 17 of these.
9.8 Acknowledgements and References
Acknowledgements and appreciation is given to all the authors and editors of the consulted and referenced material(s),
which helped in various ways to enhance the quality of this work, which in the end ensured that the subject
Transportation Engineering II at S3 level for the National Diploma (Engineering: Civil) is presented comprehensively and
with dignity. Hopefully the students will earn and learn. Once more, thanks to you all the greats, keep on educating the
nation with your out-of-this-world research.
9.8.1 Gazis, D.C. 2002. Traffic flow theory. Kluwer Academic Publishers, United States of
America.
9.8.2 Greenshields, B.D. 1935. A study of traffic capacity. In Highway Research Board
Proceedings, Vol. 14, pp 448-477.
61 of 74
9.8.3 Papacostas, C.S. and Prevedourous, P.D. 1993. Transportation Engineering and Planning,
2nd Edition, Prentice Hall, pp 127-161.
9.8.4 Rogers, M. 2008. Highway Engineering. Second Edition, Blackwell publishing, Oxford.
United Kingdom.
9.8.5 Van As, S.C. and Joubert, H.S. 1993. Traffic flow theory. 4th Edition, Viaed. University of
Pretoria. Pretoria, South Africa.
9.8.6 www.wikipedia.org (Accessed: 19 January 2010).
62 of 74
(Supplementary notes to Chapter 10 Capacity and Level of Service)

Lecture 8:
CHAPTER 10: CAPACITY AND LEVEL OF SERVICE
7.2 A. Definitions:
Capacity:
The maximum hourly rate at which vehicles or pedestrians:
with reasonable expectation
during a period in time
can travel past a point or through a uniform part of a lane or road
under prevailing road-, traffic- and control-conditions
Level of service:
A measure to describe the quality of the conditions of operation in a stream of traffic experienced
by motorists and passengers under those conditions.
Service rate of flow:

The maximum hourly rate at which vehicles or pedestrians:
with reasonable expectation
during a period in time
can travel past a point or through a uniform part of a lane or road
under prevailing road-, traffic- and control-conditions
while a prescribed level of service is maintained
Design speed:
The maximum safe speed that can be maintained on a section of road when design features dictate
the traffic conditions.
Operating speed:
The highest possible speed at which a vehicle can travel over a section of road in favourable
weather conditions and prevailing traffic conditions without having to exceed the design speed.
Average highway speed

If a road consists of a number of (different) sections, each with its own design speed, then the
average highway speed will be a weighted average of the design speeds of the different sections of
roads.
Peak hour traffic:

The highest number of vehicles that can travel over a section of road in 60 successive minutes.
Peak-hour factor:
The relation of the volume of traffic during the peak-hour to the maximum rate of flow in a time-
interval within that peak-hour (always smaller than 1).
Example: Say 200 vehicles counted during the peak 15 minutes period of a peak-hour and 600
vehicles total during the peak-hour, then:
600
PHF 0,75
15
4 200
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7.3 B. Ideal road and traffic conditions for uninterrupted traffic
Under the following conditions this type of flow is possible:

