Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Statics: Pressure intensity and

pressure head: pressure and specific weight
relationship, absolute and gauge pressure

Dr. Mohsin Siddique

Assistant Professor

1
Fluid Statics

Fluid Statics: It is the branch of fluid mechanics that deals
with the behavior/response of fluid when they are at rest.

Pressure, (average pressure intensity): It is the normal force

exerted per unit area. It is denoted by P and is given by;

force F
P= =
area A

Units

SI: N/m2 (called Pascal)

BG: lb/ft2 or lb/in2 (called psi)

CGS: dyne/cm2
1 bar=105N/m2=105Pascal
2
Pressure vs Water depth/height

Consider a strip or column of a cylindrical fluid,

h= height or depth of strip of fluid

= specific weight of fluid h

dA=cross-sectional area of strip

dV=volume of strip

dW=weight of strip

Pressure at base of strip=dF/dA=dW/dA

P= dV/dA

P= dA.h/dA
P=h

3
Pressure vs Water depth/height

P=h

Ph h

For h=0, P=0

For h=h, P=h

Pressure distribution
diagram/pressure profile

As you know atmospheric pressure reduces, as we move to

higher elevations. Is it because of h, as h reduces, P also reduces.
4
PASCALS LAW

Pressure at any point in fluid is same in all directions when
the fluid is at rest
dz

y z

x dy y z
x

Consider a wedge shape element of fluid dx
having dimension dx, dy and dz along x, y
and z axis. P(dldz)
sin P(dldz)

dl= dimension of inclined plane making
an angle with the vertical P(dldz)
Px(dydz)
cos

Px, Py, Pz and P are pressure acting in x, y,
z and perpendicular to inclined surface
dW

dW=weight of element
5 Py(dxdz)
PASCALS LAW
F = 0x P(dldz)
P(dldz)
sin
Px dydz P( dldz ) cos = o
Px dydz P( dldz )dy / dl = o Q cos = dy / dl P(dldz)
cos
Px dydz P( dz )dy = o Px(dydz)
Px = P dW
Py(dxdz)
F y =0
Py dxdz dW P( dldz ) sin = o
Py dxdz P ( dldz )dx / dl = o Q sin = dx / dl & dw 0
Py dxdz P ( dz )dx = o
Py = P

6
PASCALS LAW

Similarly by applying the conditions in z direction, it can be proved
that
Pz = P

Hence,

Px = Py = Pz = P

The above states that the pressure acting on fluid particle is same in
all directions when the fluid is at rest.

7
Absolute and Gauge Pressure

Atmospheric pressure

Gauge pressure

Vacuum/negative pressure

Absolute pressure

Atmospheric pressure: Pressure exerted by atmosphere

Gauge pressure: Pressure more than atmospheric pressure

Vacuum/negative pressure: Pressure less than atmospheric pressure

Absolute pressure: Pressure measure relative to absolute zero
Pabs = Patm + Pg
Pabs = Patm Pvac
8
Atmospheric Pressure

It is defined as weight of air per unit
surface area of earth.

It decreases with increase in

elevation w.r.t. surface of earth.

Standard atmospheric pressure at
mean-sea-level is
=101.3KN/m2
=1.013bar
=14.7psi
=760mm of Hg
=33.9ft of water
=10.3m of water
9
Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure

Barometer: It is device used
to measure the atmospheric
pressure at any point on the
earth.

There are two types of
barometer

(i) Liquid barometer

It measures the pressure with
help of column of liquid

(ii) Aneroid barometer

It measures atmospheric
pressure by its action on an
elastic lid of evacuated box.

