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Panic severity/frequency
has emerged. This article discusses the
diagnosis and clinical assessment of panic
disorder and examines the efficacy of
the pharmacological and psychological
treatment options available.
treatment period withdrawal*
and its associated symptoms are commonly seen in primary unexpectedly rather than being confined to predictable exter-
care. In a pan-European study of consecutive general practice nally triggered situations. For example, a person who only ever
attendees,4 a panic syndrome (having broader diagnostic has panic attacks when confronted by spiders would be diag-
criteria than panic disorder itself) was detected in 9.2% of nosed as having a specific phobia rather than panic disorder.
women and 5.6% of men studied, with the figures for the UK The DSM-5 diagnostic system3 requires that at least one attack
slightly higher at 10.3% and 8.8%. For GPs, knowledge of how is followed by a month or more of either anticipatory anxiety,
to identify panic disorder and initiate one of the many effective ie a persistent worry about having further attacks, or a mala-
treatments is valuable, because if unrecognised, the disorder daptive behavioural change such as avoiding certain activities
has the potential not only to impair quality of life through its or situations to reduce the likelihood of further attacks (which
disabling and unpleasant symptoms, but also to mimic several can lead to agoraphobia). Panic disorder should not be diag-
physical illnesses exposing the patient to avoidable investiga- nosed where symptoms can be accounted for by a direct med-
tions and procedures. ical cause, eg hyperthyroidism, or panic-inducing substances,
notably caffeine.
Diagnosis The patients history of physical symptoms and fearful cog-
A panic attack is a discrete period of fear or anxiety that has nitions must be taken carefully, as this leads to the diagnosis.
a rapid onset, reaches a peak within 10 minutes and in which Evidence may be gathered by asking the patient to keep a diary
at least four of 13 characteristic symptoms are experienced.3 of anxiety symptoms, or by using questionnaires for self-rating,
Many of these symptoms involve bodily systems, such as racing such as the Bodily Sensations Questionnaire.5
heart, chest pain, sweating, shaking, dizziness, flushing, stom- In previous classifications, agoraphobia (from the Greek
ach churning, faintness, breathlessness, numbness/tingling fear of the marketplace) was regarded as being closely linked
and sensations of choking. A common accompanying symptom to panic disorder and described as a fear or avoidance of situ-
is derealisation (a sense of the world feeling unreal), or dep- ations where a panic attack would be particularly distressing.
ersonalisation (the sense of being disconnected from ones For example, a person might avoid attending a concert where
personal identity). Further recognised panic attack symptoms it would be difficult and disruptive to try to escape if a panic
involve fearful cognitions, such as the fear of losing control, attack was imminent. Eventually the fear and avoidance might
going mad or dying. be so generalised that the patient may be afraid of going out at
Panic attacks may happen in the absence of any diagnosis, all. However, in DSM-53 the requirement for agoraphobia to be
but can occur in several of the anxiety disorders and, indeed, related exclusively to anticipation of panic attacks was removed.
in other psychiatric disorders. To make a diagnosis of panic Although the long-established link between agoraphobia and
disorder (see Table 1), further conditions must be met relating panic disorder has been downgraded, the criteria still require
to attacks they must be recurrent, and some should come on fear or avoidance of situations due to thoughts about difficulties
that might arise if panic-like symptoms were to occur.
Recurrent panic attacks involving at least four symptoms (physical
The aetiology of panic disorder is not fully understood and
sensations such as racing heart, chest pain, sweating, trembling,
is probably heterogeneous. Biological theories incorporate the
choking, breathlessness, nausea, dizziness/lightheadedness,
faulty triggering of an inbuilt anxiety response, possibly a suffo-
paraesthesias and hot flushes or cold chills, thoughts of derealisation/
cation alarm. Evidence for this comes from biological challenge
depersonalisation and fears, eg of dying or going mad
tests (lactate and carbon dioxide trigger panic in those with
Attacks reach a peak quickly and some are unexpected or
the disorder) and from animal experiments and neuroimaging
spontaneous
studies in humans that show activation of fear circuits, such as
At least one attack followed by a month of persistent anxiety about
that involving the periaqueductal grey (PAG) matter.
