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    Ruth I. Defford: Zacconi's Theories of Tactus and Mensuration, Journal of Musicology, vol. 14 , No. 2 (Spring, 1996)

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    Ruth I. Defford: Zacconi's Theories of Tactus and Mensuration, Journal of Musicology, vol. 14 , No. 2 (Spring, 1996)

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    Defford - Zacconi's Theories of Tactus

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    Ruth I. Defford: Zacconi's Theories of Tactus and Mensuration, Journal of Musicology, vol. 14 , No. 2 (Spring, 1996)

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    Zacconi’s Theories of Tactus and Mensuration Ruth I, DeFord The Journal of Musicology, Vol. 14, No. 2. (Spring, 1996), pp. 151-182. Stable URL hitp:/flinks.jstor-org/sicisici 177-9269%28199621%2914%3A2%3C1S1%3AZTOTAM%3E2.0.CO%3SB2-P The Journal of Musicology is currently published by University of California Press. Your use of the ISTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at hup:/www,jstororglabout/terms.hml. ISTOR’s Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at hutp:/www jstor.orgyjournals/ucal html, ch copy of any part of'a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the sereen or printed page of such transmission, ISTOR is an independent not-for-profit organization dedicated to creating and preserving a digital archive of scholarly journals. For more information regarding JSTOR, please contact support @ jstor.org. hupulwww jstor.org/ Thu Ape 27 22:23:41 2006 Zacconi’s Theories of Tactus and Mensuration RUTH I. DeFORD Volume XIV + Number #« Spring 1996 ‘The Journal of Musicology © 1996 by the Regents ofthe Universiy of Califo * Will Ape, The Notation of Pabphonic Music, 900-1600, 5th ed, (Cambridge, MA. 1953), 190, presents the classic version of this view: "Additonal evidence in support of the princpie of tempo-stabily i found in the fifteenth and sixteenth century theory of proportions, which i essendally based upon the idea ofa fundamental and unchange- Eble uni of me, the tatu.” Ur 152 THE JOURNAL OF MUSICOLOGY challenged? alternative interpretations of the musical funetion of tac- tus have not been explored. Ludovico Zacconi offers such an alternative in his Pattca di musica (part I, 1592; part II, 1622),3 a work notable for its wealth of observa tions about performance practices and the aesthetic effects of different types of music.+ A former student of Andrea Gabrieli and singer in the Bavarian court chapel under Lassus at the time part I of the treatise was, published, Zacconi approaches his subject from the perspective of a practical performer. In his view, tactus i only loosely related to tempo, but intimately connected to the metric and rhythmic character of the leyden’s theory is found in De ae canends (Nuremberg, 1540) face, Moma ments of Music and Muse Lterare in Facsimile, ser, no. 139 (New York 196; {ta by Clement A. Miler, Musicological Studies and Documents 26 (np Ameria Insite of Mesicology, 1972) Aldwough there evidence hat Heyden was more com ered about tempo rlatnships atin pices than ith ingle tempo for ll Gement Miler “Sebald Heyden's De are cand Background and dina XXIV (1970), go-ge,nerprets Heyden aah an aol ‘stimates cto be approximately MM 95 TTA. Bank Forts, Temp, and Notation in Menara Music fom te 13th he 17 Contry (tower, ag72), interprets the tempo implications of tat ay strict, at onchides thatthe theory of one tacts of variable sped cannot be sustained” (259), {Gat Dah, "Zar Theorie des Tacs im 16. Jahrhundert” Are fr Masher XVI (1g), 12-30, gues that before the tine af Heyden, dhe tac could have ee diferent wales, one a and the other 3/2 of the baie value. Daas takes more flexible poston “Die Tact und Proportonenlee des bis 17-Jahehunder”n en, Hsin und Recon in der fren Nowe, ed. Frieder Zamine’, Geschichte der Musktheoie 6 (Dara, 1987), 394-01, claiming that although mensuraton ign {id cary tempo implications, they cannot be reduced oa simple tem in which eve things compared t single standard of reference Dale Bonge,“Galfrius on Plse and ‘Tempo: A Reinexpreation,” Musica ducpna XXXVI gin, 067-74. claims that the analogies between Tatu and pte nthe writings of Ramos and Gafuran should be interpreted ax humaniicatempls to relate mse physiology, not as tempo prescrip. 