10
Liquid Barometer

It consists of a transparent tube which
is open from one end only. The tube is Vacuum
filled with liquid and is inserted in a jar Pressure
also containing same liquid. The liquid Liquid/
initially drops in tube due to gravity but Weight
stabilizes at certain level under the of liquid
action of atmospheric forces. The
atmospheric pressure is then measured Force of
as height of liquid at which it stabilizes. Patm

Three forces acting on fluid are

Patm(A)=Force of atmospheric Pressure
W=Weight of liquid
Pvap(A)= Force of vapour pressure
A=Cross-sectional area of tube
11
Liquid Barometer

Three forces acting on fluid are
Patm(A)=Force of atmospheric Pressure PvapA
W=Weight of liquid
Liquid/
Pvap(A)= Force of vapour pressure
W
A=Cross-sectional area of tube h

For Equilibrium

Fy = o; Patm A W Pvap A = 0
PatmA

Patm A Ah Pvap A = 0 QW = Ah

Patm = h + Pvap

12
Liquid Barometer

Generally, mercury is preferred liquid because its vapour pressure is
minimum. Moreover, its specific gravity is very high so that size
(height) of barometer required is small.

However, for other liquid vapour pressure must be considered in

estimation.

The barometer using mercury is called mercury barometer and

while using water is called water barometer.

Size of barometer tube should be more than inches (or 13mm)

to avoid capillarity.

13
Absolute Pressure

Gauge Pressure (Pg): It is the pressure measured relative to
atmospheric pressure (Patm) and is always above the atmospheric
pressure

It may be defined as normal compressive force per unit area

Vacuum Pressure (Pvac): It is the pressure measured relative to

atmospheric pressure and is less than the atmospheric pressure

It may be defined as normal tensile force per unit area

Absolute Pressure(Pabs): It is the pressure measured from absolute

zero
Pabs = Patm + Pg
Pabs = Patm Pvac
14
Problem

Q.3.2.2

Surface
P = h
P = 10.05(4600 )
2 =10.05kN/m3
46700 kN / m 4600m

15
Problem

Q.3.2.4

P2 = P1 + oil h = P1 + S wh
P2 = 32 + 0.88(62.4 )68 /(12 2 ) P1=32psi Stream
57.9 psi
68ft

P2=?

S=0.88
=Sw

16
Problem

17
Problem

Q.3.3.1

Surface
Pi = h = (8)2 = 16kN / m 2

=8 kN/m3 2m
Pi
interface
Pb = 1h1 + 2h2 5m

Pb = (8)2 + (9.81)5 = 65.1kN / m 2 =10 kN/m3

Pb

18
 NUMERICALS

Q.3.3.3

P = h
P = (10.05)4600 = ______ kN / m 2
=10.05 h=4600
kN/m3

P=?

19
Problem
Q.3.3.3

Determine the depth of gaseous atmosphere to cause 101.3kN/m2 over surface of
earth?

P = h
(101.3 1000) = (12)h
h = 8442m =12N/m3 h=?

P=101.3kPa Surface

20
Problem

3.5.1

Patm = 33.4 ft H 2O = 14.47 psia

Pvap = 2.09 psia Vacuum
Pressure
Alcohol
Fy = o; Weight
Patm A W Pvap A = 0 h=? of liquid
Patm A Ah Pvap A = 0
Patm A Pvap A Patm Pvap Force of
h= = Patm
A
P Pvap
h = atm
S w
21
22
Measurement of Pressure

The following devices are used for pressure measurement

1. Piezometer

2. Manometer

a) Simple manometer

B) Differential manometer

3. Mechanical Pressure Transducer (Bourden gauge)

4. Electrical Pressure Transducer

23
1. Piezometer

It is used to measure pressure in
pipes or vessels.