Exclusion of crossing traffic and pedestrians
Negligible slope
Passenger vehicles only in the traffic stream
Minimum lane width of 3,7 m and no obstacles closer than 1,8 m from the edge of the roadway
Rural 2-lane roads: average road speed of 110 km/h and unlimited passing sight distances.
7.4 C. The purpose of calculating road capacities
Irrespective of the urgency of construction or upgrading required on roads, the funds are (always)
very limited. The engineer and technologist are responsible for the proper utilisation of the
available capital funds. In order to construct the required type and size of facility, a proper
investigation has to be conducted to determine the needed level of service that will fulfil the need of
users
A variety of operational aspects are considered when the quality of service as represented by the
level of service. In the case of multi-lane roads, the density of vehicles is used to indicate the
different levels of service. This density is expressed in passenger vehicles per kilometre.
After the design-volume has been determined, then the width and number of lanes can be
calculated to answer to the required level of service.
7.5 D. Measurements for level of service
Level of Service A
Free-flow, no hindrance from other users, freedom to choose speed and lane.
Level of Service B
Stable flow, but the presence of other road users is noticeable, choice of speed still possible but
less freedom to change lanes.
Level of Service C
Stable flow, choice of speed is limited by other users and lane changing must be done with care.
Level of Service D
Density is high with stable flow, speed lane changing seriously constricted. A small increase in flow
disrupts the stream of traffic.
Level of Service E
Condition of operation is close to capacity, speed is restricted but uniform, and changing of lanes is
very difficult and requires effort to create a gap. Flow is unstable.
Level of Service F
Flow is unnatural or interrupted. Vehicle arrivals exceed the road's abilities and rows with stop-go
conditions are created and can also develop at a bottleneck.
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7.6 E. Factors that influence the quality of service.
Byways and highways
Road conditions
Terrain
Level, mildly sloped or mountainous.
Environment
Urban or peri-urban.
Lane width
Lanes with width less that 3,7 m has lower capacity.
Cross-sectional dimension
Any obstacle closer than 1,8 m is considered to be a restriction on the flow.
Additional lanes
Assistance-, speed changing-, turn-, climbing lanes, etc. (possibly also parking- and holding lanes
on highways)
Road surface conditions
Design speed
Design speeds lower than 110 km/h will restrict the capacity.
Slopes
Steep slopes have a detrimental effect on traffic, especially on heavy vehicles.
Traffic conditions
Heavy vehicles (trucks)

The percentage heavy vehicles and the mass/power ratio.
Buses
Variation in traffic.
Drivers
Skills and level of schooling.
Weather conditions and visibility
7.7 F. Double-lane single-carriageway roads
Apart form the factors as mentioned for byways and multi-lane roads; the opportunity to pass other
vehicles is very important during traffic conditions on single-carriageway roads. The service rate of
flow on two-lane two-way traffic roads are influenced by the following:
Passing sight distance (minimum = 450 m)

Any restriction on the passing of vehicles will lower the operating speed on a road with a
detrimental effect on the quality of service. The traffic in the other direction is also very important.
Design speed
Maximum service rate of flow is affected in two ways by the design speed:
65 of 74
1. It restricts the operating speed of passenger vehicles.

2. It lowers the speed of heavy vehicles and buses, which then increase the need to over-take.
Lane width
Because vehicles pass each other in neighbouring lanes in opposing directions, the effect of narrow
lanes and restrictions on the distance from vehicles to obstacles along side the road, have a large
effect on traffic on single-carriage-way roads.
Slopes and heavy vehicles

The combined effect of heavy vehicles and steep slopes is an important cause for lowered capacity
and heavy vehicles can be equivalent to up to 100 passenger vehicles.
7.8 G. Capacity of urban roads
(Broken flow)
Traffic control equipment determines the capacity of urban roads.
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LECTURE 9: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC CONTROL

Lecture 9:
CHAPTER 11: TRAFFIC CONTROL
Purpose:
orderly traffic flow
maximum road safety
minimum transport costs
minimum delay
minimum number of stops
minimum waste of energy
maximum driver satisfaction
minimum impact on environment
Types of control:
traffic signals (robots)
road signs and/or
road markings
Stop sign control:

The following matters must be considered when a stop sign is erected:
sight-distance
speed of turning vehicles
suitability of yield-sign
traffic volume
control of pedestrians at crossings
Four way-stops can be utilised at crossings with a high incidence of accidents and also as
temporary arrangement before a signal is to be erected.
Yield sign control:

The driver of the approaching vehicle has to give way to the traffic on the road he/she is joining
when it is close enough to cause an unsafe situation or potential danger.
The sign is erected where:

where priority must be given to a street (road) with low traffic volumes and sufficient sight-
distances
intersections can safely be entered at 20 km/h
traffic islands have been provided
Signal control:
The installation of traffic lights where it does not satisfy the situation can lead to disgruntled road
users, accumulated delay, disregard of lights, backup of traffic and an increase in the frequency of
the occurrence of accidents.
67 of 74
DEFAULT METHOD 1
Design the signal setting for the peak period scenario shown below:
200 450 180
140
300
120
100
470
140
280 940 180