1 Part hereafer Pte, 1598) was published by Girolamo Polo (Venice, 1992) and reisued in 1596 by Bartolomeo Carampelio. Only the ie page and the other al afte same sheet the hast ao of the taal) were reprinted. Patil (herealter Prati, 1622) wat published by Alewandro Vincent (Venice, 162). aceon oigialy regarded past a te complete creative andl didnot cal it rina pare nthe print, but when he {Eccded! o pink adioal wok thi years ter, he called i Prati d ms, se ‘onda pot nd refered to the cake treatee a the at past of is Pain d musta in the tee Facs-eds of both part, (Hildesheim, 1982) and Bibliotheca Musca Bononien $8. sen tl m1 (Bologna 1967, rep. 1983) * Fetch Chryeander, “Lvtovico Zacconi als Lehrer des Kunsigesangs.” Vint Jjokncht for Muster IX (1893). 249, called atenion to the importance and 1 Garacer of Zacon's work 2 century af. calming that it contains dhe most {Complete and mos vakable information onthe a of singing Wansmited by any wer tthe second hal of the steenth century. Chryander summarizes much of the content Sr'he tease, but ores the portions dealing with ehyhm and tacks, iid, vos. 7 {ison sap-g6:9 (igs) aygegiovand 10 (1894) 3-07 More rece, James Har, {x Shtednth-Centry Attempt Mus CHa Jura! of te Ameren sell Sac XXXVI (19H) 191-809, has analved Zaccon's description of composes personal ‘Seas unig examples of satentcenury "music et.” DEPORD music that it governs, Zacconi regards the choice of factus as erucial to the performance of music, because the aesthetic effect of rhythms depends significantly on their relationship to the beat. A large propor- tion of his treatise is devoted to advocating, often in a distinctly polemi- cal tone, a terminology and notation that would eliminate ambiguities in the relationship between tactus and signs of mensuration and pro- portion. Zacconi is a late witness for the mensural system, well aware of his own historical distance from many aspects of it. He distinguishes “mod- ern” composers from composers he calls “old” (the generations of Willaert and Palestrina) and “ancient” (the generation of Josquin),» and tells how he has studied many “ancient” works in the chapel li. braries of the Archduke of Austria, the Duke of Bavaria, and the emperor in the course of writing part I of his treatise.° Despite his di gent study, his understanding of traditional mensural not heav- ily colored by his experience of more recent musical styles. Although he admires the symmetry and rationality of the mensural system and believes in its universal validity, he fails to understand the original pur- pose of many aspects of it and often invents farfetched explanations for them, His interpretations of the rhythm of “ancient” music could there- fore be dismissed as anachronistic, but his observations about the rela tionship between tactus and thythmic character in that music reflect, genuine sensitivity to its style. Earlier theorists often hinted at similar interpretations without exploring them in as much detail. With the anachronistic elements removed, Zacconi’s views can be understood to complement, rather than contradict, those of theorists closer in time to the older music he discusses. Zacconi differs from earlier theorists primarily in that he is con- cerned with metric organization only on the level of the tactus; larger units of time, involving regular groupings of tactus, have no meaning to him, Tactus is of two types: equal, in which the two strokes are equal in length, and unequal, in which the downstroke is twice as long as the upstroke.7 All distinctions among mensural categories are subordinate to the basic distinction between the two types of factus. He explains as follows: “Music is subject to the judgment of the hearing, and hearing does not judge it in any way other than by its effects... The order of the fig- lures [ie. the rhythm] produces as many effects as there are different > Pratca (1592), Bh. thy 9, fol 7: © Pratica (1622), BR. 1, eh. ts P16. + Pratca (1592). bk