In it simplest form, it consists of a
transparent tube open from other
ends

The diameter of tube should > to
avoid capillarity action

When connected to pipes, the

Piezometers may be connected to
water level rises in it which
sides or bottom of pipe to avoid
gives a measure of pressure.
eddies that are produced in the top
region of pipe

Limitations:

It must only be used for liquids

It should not be used for high pressure

It cannot measure vacuum (-ve) pressure
24
2. Manometer

a). Simple Manometer

Figure shows a set up of simple
manometer. A

It consists of a U shaped tube, part
of which is filled with manometric z
Fluid, f
fluid.
Y

One end of tube is connected
with the pipe whose pressure is
required to be determined. Manometric
fluid, m

Due to pressure, level of
manometric fluid rises on one side
while it falls on other side.
Y=Manometric reading

The difference in levels is
f =Specific weight of fluid in pipe
measured to estimate the

m =Specific weight of
pressure.
manometric fluid
25
2. Manometer

Manometric Fluids

1. Mercury

2. Oils A

3. Salt solution etc
z
Fluid,

Properties of manometric y
Fluid

1. Manometric fluid should not be Manometric
soluble/intermixale with fluid fluid,
flowing in pipe whose pressure is
required to be determined.

2. Lighter fluid should be used if

more precision is required.

26
2. Manometer

Pressure measurement
PA
PAabs + f Z mY = Patm A
Patm
Q PAabs = Patm + PA
z
Fluid, f
Y

Manometric
fluid, m
PA + f Z mY = 0

Sign Convention
PA = mY f Z

Above is a gauge pressure
-ve: upward direction
equation

27
+ve: downward direction

2. Manometer

b). Differential manometer

It is used to measure difference of pressure.

Case 1: when two vessels/pipes are at same level

PB
A PA B

Fluid B, B ZB
ZA Fluid A, A
Y

PA = PB + B Z B + mY A Z A Manometric
Fluid , m
PA PB = + B Z B + mY A Z A

28
2. Manometer

if B =A = f
PA PB = + f Z B + mY f Z A
PA PB = mY f (Z A Z B )
PA PB = mY f (Y )
PA PB = ( m f )(Y )

29
2. Manometer

b). Differential Manometer

Case 1I: when two vessels/pipes are at different level

A PA
PB
B
ZA Fluid A, A ZB
Fluid B, B
Y

Manometric
PA = PB + B Z B + mY A Z A Fluid , m
PA PB = + B Z B + mY A Z A
30
2. Manometer

if B =A = f
PA PB = + f Z B + mY f Z A
PA PB = mY f (Z A Z B )

31
2. Manometer

b). Differential manometer

Case 1II: when manometer is inverted
Manometric
Fluid , m

Fluid B, B
Y
Fluid A, A ZB
ZA B
PB
PA
A

PA = PB B Z B mY + A Z A
PA PB = B Z B mY + A Z A
32
2. Manometer

if B =A = f
PA PB = f Z B mY + f Z A
PA PB = mY + f (Z A Z B )

33
Advantages and Limitation of Manometers

Advantages
Limitations

Easy to fabricate
Usually bulky and large in size

Less expansive
Being fragile, get broken easily

Good accuracy
Reading of manometer is get

High sensitivity affected by temperature,
altitude and gravity

Require little maintenance

Capillary action is created due

Not affected by vibration
to surface action

Specially suitable for low

Meniscus has to be measured
pressure and low differential
accurately for better accuracy.
pressure

Easy to change sensitivity by
changing manometric fluid

34
3. Mechanical Pressure Transducer

Transducer is a device which is used to transfer energy from one
system to other

Mechanical pressure transducer converts pressure system to
displacement in mechanical measuring system

Bourden Gauge is used to measure high pressure either positive

or negative. It gives pressure directly in psi of Pascal units

35
Bourden Gauge

The essential mechanical
element in this gage is the
hollow, elastic curved tube
which is connected to the
pressure source as shown
in Fig.

As the pressure within the
tube increases the tube tends Fig. Bourden gauge
to straighten, and although
the deformation is small, it
can be translated into the
motion of a pointer on a
dial as illustrated.
36
Bourden Gauge

Since it is the difference in pressure between the outside
of the tube and the inside of the tube that causes the
movement of the tube, the indicated pressure is gage
pressure.