N
Given:
Right turn traffic = 1.75 x crossing traffic
Left turn traffic = 1.25 x crossing traffic
15% of traffic stream is heavy vehicles = 1.75 pmu (passenger motor units)
5% of traffic stream are busses = 2.25 pmu
Amber time = 5 seconds for both directions
Lost time = 8 seconds
Maximum capacity = 3 900 pmu for both directions
STEP 1: Substitute all turning directions:
North-South
RT 200 x 1.75 = 350
LT 180 x 1.25 = 225
Straight 450 = 450
1025
South-North
RT 180 x 1.75 = 315
LT 280 x 1.25 = 350
Straight 940 = 940
1605
East-West
RT 100 x 1.75 = 175
LT 140 x 1.25 = 175
Straight 470 = 470
820
West-East
RT 120 x 1.75 = 210
LT 140 x 1.25 = 175
Straight 300 = 300
685
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NS: 1025
WE: 685 EW: 820
SN: 1605
STEP 2: Substitute heavy vehicles and buses:
If there are x vehicles:

Then: 0.8x light vehicles (80%)
0.15x heavy vehicles (15%)
0.05x buses (5%)
= 0.8x + (0.15x x 1.75) + (0.05x x 2.25)

= 0.8x + 0.263x + 0.113x
= 1.175x pmu
North-South 1025 x 1.175 = 1204

South-North 1605 x 1.175 = 1886
West-East 685 x 1.175 = 805
East-West 820 x 1.175 = 964
NS: 1204
WE: 805 EW: 964
SN: 1886
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STEP 3: Determine Cycle-time:
1 886
YS N 0.484
3 900
964
YE W 0.247
3 900
YT 0.731
Then:
1.5L 5 1.58 5
Co 63.197 sec
1 YT 1 0.731
Optimum cycle length is between 0.75 Co and 1.5 Co (After Greenshields)

0.75(63.197) and 1.5(63.197)
47.4 sec and 94.8 sec
Then choose 80 sec
Effective green (GE) = C L
= 80 8
= 72 sec
STEP 4: Determine effective green (GE) per direction:
0.484
GESN 72 47.7 sec
0.731
0.247
GEE W 72 24.3 sec
0.731
But Effective Green time = Green time + Amber time 2
Then,
S-N: 47.7 = G + A 2
G + A = 47.7 + 2
Then: GS-N = 47.7 + 2 5 = 44.7 sec
E-W: 24.3 = G + A 2
G + A = 24.3 + 2
Then: GE-W = 24.3 + 2 5 = 21.3 sec
STEP 5: Summary:
Direction/Signal setup South North East West

Green 44.7 sec 21.3 sec
Amber 5 sec 5 sec
All red 2 sec 2 sec
TOTAL 51.7 sec 28.3 sec
Cycle Length 80 sec
NB: This method did not consider the right turns on their own, but looked at the whole directional
movement(s).
70 of 74
DEFAULT METHOD 2
Design the signal setting for the peak period as shown on the diagram below:
Given:
Amber time = 5 seconds for both directions
Lost time = 9 seconds
Maximum capacity for RT = 1700 vphpgpl (vehicles per hour per group per lane)
TH = 1800 vphpgpl
TH & LT = 1650 vphpgpl
STEP 1: Determine the Phases:
Phase A: (E-W & W-E) (Notice the Right-Turn is not catered for)
Phase B: (N-S & S-N)
Phase C: (N-S & S-N)
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STEP 2: Select maximum flow ratios for each phase:
Phase A: 250 170 145 300

Max: , , , max 0.15, 0.10, 0.09, 0.18 0.18
1650 1700 1700 1650
Phase B:
507 310 400 420
Max: , , , max 0.31, 0.17, 0.22, 0.25 0.31
1650 1800 1800 1650
Phase C:
138 165
Max: , max 0.08, 0.10 0.10
1700 1700
STEP 3: Determine Cycle-time:
YPhase A 0.18; YPhase B 0.31; YPhase C 0.10

