Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Fundamentals
AGENDA
2
DISTURBANCES: LIGHT OR SEVERE
4
TYPICAL BULK POWER SYSTEM
Generation-typically at 4-35kV
Transmission-typically at 230-765kV
Subtransmission-typically at 69-161kV
5
PROTECTION ZONES
1. Generator or Generator-Transformer Units
2. Transformers
3. Buses
4. Lines (transmission and distribution)
5. Utilization equipment (motors, static loads, etc.)
6. Capacitor or reactor (when separately protected)
Bus zone Bus zone Bus zone
Unit Generator-Tx zone Line zone
Transformer zone Motor zone
Transformer zone
6
WHAT INFO IS REQUIRED TO APPLY PROTECTION
1. One-line diagram of the system or area involved
2. Impedances and connections of power equipment, system frequency,
voltage level and phase sequence
3. Existing schemes
4. Operating procedures and practices affecting protection
5. Importance of protection required and maximum allowed clearance
times
6. System fault studies
7. Maximum load and system swing limits
8. CTs and VTs locations, connections and ratios
9. Future expansion expectance
10. Any special considerations for application. 11
C37.2: DEVICE
NUMBERS
Partial listing
ONE LINE DIAGRAM
13
LINE SYMBOLS [1]
14
LINE SYMBOLS [2]
15
LINE SYMBOLS [3]
16
LINE SYMBOLS [4]
17
1-LINE [1]
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PROTECTION SYSTEM
A series of devices whose main purpose is to
protect persons and primary electric power
equipment from the effects of faults
BLACKOUTS
Characteristics Main Causes
Loss of service in a large area
or population region Overreaction of the protection
system
Hazard to human life
Bad design of the protection
May result in enormous system
economic losses 19
SHORT CIRCUITS PRODUCE HIGH CURRENTS
Three-Phase Line
a
b
c
I
Substation Fault
Thousands of Amps I
Wire
20
ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT THERMAL DAMAGE
t
I
In Imd Short-Circuit
Rated Value
Current
21
MECHANICAL DAMAGE DURING SHORT CIRCUITS
Very destructive in busbars, isolators, supports,
transformers, and machines
Damage is instantaneous
Mechanical
Forces
f1 f2
i1
i2
23
DAMAGE TO MAIN EQUIPMENT
24
THE FUSE
Fuse
Transformer
25
PROTECTION SYSTEM ELEMENTS
Protective relays
Circuit breakers
Current and voltage transducers
Communications channels
DC supply system
Control cables
26
THREE-PHASE DIAGRAM OF THE PROTECTION TEAM
CTs CB
Protected
Control Equipment
Relay
VTs
27
DC TRIPPING CIRCUIT
+
Relay
SI
Red
DC Station Lamp
Battery Relay
SI Contact
52a Circuit
Breaker
52
TC
28
CIRCUIT BREAKERS
29
CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
30
VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS
Medium Voltage
32
CT/VT CIRCUIT VS. CASING GROUND
Case
Secondary Circuit
Case ground made at IT location
Secondary circuit ground made at first point of use
Prevents shock exposure of personnel
Provides current carrying capability for the ground-fault
current
Grounding includes design and construction of substation
ground mat and CT and VT safety grounding
SUBSTATION TYPES
Single Supply
Multiple Supply
34
SWITCHGEAR DEFINED
Assemblies containing electrical switching, protection,
metering and management devices
Used in three-phase, high-power industrial, commercial
and utility applications
Covers a variety of actual uses, including motor control,
distribution panels and outdoor switchyards
The term "switchgear" is plural, even when referring to a
single switchgear assembly (never say, "switchgears")
May be a described in terms of use:
"the generator switchgear"
"the stamping line switchgear"
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PROTECTIVE RELAYS
38
EXAMPLES OF RELAY PANELS
Microprocessor-
Based Relay
Old Electromechanical
39
HOW DO RELAYS DETECT FAULTS?