The Bourdon gage must be calibrated so that the dial
reading can directly indicate the pressure in suitable units
such as psi, psf, or pascals.

A zero reading on the gage indicates that the measured
pressure is equal to the local atmospheric pressure.

This type of gage can be used to measure a negative gage
pressure (vacuum) as well as positive pressures.

37
3. Mechanical Pressure Transducer

Elevation Correction

Bourden gauge gives pressure at the
center of dial. So to calculate pressure
at point A,
Pg

PA = Pg + z

Where z

z=elevation correction
A

38
4. Electrical Pressure Transducer

It converts displacement of mechanical measuring system to an
electrical signal.

Its gives continuous record of pressure when converted to a strip
chart recorder.

Data can be displayed using computer data acquisition system.

39
 Problem

Q 3.5.4

Patm = 14.7 psia = 33.92 ft H 2O

PA + (5 12 ) w 4 m = Patm
PA = ?? psia

2 PA + (5 12 + x ) w (4 + 2 x ) m = Patm

x= ??in

New Manometric reading=4+2x=34.7in
40
41
Problem

Q. 3.5.7

PA w h m Rm = Patm
PA = m Rm + w h Q Patm = 0

w @150o F = 61.20lb / ft 3 , S m = 13.45

w @ 68o F = 62.31lb / ft 3 , S m = 13.56

42
43
Problem

3.5.8

44
45
Problem

3.5.10

Two vessels are connect to a differential
manometer using mercury (S=13.56), the
connecting tubes being filled with water. The
higher pressure vessel is 5ft lower in elevation
than the other. Room temperature prevails. If the
mercury reading is 4.0in, what is the pressure
difference in feet of water and in psi ? (b) if
carbon tetrachloride (S=1.59) were used instead
of mercury what would be manometric reading
for the same pressure difference.

46
Problem

47
Problem

3.12

48
Problem

49
 University of Sharjah
Dept. of Civil and Env. Engg.

Fluid Mechanics
Forces on Immersed Bodies: Forces on
submerged planes & curved surfaces and
their applications, Drag and Lift forces

Dr. Mohsin Siddique

Assistant Professor
UOS Sharjah, UAE
50
Date:
Forces on Immersed Bodies

Hydrostatic Force: It is the resultant force of pressure exerted by
liquid at rest on any side of submerged body.

F = pdA = p dA = pA

It is the summation of product of uniform pressures and elementary

areas of submerged body

It is equal to the product of submerged area and pressure at the

centroid of the submerged area

51
Forces on Plane Area

Center of pressure

The point of application of resultant
force of pressure on a submerged area
is called center of pressure.

52
Forces on Plane Area

A=total submerged area
yc=inclined depth to center of area

F=hydrostatic force

=angle of submerged plane with
free surface

hc=depth of center of area

hp=depth of center of pressure

yp=inclined depth to center of
pressure

dA=elemtry area

dF=force of pressure (hydrostatic
force) on elementry area

53 dF = p(dA) = h(dA)
Forces on Plane Area

Lets choose an elementary area so that pressure over it is uniform. Such
an element is horizontal strip, of width, x so dA = xdy . The pressure force,
dF on the horizontal strip is
p = h
dF = p(dA) = h(dA)
h = y sin

Integrating

dF = pdA = hdA = y sin dA = sin ydA

F = sin ( yc A)
yc =
ydA
A

Where, yc is the distance OX along the sloping plane to the centroid C of
the area A. If hc is the vertical depth to the centriod, then we have

F = hc A
54
Forces on Plane Area

F = hc A

Thus, we find the total force on any plane area submerged in a liquid
by multiplying the specific weight of the liquid by the product of the
area and the depth of its centriod.

The value of F is independent of the angle of inclination of the plane

so long as the depth of its centroid is unchanged.