YT 0.59
Then:
1.5L 5 1.59 5
Co 45.122 sec
1 Y 1 0.59
Optimum cycle length is between 0.75 Co and 1,5 Co (After Greenshields)

0.75(45.122) and 1.5(45.122)
33.8 sec and 67.9 sec
Then choose 60 sec
Effective green (GE) = C L
= 60 9
= 51 sec
STEP 4: Determine effective green (GE) per direction:
0.18
GE Phase A x51 15.6 sec
0.59
0.31
GE Phase B x51 26.8 sec
0.59
0.10
GE Phase C x51 8.6 sec
0.59
But Effective Green time = Green time + Amber time 2
Then,
Phase A: 15.6 = G + A 2
G + A = 15.6 + 2
Then: GPhase A = 15.6 + 2 5 = 12.6 sec
Phase B: 26.8 = G + A 2
G + A = 26.8 + 2
Then: GPhase B = 26.8 + 2 5 = 23.8 sec
Phase C: 8.6 = G + A 2
G + A = 8.6 + 2
Then: GPhase C = 8.6 + 2 5 = 5.6 sec
72 of 74
STEP 5: Summary:
Direction/Signal setup Phase A Phase B Phase C

Green 12.6 sec 23.8 sec 5.6 sec
Amber 5 sec 5 sec 5 sec
All red 2 sec 2 sec 2 sec
TOTAL 19.6 sec 30.8 sec 12.6 sec
Cycle Length 63 sec
Therefore the chosen Cycle Length of 60 s is correct
73 of 74
DEFAULT METHOD 3 (with Pedestrian Crossing)

7.9 A. TRAFFIC SIGNAL TIMING PROCEDURE
Traffic signals are used to control conflicting traffic movements at intersections. There are eight
steps in the development of a traffic signal timing plan, i.e.:
1. Select signal phasing

2. Calculate equivalent straight-through passenger cars
3. Select critical lane volumes
4. Calculate change interval
5. Calculate minimum cycle length
6. Allocate green time
7. Check pedestrian crossing time
8. Prepare signal indication summary.
Select signal phasing

A cycle is the sum of individual phases. The most basic traffic signal will be made up of two phases
(Figure 11.1). In this case, phase one is the traffic movement for the north-southbound vehicles,
and phase two is for the east-westbound vehicles. These phases alternate during the continuous
operation of the signal. It is important to note that each time phase changes there will be lost time
associated with the traffic movement ( 3 to 5 seconds per phase change). No movement takes
place during the period of lost time. If an additional phase has to be added, the lost time increases.
Thus, a primary concern in signal timing is to keep the number of phases to a minimum.
The following rules when a separate right-turning phase has to be warranted:
1. The product of right-turning vehicles and opposing traffic volume exceeds 50 000 during the
peak hour on a 2-lane highway, or 100 000 on a 4-lane highway.
2. Two or more vehicles are still waiting to turn right at the end of a phase.
3. There are more than 50 vehicles turning right during the peak hour and the approach
speeds are greater than 72 km/h.
4. There are 5 or more accidents associated with turning movements during a 12-month
period.
Figure 11.1 : Two-phase signal layout and movements.
74 of 74
Step 1: Signal phasing:

The intersection shown in Figure 11.2 does not satisfy right-turn phase requirements for waiting
vehicles, approach speeds greater than 72 km/h, or turning-movement accidents. Determine if the
product of right-turning vehicles and opposing vehicles suggests the use of a right-turn phase (the
numbers in parenthesis are heavy vehicles, i.e. buses and large trucks). Both highways are
considered to be level (zero grade). Each lane has a saturation flow of 1800 veh/h. The peak-
hour volumes are indicated below right (heavy vehicles in parentheses).
Vine Street
Approach
speed 55
km/h
15.4 m
Maple Street Maple Street