having further attacks and/or a maladaptive change in behaviour
As in other anxiety disorders, evidence exists to suggest
related to the attack
that aberrant immunological mechanisms may play a role in
Attacks not explained by a medical condition or substance, eg caffeine
panic disorder6 but this area requires further investigation to
When agoraphobia* is present, fear or anxiety over at least six months,
see if preliminary findings on altered cortisol reactivity and
of two or more situations such as public transport, open or enclosed
cytokine concentrations may yield new insights for development
spaces, being in queues or crowds or being alone outside the home,
of treatments or assessment of response.
in which developing panic-like symptoms could be distressing, ie
The cognitive model of panic describes a vicious circle of
thoughts that escape might be difficult or help not available. The
a fearful interpretation of normal body symptoms leading to
agoraphobic situations must be actively avoided or tolerated with
an anxiety response. For example, a person noticing their own
intense fear or else require a companion to be present, and the fear,
heartbeat may misinterpret this normal perception as being
anxiety or avoidance must cause clinically significant distress and be
evidence that there is a problem with the functioning of their
out of proportion to the actual danger the situations pose
heart, leading to fear that a serious cardiovascular issue may
*Note: Unlike previous DSM classifications, agoraphobia can now be be about to emerge. The consequent increase in physical symp-
diagnosed irrespective of the presence of a diagnosis of panic disorder toms associated with this anxiety, eg breathlessness, tremor
and stronger palpitations, may amplify the perception leading to
Table 1. Diagnostic features of panic disorder (DSM-5)2 a catastrophic panic attack. It stresses the predisposing role of
beliefs about the meaning of bodily sensations in the aetiology ing, thus allowing consideration of the associated diagnosis of
of the disorder.7 Exploration and challenge of this model forms agoraphobia. Possible psychological and medical factors in the
the basis of cognitive therapy for panic disorder. aetiology should be identified.
Once a diagnosis has been made, in the authors clinical
Risk factors and clinical course experience, the first therapeutic intervention will be to explain
Patients frequently have a family history of panic disorder or the nature of the symptoms and the disorder to the patient. The
other anxiety and mood disorders. Epidemiological studies sug- explanation must clearly be tailored to the level of understand-
gest a significant genetic contribution,8 although the specific ing of the patient, but it is usually helpful to mention something
genes implicated have not yet been identified. It is more com- about both the medical and cognitive models. Most patients
mon in females than males by a ratio of around 2:1. There is an benefit greatly from feeling that their symptoms can be under-
association with fearful spells in childhood, and with sexual or stood and explained.
physical abuse. Phobic symptoms commonly precede the panic
attacks and onset of panic disorder may be triggered by a life Treatment of panic disorder
event or a period of exposure to ongoing stress. Smoking, alco- The acute symptoms of panic disorder are highly treatable,
holism and respiratory disorders are further known risk factors. particularly in the absence of complicating features such as
In a longitudinal study of individuals having an index epi- severe agoraphobia and problem drinking or other substance
sode of an anxiety disorder,9 18% of those having panic disorder misuse. Drug treatments and psychotherapy have been shown
without agoraphobia at entry were still in their index episode to be effective, both alone and in combination. Once the diagno-
of panic disorder after 12 years of follow-up. For panic disorder sis has been explained to the patient, it is often reasonable to
with agoraphobia, the figure was 48%, suggesting that the ago- give a hopeful prognosis, outline the available treatments and
raphobia component is associated with chronicity. For compar- negotiate a treatment package.