ch: $9 fol. 20°24", Bank, Tacs, Tempo, and Nuation, 29 ‘aims incorrecdy that Zacconi describes the order of strokes as updown, rather dh ower, 153 154 THE JOURNAL OF MUSIC: LOGY actus that control it. Since there are only two tactus, it follows that rhythm produces only two effects: one of equal figures and the other of unequal figures....If we consider all songs and listen to them sung, we will judge all of those that are composed in a binary manner to be of one type and those that are ternary to be of another Superimposing this view on traditional mensural theory, Zacconi creates a system with six general classes of mensuration: imperfect tem- {nus, proportions, ternary opposed numbers, perfect tempus, modus, and prolation (see Table 1). Imperfect tempus is duple meter governed by equal factus. Proportions (which he defines on the basis of colloquial usage, not traditional theoretical terminology) are triple meters gov. emed by unequal tactus. Ternary opposed numbers are rhythms in which groups of three notes are measured by an equal factus, creating a threeagainst-two relation between the rhythms and the divisions of the actus. Perfect tempus and modus, which specified regular groupings of tactus in earlier theory and practice, differ from imperfect tempus only notationally in Zacconi’s system. Likewise prolation, which Zacconi defines as a ternary division of the semibreve, is functionally identical to perfect tempus (notated in half values and augmented), proportions, ‘or ternary opposed numbers, depending on the context, and differs from those categories only in notation. Imperfect tempus is the neutral mensuration to which all others are ‘compared and contrasted. Its effect is produced by the equality and uni- formity of the divisions of its tactus. Zacconi calls it “natural and pure” (naturale ¢ puro)? but says also that its motion may sound “weak and bor- 18" (debolee noise) in contrast to the “impetuous and changed” (violento ¢ alterato) motion of unequal factus."° The signs of imperfect tempus are C, which requires a semibreve tac- tus, and ¢, which requires a breve tactus according to traditional theory, but was Usually performed with a semibreve tactus by the late sixteenth ' sPerd essendo la Musica sottoposta al guditio del dito, eso udito per alta via non la ghudica se non per geet suoi..-. L'ordine delle igure ‘and effet produce, quant «divers at Tinformano: & perche due tat solamente sono quell che le informano, per ‘questo si dice chanco dua effet solamente producano; uno effeo di figure equale per la Salih dele igure, dali [sie] i figure inequale dalla Inequalia di dete gure. ~~ Se ‘ot pighamo tate ie cantilene insieme, &e che Vudiamo a cantare, tutte quelle che se ‘anno compost soto la consideration binara le giudicaremo dna torte, quelle che ‘eranno.contemute dalla termaria dan altra" Prati (1593), bk, 3. ch. 33, fl 174 Bid. Dk. 3, ch. 61, f0l.1767. ‘» "Bitar (Songs) havea cern condnuous and equal movement similar toa weak and boring motion, ot impetuous and changed, lke dhat of ternary [songs] governed by the unequal motion of proportions” ("Le [cantiene]binarie fanno wn certo movimento ‘continuo equale simile 4 un movimento debole & noioso, non violent alterat, ‘come ¢ quello delle ternarieridote soto il moto inequate & di Proportone.") Ibid, bk eh 60, fol. 175 TABLE 1 Mensural Categories According to Zacconi DEFORD. A, Imperfect Tempus mn simpte bb beoytat cu eeoor db I B, Proportions Perfect Imperfect Major 02 (or 2) « 6 « 08 (ort eee t sino 0 LL ealll G.Temary Opposed Numbers all sequen #111 ven el t| sone ob UI eee 155 156 THE JOURNAL OF MUSICOLOGY TABLE 1 (continued) E Modus ae er mM Er reel Minor BE w=n aw oy " twos eth acd ced dornee! a ee ' mia Avgumented of ell ' vow ol LL LLL UNL edd il Bememenss ETL USL LL a LL LLL century"! (see Table 1A). Zacconi regards the difference between the ‘wo signs as slight, since both represent duple meters measured with equal tactus. He justifies the existence of ¢ on numerological grounds, in Hana On the tatusof fin the sixteenth century, see Wolf Frobenis, “Tact “ esbaden, vwonebuck er asia ‘ed. Hans Heinrich Eggebrecht rove), 7-10. and Bank, Tactus, Tempo, and Notation, 236-50. DEFORD claiming that since the tactus originally corresponded to one semibreve in imperfect tempus and three semibreves in proportions, people felt a need for a sign with a tactus of two semibreves to complete the series of numbers.'