Approach Approach
speed 40 speed 40
km/h km/h
18.3 m
Vine Street 86 48
Approach (13) (4)
speed 55
km/h
588
100 (60)
(6)
500 75
(50) (5)
60 354
(6) (40)
100
550 (10)
(40)
50 160
(9) (20)
Figure 11.2 : Intersection with peak traffic volumes to use in step calculations.
75 of 74
Solution of Step 1
Find the product of all right-turning and opposing vehicles for each approach:
North-bound: (180 X [648 + 52]) = 126 000

South-bound: (99 X [590 + 59]) = 64 251
East-bound: (66 X [394 + 110]) = 33 264
West-bound: (80 X [550 + 106]) = 52 480
The product for the North-bound direction is more than 100 000 (requirement for a 4-lane
highway). Therefore a separate right-turn-phase is suggested. All the other directions are less
than 100 000; no additional right-turn-phases are required.
The final suggestion = a three-phase signal plan should be used.
7.10 B. CALCULATION OF EQUIVALENT STRAIGHT-THROUGH PASSENGER CARS

Traffic is almost always a mixture of vehicle types (cars, busses and trucks) as well as a mixture of
turning movements (left-, right-turning and straight-through). Heavy vehicles react slower to traffic
dynamics. Because of this reaction ability of heavy vehicles, a method has been developed to
account for this.
Mixed traffic and non-through movements are converted to equivalent straight-through passenger
cars for signal timing analysis. The figures in Table 11.1 are used (Highway Capacity Manual).
Table 11.1 : Adjustment Factors for Equivalent Straight-through Passenger Cars

Vehicle Type and Movement Adjustment Factor
Passenger car (straight-through) 1.0
Heavy vehicle (irrespective of movement) 1.5
Left-turning 1.4
Right-turning 1.6
Step 1 : Calculate Straight-through Passenger Cars

Calculate the straight-through passenger cars for each direction as shown in Figure 11.2.
Solution of Step 1
Using Table 11.1, calculate the total equivalent vehicles for every movement in every direction
(round answers up to nearest 1.0):
North-bound:
Left-turn: 50(1.4) + 9(1.4)(1.5) = 89 veh/h
Right-turn: 160(1.6) + 20(1.6)(1.5) = 304 veh/h
Straight-through: 550(1.0) + 40(1.0)(1.5) = 610 veh/h
Total = 1 003 veh/h
South-bound:
Left-turn: 48(1.4) + 4(1.4)(1.5) = 76 veh/h
Right-turn: 86(1.6) + 13(1.6)(1.5) = 169 veh/h
Total = 923 veh/h
East-bound:
Left-turn: 100(1.4) + 6(1.4)(1.5) = 153 veh/h
Right-turn: 60(1.6) + 6(1.6)(1.5) = 111 veh/h
Total = 839 veh/h
76 of 74
West-bound:
Left-turn: 100(1.4) + 10(1.4)(1.5) = 161 veh/h
Right-turn: 75(1.6) + 5(1.6)(1.5) = 132 veh/h
Total = 707 veh/h
7.11 C. SELECTION OF CRITICAL-LANE VOLUMES
The critical-lane volumes for each approach can now be determined.
The right-turn volumes are considered a separate movement if a right-turn bay is provided (as
shown in Figure 11.2). The equivalent straight-through and left-turn movements are combined and
distributed over the number of approach lanes. If this cannot be verified by a field study, then the
amount of traffic in the most heavily used lane in the approach (i.e. critical lane volume) can be
approximated as the total approach volume multiplied by a critical-lane factor.
These factors are:

Table 11.2 : Critical-lane Factors
Critical-lane Type Factor:
Through / Shared through & turning:
2-lanes 0.525
3-lanes 0.367
Exclusive right-turn: 2-lanes 0.515
Exclusive left-turn: 2-lanes 0.565
Through / Shared through & turning:

More than 3-lanes
Exclusive right-turn: Do field survey
More than 2-lanes
Exclusive left-turn:
More than 2-lanes
Step 2 : Select Critical-lane Volumes