ison, the figures for social phobia and GAD were 37% and 58%
respectively. However, among individuals who did achieve recov- Pharmacological treatments
ery, those with panic disorder, with or without agoraphobia, were Various medications (see Table 2) have been shown to be effec-
more prone to subsequent relapse (56% and 58% respectively tive against the symptoms of panic disorder13,14 and clinical
over the 12-year follow-up period) than were those with other studies have demonstrated high rates of efficacy up to 80 per
anxiety disorders. The prognosis for panic disorder is worse in cent in some trials using drugs originally developed for depres-
the presence of depression.10 sion (antidepressants). Among antidepressants, citalopram,
escitalopram, paroxetine, sertraline and certain formulations
Panic disorder and other medical conditions of venlafaxine are licensed specifically for panic disorder. In
The relationship with other medical disorders is complicated addition, several benzodiazepines were licensed as anxiolytics
and requires careful assessment. The somatic symptoms of a prior to the emergence of panic disorder as a recognised diag-
panic attack can mimic a range of conditions including asthma, nosis in 1980. Numerous double-blind randomised trials have
congestive cardiac failure, angina, cardiac arrhythmia, benign demonstrated significantly higher rates of response or remission
positional vertigo and thyroid abnormalities. One study found on active drug compared with placebo, despite panic disorder
panic disorder in over 10 per cent of patients referred to a cardi- being typically associated with relatively high rates of placebo
ology clinic with palpitations.11 However, patients may have both response. These trials, which will be discussed in the follow-
cardiac disease and panic disorder, and investigations such ing paragraphs, are summarised in the British Association for
as an ECG should be considered, particularly if dizziness, syn- Psychopharmacology guidelines for the evidence-based pharma-
cope or persistent tachycardia is present. There are reported cological treatment of anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress
associations of panic disorder with hypertension, mitral valve disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder13 and described
prolapse, exercise avoidance, thyroid disease, temporal lobe in greater detail in the Canadian clinical practice guidelines for
epilepsy and migraine; and with use of alcohol, amphetamines, the management of anxiety, post-traumatic stress and obses-
benzodiazepines, cannabis and cocaine.12 sive-compulsive disorders.14
The main classes with evidence of efficacy are drugs that
Clinical assessment and psychoeducation augment the function of serotonin (and sometimes noradren-
Diagnosis of panic disorder is made from the history, although aline) through reuptake blockade and drugs acting as positive
further investigation of somatic symptoms may be appropri- allosteric modulators at GABAA receptor (benzodiazepines).
ate. Panic attacks, their constituent symptoms, frequency and Although similar in overall efficacy, they differ in speed of onset
occurrence with and/or without situational triggers should be and side-effect profile (see Figure 1 and Table 3), with benzo-
noted. Fearful cognitions can be unearthed by a process of diazepines notably having an increased risk of dependence
Socratic questioning, ie persistent, inquisitive interrogation and tolerance.15 Note that while panic disorder is frequently
until the root cause of the problem is uncovered. The patient co-morbid with depression or with other anxiety disorders such
may deny or avoid disclosing their central fears. An assessment as GAD and social anxiety disorder, fortunately the majority (but
of functional impairment should be made, with enquiries about not all) of the drug treatments known to be effective in these
avoidance of situations in which attacks may be embarrass- conditions also have evidence of efficacy in panic disorder.
drome16 has been observed or is anticipated from the patients follow-up of placebo-controlled randomised trials for several
previous experience. drugs, notably the SSRIs citalopram, paroxetine, fluoxetine
A further strategy is to provide a small supply of benzo and fluvoxamine, and the tricyclics clomipramine and imipra-
diazepines, eg clonazepam, as a rescue medication, which can mine. Moclobemide has similar evidence from a comparator
be carried by the patient to be taken only in case of onset, or antic- randomised trial. Sertraline was as effective as imipramine in
ipated onset, of a severe panic attack on an as-needed basis. The an RCT lasting six months. The benzodiazepines alprazolam
authors have observed in their clinical practice that some patients and clonazepam have also shown to be effective in long-term
report that the mere existence of the tablet as a means to head treatment of two and three years respectively, although as dis-
off an attack has had an empowering effect, enabling them to face cussed in the section above, the pros and cons of embarking
situations that they would otherwise have avoided. This can be on benzodiazepine treatment beyond four weeks must be con-
very important in overall outcome, as fear of facing panic-inducing sidered carefully.