Since hc is pressure at the centroid, we can also say that total

pressure force on any plane area submerged is a liquid is the
product of the area and the pressure at the centroid

55
Center of Pressure

In order to determine location of center of pressure, yp, from OX,
lets take the moment of elementary area around OX

dM = ydF = y ( pdA) = y (hdA) = y (y sin dA)

Integrating

( ) (dA)
2
ydF = y y sin dA = sin y
Fy p = sin (I )

Where, I is the 2nd moment of submerged area about OX

sin (I ) sin (I ) I Q F = sin ( yc A)

yp = = =
F yc sin A yc A

Where ycA is called static moment of area
56
Center of Pressure

Now, according to parallel axis theorem,
I I c + Ay 2 c
yp = = Q I = I c + Ay 2 c
yc A yc A

Where, Ic is 2nd moment of area about centroidal axis.
Ic
y p = yc +
yc A

From this equation we again see that the location of center of pressure, P,
is independent of the angle .

When the plane is truly vertical, i.e., =90o

Ic
h p = hc +
hc A

57
Lateral Position of Center of Pressure

To find the lateral position of center of pressure P, consider the area
is made up of series of elemental strips. The center of pressure for
each strip is at the mid point of the strip. Since the moment of the
resultant force F must be equal to the moment of distributed force
system about any axis, say, the y-axis
X p F = x p pdA

Where, Xp is the lateral distance from the selected y-axis to the

center of pressure P of the resultant force F, and xp is the lateral
distance to the center of any elemental horizontal strip of area dA
on which the pressure p is acting

X p F = x p pdA

58
Forces on Curved Surface

Horizontal force on curved surface

Fx = Fx ' = F ' = hydrostatic force on equivalent horizontal area

Vertical force on curved surface
Fz = Fz ' = W = Weight of volume of liquid above surface

59
Forces on Curved Surface

Resultant Force
Fz
2
F = Fx + F 2 = tan
1
z
Fx

60
Hydrostatic force formulas

F = hc A F = sin ( yc A)

Ic
y p = yc +
yc A

61
62
Problem

Q 3.7.6: A plane surface is circular with a diameter of 2m. If it is vertical and
the top edge is 0.5m below the water surface, find the magnitude of the
force on one side and the depth of center of pressure.

Solution:
Free surface
D
hc = 0.5 + = 1.5m
2 0.5m
F = hc A
D=2m
F = 9.810(1.5) 2 2
4
F = 46.2kN Ic
h p = hc +
Ic hc A
h p = hc +
hc A Ic
y p = yc +
( )(
h p = 1.5 + D 4 / 64 / 1.5 D 2 / 4 ) F = hc A
yc A
h p = 1.667 m F = sin ( yc A)
63
Problem

Q 3.7.8: A rectangular plate 5ft by 4ft is at an angle of 30o with the
horizontal, and the 5 ft side is horizontal. Find the magnitude of force on
one side of the plate and the depth of its center of pressure when the top
edge is (a) at the water surface (b) 1 ft below water surface

(a) o 30

h = y sin hc
hp yc
4ft
yp

4ft 5ft

hc = yc sin = 2 sin 30o = 1 ft F = hc A = 62.4(1)(5 4) = 1248lb

Ic h p = 1.33 ft
64 y p = yc +
yc A
( )
= 2 + bd 3 / 12 / (2 bd ) = 2.67 ft
Problem

(b)
1ft

h = y sin hc
hp yc=4ft
yc = hc / sin 4ft

= 4 ft yp

6ft 5ft

hc = 1 + 2 sin = 1 + 2 sin 30o = 2 ft F = hc A = 62.4(2)(5 4 ) = 2500lb

Ic
yp = 4 +
yc A
( )
= 4 + bd 3 / 12 / (4 bd ) = 4.33 ft

h p = y p sin = 4.33 sin 30o = 2.167 ft

65
Problem
Q 3.7.9

(a) For critical stability resultant of

all hydrostatic for must pass
through B.