In this case the through volumes of all approaches are distributed equally among the through lanes.
Using the equivalent straight-through passenger cars calculated in Step 1, determine the critical-
lane volumes for the East-West and North-South approaches to this intersection.
Solution of Step 2
As calculated in Step 1, the north-bound right-turning passenger car equivalent was 304 vehicles.
The straight-through equivalent was 610 and left-turning equivalents 89. Combining the left-turn
and straight-through equivalents give 699 (610 + 89). As stated, the distribution in the 2-lanes is
equal, thus 699 2 = 349.5 350 (rounded up for practical reasons). Follow the same procedure
with the other approaches, and represent results in a small sketch.
364
364
111
350 350 169
304 377 377

132
288
288
Figure 11.3 : Sketch of equivalent straight-through cars for each approach
77 of 74
The critical-lane volumes are then determined for each phase of the traffic-signal timing plan (as
discussed in Solution of Step 1). Critical lanes must be selected for the north-south movement, the
east-west-movement and the right-turning phase. From Figure 11.3 it is clear that the vehicles per
hour going east is the largest number (364 veh/h), as is the number of vehicles going south
(377 veh/h) in the north-south-movement. The largest number for right-turning vehicles is 304
veh/h.
7.12 D. CALCULATION OF CHANGE INTERVAL
This interval is the yellow plus all-red times (the short period of time when all approaches have a
red signal). This interval is required to enable the intersection to be cleared of all vehicles before
conflicting traffic movements are given a signal indication that allows them to enter the intersection
(expressed in seconds). Formulas to calculate yellow and all-red times are:
V
YT t ....................................... Equation 11.1 : Yellow Time
2a 2g G
p
r

w l
AR ....................................... Equation 11.2 : All-red Time
V
YT = Yellow time (rounded to the nearest 0.5 second)
tp = Driver perception/reaction time; taken as 1.0 second
V= Speed of the vehicle in m/s
a= Deceleration rate for the vehicle; taken as 3.05 m/s2
G= Percent grade divided by 100
gr = Acceleration due to gravity; taken as 9.81 m/s2
AR = The all-red time
'w = Width of the cross street in metres
l= Length of the vehicle; taken as 6 metres
Typically, the yellow time is in the range of 3 to 5 seconds. Times periods that are longer or shorter
are not practical for the motorist (longer encourage motorists to keep on entering the intersection,
shorter times can place motorist in dilemma zone; i.e. to short to stop, and when entering
intersection will experience a red indication).
Step 3 : Calculate Change Interval

Determine the yellow and all-red times for vehicles travelling on Vine and Maple Streets as shown
in Figure 11.2.
Solution of Step 3
For the Vine Street phasing (applying Equation 11.1 and Equation 11.2):
(5510003600)
YT 1.0 3.5 sec
2(3.05)

18.3 6 1.6 sec
AR
(5510003600)
The same calculations for Maple Street is done with a YT = 2.8 seconds and an AR = 1.9 seconds.
The YT is rounded up to 3.0 seconds.
78 of 74
The yellow time for the right-turning phase is calculated using the same values as for the Vine
Street phasing; the result is 3.5 seconds. The all-red for the right-turning phase is the same as is
for the straight-through vehicles.
For the all-red times, Maple's 1.9 seconds and Vine's 1.6 seconds are both rounded up to 2.0
seconds (controllers can only handle 0.5 seconds as smallest interval).
7.13 E. CALCULATION OF MINIMUM CYCLE LENGTH
The cycle length is simply a summation of the individual phases. In practice, cycle lengths are kept
as short as possible, typically within the 40- to 6--second range. However, the more phases there
are, the longer the cycle and as long as 120 seconds, or more. This is quite exceptional and is
rarely found.
Webster (1958) developed an equation to calculate the optimum cycle length. He assumed that
vehicles arrive at an intersection on a random basis. He wanted to calculate a cycle length that will
provide the shortest vehicle delay. The optimum cycle-length equation is:

1.5LT 5 ......................................Equation 11.3 : Cycle Length
c
1.0in1 y i
Where c = cycle length (usually rounded up to nearest 5-second increment), LT = lost time
approximated as the total yellow and all-red times per cycle and yi = the ratio of the critical-lane
volume to the per-lane saturation flow for signal phase i.
Step 4 : Calculate Minimum Cycle Length