situations significantly limits behavioural interventions to improve SSRIs, venlafaxine and imipramine have additionally been
panic. Also, restricting the actual administration of the drug to inci- reported to outperform placebo in preventing relapse in dis-
dences where a panic attack is either expected or the symptoms continuation studies (randomised trials conducted in patients
have just been perceived to be starting, may allow the problems who have achieved remission, with some participants allo-
of tolerance and withdrawal phenomena to be avoided. cated to either continue the medication they responded to or to
The question of allowing regular benzodiazepines to be con- switch to placebo). Patients who are responding well to an anti
tinued for more than four weeks is more controversial; for exam- depressant at 12 weeks should generally have it continued for
ple, the BNF advises avoiding prolonged use.20 This standpoint at least six months. When stopping, the antidepressant should
is based on the judgement that the potential for tolerance (with be tapered off to reduce the likelihood of a discontinuation
possible dose escalation), difficult withdrawal and side-effects reaction (especially with paroxetine and venlafaxine). Despite
such as sedation, increased rate of motor vehicle accidents careful treatment, a significant number of patients will expe-
and, in older patients, increased risk of falls, fractures and rience a recurrence, and may require long-term maintenance
possibly cognitive impairment represent too great a burden therapy.
of risk in relation to the therapeutic effect, which is less well
characterised beyond four weeks.21 In contrast, a recent expert Psychological treatments
consensus statement15 advises that, providing the question of Evidence exists for several forms of psychotherapy in panic dis-
dose reduction is discussed with the patient from time to time, order, including CBT,22 its constituent components of cognitive
long-term benzodiazepine use can be an acceptable strategy in therapy and behavioural therapy, third wave CBT techniques
panic disorder if a benzodiazepine has delivered relief where (which include mindfulness-based approaches), as well as psy-
other treatments have failed, and where dose escalation has chodynamic therapy, psychoeducation and supportive therapy.
been avoided. It should be noted that observational studies of A recent Cochrane review,23 using the network meta-analysis
benzodiazepines in panic disorder usually find reduced rather technique, has examined evidence on these various psycho-
than increased usage over time, suggesting tolerance is not a therapeutic approaches for panic disorder. CBT has the most
major factor in this patient population. extensive evidence base and there was some lower grade
evidence to suggest that CBT, along with psychodynamic ther-
Other drug strategies apy and the nonspecific modality of supportive therapy, were
A further strategy having good-quality trial evidence is the aug- superior to the remaining approaches. For many prescribers,
mentation of fluoxetine with pindolol, an antihypertensive drug the reported value of supportive therapy, which is not directly
that has both beta-receptor blocking and serotonin-modulating tailored to panic disorder per se but requires the more general
properties. Sodium valproate has also been evaluated in sev- skills of empathic listening and direction, is of interest as this
eral small open trials with some evidence of effect, and may approach can easily be adopted when seeing the patient to
be worth trying either as monotherapy or in combination with review their progress and adjust medications.
antidepressants when other strategies have failed. The combination of antidepressant medication with psycho-
therapy has been reported in a meta-analysis to have superior
Drugs having negative trial evidence efficacy over psychotherapy alone and over antidepressants
Some drugs have been reported to be ineffective in RCTs for alone, both during the acute treatment phase and subsequent
the acute treatment of panic disorder as monotherapy; these continuation phase.24 More controversially, the same paper
include buspirone, trazodone, carbamazepine, tiagabine and suggested that overall, psychotherapy alone (as well as com-
propranolol. The dopamine/noradrenaline reuptake blocker bination treatment) may be a preferable first-line strategy to
bupropion has evidence of effect in an open trial but was inef- antidepressants alone. This was based on analyses of relapse
fective in an RCT. rates 624 months after treatment discontinuation, ie stop-
ping antidepressants and/or ceasing psychotherapy sessions,
Longer term drug treatment which indicated that: (a) patients who had been treated with
Long-term treatment efficacy of maintenance therapy over six the combination were less likely than those who had received
months to three years has been established through open antidepressants to suffer relapse in this period; and (b) no dif-
ference emerged between patients who had had the combina- evidence base such as gabapentin, risperidone, pindolol aug-
tion and those who had received psychotherapy alone. However, mentation of SSRIs and possibly sodium valproate.