41
PRIMARY PROTECTION
42
PRIMARY PROTECTION ZONE OVERLAPPING
Protection
Zone A
52 Protection
Zone B
To Zone A
Relays
To Zone B
Relays
Protection
Zone A
52 Protection
Zone B
To Zone A
Relays To Zone B
Relays
43
BACKUP PROTECTION
Breaker 5
Fails
C D
A E
1 2 5 6 11 12
T
B F
3 4 7 8 9 10
44
BALANCED VS. UNBALANCED CONDITIONS Ia
Ic
Ic
Ia
Ib 2
Ia0
Ib0 Ia2
Ic0 I b1 Ic2
47
X
Z
A
G
X
FAULT TYPES (SHUNT) C B
X
A Z Z
A
G
G
C B C B
Z X X
Z
X X
Z Z
50
PER UNIT SYSTEM
Establish two base quantities:
Standard practice is to define
Base power 3 phase
Base voltage line to line
Other quantities derived
with basic power equations
51
SHORT CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS
PER UNIT SYSTEM
Per Unit Value = Actual Quantity
Base Quantity
57
POWER LINE PROTECTION PRINCIPLES
Overcurrent (50, 51, 50N, 51N)
Directional Overcurrent (67, 67N)
Distance (21, 21N)
Relay
Differential (87) Operation t
Time
Radial Line
Fault Load
Distance
t
T T T
Relay t Distance
Operation
Time
Radial Line
Fault Load 59
DIRECTIONAL OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
BASIC PRINCIPLE V I
F2 F
1
Relay
I FAULT I a I SETTING
Radial
Three-Phase
2 Line
Va ,Vb ,Vc 1
Solid Fault
| Va | (0.8) | Z L1 || I a |
X Plain Impedance Relay
Operation Zone
Z Z r1 Radius Zr1
Zr1
R
R 2 X 2 Z r21 61
NEED FOR DIRECTIONALITY F2 F1
1 2 3 4 5 6
RELAY 3 X
Operation Zone
F1
F2 R
Nonselective Relay
Operation
F2 F1
1 2 3 4 5 6
Operates when: V I Z M cos MT
X Z Z M cos MT
RELAY 3 X
Operation Zone Directional Impedance
F1 Relay Characteristic ZM
Z
F2 R MT
The Relay Will
Not Operate for
This Fault R
62
THREE-ZONE DISTANCE PROTECTION
Time
Zone 3
Zone 2
Zone 1
1 2 3 4 5 6
X
Time
Zone 1 Is Instantaneous
C
A
R
D
63
DISTANCE PROTECTION SUMMARY
Current and voltage information
Phase elements: more sensitive than 67 elements
Ground elements: less sensitive than 67N elements
Application: looped and parallel lines
L IL IR R
T Communications R
Relays Relays
R Channel T
FWD
FWD
Bus A Bus B
1 2 3 4 5 6
RVS FWD
FWD RVS
65
DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION PRINCIPLE
Balanced CT Ratio
CT CT
Protected
Equipment External
Fault
50 IDIF = 0
Internal
Fault
66
Relay Operates
PROBLEM OF UNEQUAL CT PERFORMANCE
CT CT
Protected
Equipment
External
Fault
50 IDIF 0
67
POSSIBLE SCHEME PERCENTAGE DIFFERENTIAL
PROTECTION PRINCIPLE
SP RP
CTR CTR
Protected
Equipment
S R
Relay
(87)
Compares: I OP I S I R
| IS | | IR |
k I RT k
2
68
DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION APPLICATIONS
Bus protection
Transformer protection
Generator protection
Line protection
Large motor protection
Reactor protection
Capacitor bank protection
Compound equipment protection
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DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
SUMMARY
The overcurrent differential scheme is simple and
economical, but it does not respond well to unequal
current transformer performance
The percentage differential scheme responds better to
CT saturation
Percentage differential protection can be analyzed in
the relay and the alpha plane
Differential protection is the best alternative
selectivity/speed with present technology
70
MULTIPLE INPUT DIFFERENTIAL SCHEMES
EXAMPLES
Differential Protection Zone
SP RP
I1 I2 I3 I4
OP
71
ADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL RELAYS
Compatibility with
Low maintenance
Multifunctional digital integrated
(self-supervision)
systems
Highly sensitive,
Highly reliable
secure, and Adaptive
(self-supervision)
selective
Reduced burden
Programmable
on Low Cost
Versatile
CTs and VTs
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A GOOD DAY IN SYSTEM PROTECTION
CTs and VTs bring electrical info to relays
Relays sense current and voltage and declare fault
Relays send signals through control circuits to circuit breakers
Circuit breaker(s) correctly trip
THE FUTURE
Improvements in computer-based protection
Highly reliable and viable communication systems (satellite, optical
fiber, etc.)
Integration of control, command, protection, and communication
Improvements to human-machine interface
Much more
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