Thus B will be at a/3=5.4/3=1.8m

above N a/3

Schematic pressure
distribution
66
diagram
 Problem

1m
RB

RN 4.4/3
(a) Schematic pressure
distribution diagram

For a water depth of 4.4m

4.4
F = hc A = 9.81( )4.4 = 95kN / m
2
Since B point is hinge, therefore, moment
For reaction at B
of all force at there must be zero
M B = 0; 95(5.4 / 3 4.4 / 3) 1.8RN = 0 F x = 0; RN + RB = F
RN = 95 17.59 = 77.4kN / m
RN = 17.59kN / m
67
Problem

3.7.12

68
Problem

Q 3.8.8. Cross section of tank is shown in figure., where r=2m and tank is
open and contain water to a depth h=3.5m. Determine the magnitude and
location of horizontal and vertical force components acting on unit width of
tank wall ABC.

Fx = hc A xp
hp
Fx = 9.81(3.5 / 2)3.5 = 60.1kN / m
2
h p = (3.5) = 2.33m
3

69
`
Fz = W = VOL = ( AL ) 2m

A = 3.5(2) (4 2 ) / 4
4 xp
hp
A = 3.5(2) = 3.86

Fz = ( A) = 9.81(3.86) d=4m

= 37.9kN / m
Lets take moment about AB

3.86(x p ) = 3.5 2(1) (0.849)

x p = 1.123m

70 4r
xc = = 0.849m
3
Drag and Lift Force

Lift is the component of aerodynamic
force perpendicular to the relative wind.

Drag is the component of aerodynamic

force parallel to the relative wind.

Weight is the force directed downward

from the center of mass of the airplane
towards the center of the earth.

Thrust is the force produced by the

engine. It is directed forward along the
axis of the engine.

71
Drag and Lift Force

The drag force acts in a direction that is
opposite of the relative flow velocity.

Affected by cross-section area (form
drag)

Affected by surface smoothness
(surface drag)

The lift force acts in a direction that is

perpendicular to the relative flow.

CD= Coefficient of drag

CL= Coefficient of lift

A=projected area of body
normal to flow

V= relative wind velocity
72
Buoyancy and Floatation

When a body is immersed wholly or partially in a fluid, it is subjected to an
upward force which tends to lift (buoy)it up.

The tendency of immersed body to be lifted up in the fluid due to an

upward force opposite to action of gravity is known as buoyancy.

The force tending to lift up the body under such conditions is known as
buoyant force or force of buoyancy or up-thrust.

The magnitude of the buoyant force can be determined by Archimedes

principle which states

When a body is immersed in a fluid either wholly or partially, it is

buoyed or lifted up by a force which is equal to the weight of fluid
displaced by the body
73
Buoyancy and Floatation

Lets consider a body Water surface
submerged in water as shown F1
h1
in figure.
P1 = h1

The force of buoyancy

resultant upward force or h2
thrust exerted by fluid on
submerged body is given

FB = F2 F1 P2 = (h1 + h2 )

FB = (h1 + h2 )dA (h1 )dA F2

FB = [(h2 )dA]
dA=Area of cross-section of

FB = [volume] element

= Specific weight of liquid
74
Buoyancy and Floatation

FB = [volume] =Weight of volume of liquid displaced by
the body (Archimedes's Principle)

Force of buoyancy can also be determined as difference of

weight of a body in air and in liquid.

Let

Wa= weight of body in air

Wl=weight of body in liquid

FB=Wa-Wl

75
Buoyancy and Floatation

Center of Buoyancy (B): The point of application
of the force of buoyancy on the body is known as the
center of buoyancy.

It is always the center of gravity of the volume of fluid
displaced.
Water surface

CG or G
C or B

CG or G= Center of gravity C or B= Centroid of

of body volume of liquid displaced
by body
76
 Thank you

Questions.

Feel free to contact:

77