the combination vs antidepressants only analysis identified Benzodiazepines are also effective, but the issues of if and
five trials where comparison of relapse rate after treatment when they should be introduced, given the many concerns asso-
discontinuation was possible, three of which employed tricyclic ciated with their longer term use, may provide challenges for the
antidepressants and one moclobemide none of which are con- prescriber, especially when faced with a patient who is eager to
sidered to be first-line drug treatments for panic disorder.13,14 access the rapid relief they can provide. Where benzodiazepines
Three of the five trials employed CBT as the psychotherapy, the are judged to be appropriate, the prescriber must decide whether
superiority of combination treatment over antidepressants after they should be given only pro re nata (when required; such as
discontinuation in these three meta-analysed together being the rescue medication approach), as a regular but short-term
marginal (p=0.05). prescription, or occasionally (in circumstances discussed earlier)
The only trial to report a significant difference between as a longer-term regular prescription.
combination therapy and antidepressants alone after dis- In addition, various psychotherapies, most notably CBT, but
continuation 25 actually used psychodynamic therapy. The also supportive therapy and psychodynamic therapy, have an
authors of this trial acknowledged that because both groups established evidence base, and using psychotherapy together
had medication managed by a GP but the combination group with antidepressants may be more effective than either psy-
additionally had psychotherapy delivered by expert therapists chotherapy or antidepressants alone. Diagnosis and effective
at a centre of excellence while those allocated to medication treatment is essential to prevent or reduce the many adverse
only had no additional input, results could be subject to an consequences of this potentially disabling anxiety disorder.
expectation bias. Participants in the latter group were fully
aware they had missed out on receiving the psychodynamic References
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nant use of second-line antidepressants in the trials identified
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and the marginal outcome if only the trials employing CBT are
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ports the use of psychotherapy as the first-line treatment over ual of mental disorders (5th edn.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric
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at Imperial College, London; and Jon Nash is a consultant
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POEMs
Antipsychotics worsen symptoms in patients with delirium who receive palliative care
Clinical question: of distress. Patients were randomised, of the symptom, for a total score of 0 to
Do antipsychotic drugs improve symp- using concealed allocation, to receive 6. The primary outcome was the average
toms of distress associated with delir- either oral risperidone, haloperidol, or pla- of the last two delirium symptom scores
ium in patients receiving palliative care? cebo for 72 hours for the management on day 3 of treatment. The three study
of these symptoms. There were slightly groups had similar delirium symptom
Bottom line: more than 80 patients in each of the scores at baseline. The mean age in each
For hospitalised patients with acute three arms. The initial dose for both ris- group was 75 years and almost 90% of
delirium and symptoms of distress who peridone and haloperidol was 1mg, with patients had cancer. Analysis was by
are receiving palliative care, the use of maintenance doses of 0.5mg every 12 intention to treat.
risperidone or haloperidol at conserva- hours titrated to a maximum dosage of Overall, patients who received haloper-
tive oral doses worsens symptoms and 4mg daily. Patients older than 65 years idol and patients who received risperidone
may shorten overall survival. (LOE = 1b) received half this dosage. All patients also had significantly higher delirium symptom
received nonpharmacologic measures for scores at day 3 as compared with those
Reference: delirium treatment, as well as treatment who received placebo by an average of
Agar MR, et al. JAMA Intern Med 2016; for reversible precipitants of delirium. 0.48 and 0.24, respectively. Both inter-
5 Dec [Epub ahead of print]. Subcutaneous midazolam was given as vention groups also required more rescue
needed for patients who required imme- midazolam than did the placebo group.
Study design: Randomised controlled diate intervention for safety or distress. Finally, the haloperidol group was noted to
trial (double-blinded). Funding source: Delirium symptom scores were obtained have decreased overall survival compared
Government. Allocation: Concealed. every eight hours using the three items with the placebo group (hazard ratio 1.73;
Setting: Inpatient (ward only). on the Nursing Delirium Screening Scale 95% CI 1.202.50; p=0.003). The authors
that are considered measures of distress suggest that this may be due to prolonged
Synopsis: (inappropriate behaviour, inappropriate delirium or longer exposure to antipsychot-
These researchers enrolled 247 hospital- communication, and illusions/hallucina- ics. Survival was also decreased in the ris-
ised patients who were receiving palliative tions). Each item was scored from 0 to peridone group, though this did not reach
care and had delirium-related symptoms 2, based on the presence and intensity statistical significance.