Use Webster's delay equation and calculate the optimum cycle length using the information
provided in the preceding steps for the Maple Street-Vine Street intersection.
Solution of Step 4
In Step 3 it was determined that the yellow times for intersection are 3.5 seconds for the Vine Street
phase, and 3.5 seconds for the Vine Street right-turning phase and 3.0 seconds for the Maple
Street phase. The summation of these values gives a total yellow time of 10.0 seconds. In the
same Step, it was determined that the all-red time for each of the three phases was 2.0 seconds; a
total all-red time of 6.0 seconds. The total time lost during the three phases is 16 seconds (10 + 6).
From Step 2 it was calculated that the critical lane volumes are 377 veh/h for the Vine Street phase,
305 veh/h for the Vine Street right-turning phase and 364 veh/h for the Maple Street phase. Using
these values in Equation 11.3 gives:
1.5(16) 5
c 69.14 sec
377 304 364
1.0
1800 1800 1800
Rounding this value up to the nearest 5-second increment gives a cycle length of 70 seconds.
7.14 F. ALLOCATION OF GREEN TIME
After the cycle length has been calculated, you now have to determine how much green time
should be allocated to each phase. Total cycle length is the sum of all green times plus lost time.
In other words, the cycle length minus the sum of yellow and all-red times (i.e. the approximated
lost time) will leave the total green time available for all phases. This total green time is divided
among the phases that comprise the cycle. The green time is normally distributed to each phase in
proportion to the ratio of critical-lane volume of the phase to critical-lane traffic (summation of the
critical-lane volumes of all phases). This green time allocation procedure is demonstrated by the
following step.
79 of 74
Step 5 : Allocate Green Time

Determine the green time allocations for the 70-second cycle length found in Step 4.
Solution of Step 6
Lost time was found to be 16 seconds, therefore the total green time is 70 - 16 = 54 seconds.
Divide the green time as follows:
Total of critical-lane volumes is: 377 + 304 + 364 = 1045

Vine Street-phase: [(377/1045) X 54] = 19.5 seconds 20 sec
Vine Street right-turn phase: [(304/1045) X 54] = 15.7 seconds 15 sec rounded
Maple Street-phase: [(364/1045) X 54] = 18.8 seconds 19 sec
7.15 G. CHECKING OF PEDESTRIAN CROSSING TIME

In urban areas and other locations where pedestrians are present, the signal-timing plan should be
checked for its ability to provide adequate pedestrian crossing time. At locations where streets are
wide and green times are short, pedestrians can be caught in the middle of intersections when the
phases change. To avoid this, the minimum green time required for pedestrian crossing should be
checked against the apportioned green time for the phase. If the green time is not enough then the
green time should be increased to allow pedestrians to cross safely.
To calculate the minimum green time required for pedestrian movements, the time required by a
pedestrian to walk across the street must be determined. For signal timing purposes it is assumed
that pedestrians walk at a rate of 1.2 m/s (for older people a walking speed of 0.9 m/s is
appropriate). In addition to the crossing time, a pedestrian reaction time of 7.0 seconds is added to
the required green time. The equation we use to calculate the minimum pedestrian time is:
w
PGT 7 YT AR ....... Equation 11.4 : Minimum Pedestrian Green Time
PWS
PGT Pedestrian green time in seconds
w Width of the street in meters
PWS Pedestrian walking speed in m/s
YT The yellow time in seconds
AR The all-red time in seconds
Step 6 : Check Pedestrian Crossing Time

Determine the minimum amount of pedestrian green time required for the intersection in the steps.
Assume pedestrian walking speed as 1.2 m/s.
Solution of Step 6
A pedestrian who wants to cross Maple Street, will do so while Vine Street has a green interval.
The minimum green time needed on Vine Street is (using Equation 11.4):
18.3
PGT 7 3.5 2.0 16.75 sec
1.2
But in Step 5 was determined that Vine Street has 20 seconds green time; thus there is enough
green time for pedestrians to cross the street. The minimum green time needed in Maple Street
(using Equation 11.4):
15.4
PGT 7 3.0 2.0 14.83 sec
1.2
From Step 5, Maple Street is assigned 19 seconds of green time, so again enough green time is
available to pedestrians to cross the street.
7.16 H. PREPARATION OF SIGNAL INDICATION SUMMARY
80 of 74
After pedestrian green time was evaluated, the calculation of interval times for each phase is
complete, and a signal indication summary can be prepared. The signal indication summary shows
the phases for each movement, at this time, the phases and cycle length can be finalised, and
conflict checks can be made. The signal indication summary is shown in the table below.
Table 11.3 : Signal Indication Summary : Vine and Maple Streets Intersection
Street Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
GT = 20s
Vine Street
YT = 3.5s RT = 20.5s RT = 24s
(through)
AR = 2.0s
GT = 15s
Vine Street
RT = 25.5s YT = 3.5s RT = 24s
(right-turn)
AR = 2.0s
GT = 19s
Maple Street
RT = 25.5s RT = 20.5s YT = 3.0s
(through)
AR = 2.0s
Note that the red times (RTs) presented in this summary equal to the summation of green time
(GT), yellow time (YT) and all-red times (AR) for this particular case.
81 of 74

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(Supplementary notes to Chapter 14 Transportation Planning)

Transportation Engineering II (TEN201T)

Funding is divided amongst:

4. Development Control and Role of Public

There are three types of privatisation, i.e.

7. Controlling factors which influence the final location of urban roadways

3. Existing transportation system:

4. Existing public utilities:

Focuses on issues such as:

14.1 Perspectives on the planning process

The Rational Planning Process

Fig 14.1: The rational planning process

The Political Planning Process

The political planning process is given in Figure 14.2

Fig 14.2: The political planning process

14.2 Planning regulations

14.3 Transportation and air quality planning

Clean Air Act Provisions

Coordination of Air Quality and Transportation Plans

Conformity process is shown in Figure 14.3.

Fig 14.3: Conformity process

Air Quality Models

14.4 Planning studies

Fig 14.7: Activities involved in a typical transportation planning study

Planning should be done to overcome various issues related to the future.

Revise the lecture and attempt the EXERCISES

Transportation Engineering II (TEN201T)

Transportation Engineering is the application of scientific principles to the

1.2 The transportation system

Scope and Functional Organisation

This is a functional system in the context of society as a whole because it provides a

Objectives and Constraints

1.3 Modes of transportation

Table 1.1: Characteristics of made of transportation

1.4 Institutional structure

This is where the state (government) is involved in the transportation system.

Provincial and local governments are responsible for the following:

1.5 Civil Engineering involvement in transportation

1.6 Careers in transportation engineering

Employment in consulting discipline and government agencies.

Transportation engineering is the application of scientific principles to the planning,

Revise the lecture and attempt the EXERCISES

Transportation Engineering II (TEN201T)

PASSING SIGHT DISTANCES

d3 read-off from the Table = 54.900 m

SSD = 158.922 m, SAY SSD = 160 m

Transportation Engineering II (TEN201T)

Entry slope (g1) = +1%

The idea is to develop/determine a vertical curve based on the above-mentioned information.

Peg Dist./ Slope Tangent

10 150 P.I. 151.50

10 300 EVC 160.50

Tangent Level at SV 10 025 or after BVC

Level/elevation at SV 10 025 = Level at P.I. SV @ P.I. SV 10 025 g1

Level/elevation at SV 10 025 = Level at BVC SV 10 025 SV @ BVC g1

Tangent Level at SV 10 175 or after P.I.

Level/elevation at SV 10 175 = Level at P.I. SV @ 10 175 SV @ P.I. g2

Level/elevation at SV 10 175 = Level at EVC SV @ EVC SV @ 10 175 g2

x = (10 050 10 000) = 50 m

Final Level at SV 10 025 or after BVC

Final Level @ 10 025 = Tangent Level @ 10 025 + Offset @ Peg 10 025

Peg Dist./ Slope

Vertical curve (sag)