+ He believes that pieces in ¢ should be composed in such a way that a breve Lactusis feasible (.c., they should contain a whole num- ber of breve tempora, breve rests should not be syncopated, and the tempo should not be so slow that a breve tactus would have no sense of relationship to the pulse), but that in practice they may be performed with either a breve or a semibreve ‘actus at the discretion of the Singers's The possibility of real metric organization on the breve level seems not to be an issue to him, since he notes that many composers observe the custom of writing a whole number of breve tempora in ¢ without knowing the reason for its ‘The condition that a breve ‘actus should have a comfortable tempo in { means that any given note value takes less time in ¢ than in €, but since the notated values are normally larger, the average speed of the notes tends to be slower in ¢. There is, however, no fixed tempo rela tionship between the signs. Tempo may be faster or slower depending oon the place, time, and occasion.'s In secular music, itis entirely at the discretion of the singers, but in sacred music, while some leeway is pos: sible, it should fall within reasonable limits. A tactus that is too slow will sound tedious and is difficult to keep steady; one that is too fast will sound disorderly and may cause the conductor to make the strokes unequal and the singers to fall behind the beat. Zacconi's complaints about excessively fast tacts in performances he has heard make it clear, however, that not all conductors shared his opinion: ' Pratica (1992). DR. 1, ch. gu, fos 19201. The reasoning is contradictory, ‘because proportions wilh Uhre semibreses per lacus correspond to 4, not C . Pethaps scr he neaknes fin argument Zaccon as hat wa iene ot ol 1 co plete the series of numbers, bur alo to diminish the values of the figures, though for ‘what purpose he does not sy. In the preceding chapter (bk. 1, ch. 30, fol ag), he sys that the breve was the first figure of fartus, and that it was divided int two or three pa Although he is inconsistent about which figure represented the original equal latuy his ‘point chat all spes of mensurtion mere derived from two original ones corresponding to The two types of tatu clear, Mensuration is based on tacusand not site wea. Zaccont's derivations of signs obviously have no historical foundation, but they reveal much about his concept ofthe mensural system. "Hid, Bk. 1, ch, 96, fol. 24'-25%. Zacconi chides his contemporaries for their fe ‘quent failure to observe even these minimal equlreme bic, Bk ch 18, Tol go 'S *ifflerent tarts may be faster or slower, according to the place, time, and occa sion, because this variety does not ereate any defect in muse as longs the one who gives the beat knows how to speed it up and slow it down and make the sboveme Ing and falling motions equal and not altered.” ("Pa tat possano esere qu ‘€ qual piu tard, secondo il ioc, il tempo, &Voceasione, che questa varie hon apporia verun diffewo se pero chi regge i tatto, lo sa restringere, & allargare, & far che fa suet alzata cadduta venghi in ato equate, & non alterato") Ibid. Dk. 1, ch 43, fol a0 137 158 THE JOURNAL OF MUSICGOLOGY Secular music, namely, villandlla,canzonete, and madrigals, are sung, and may be sung according to the common wish of those who sing them and have them sung; but since sacred music is of a different nature, I have decided to give the present explanation, saying that in it three things require very great attention. ... The third .. is the tac 1s, with which music is controlled and guided, which, although the person who administers itis free to administer it as he pleases, never: theless has its proper limits; that is, it should be neither so slow that it ‘ereates tedium and langour nor so fast that it produces dissonance, displeasure, and disgust. I say this because I have heard it beaten so fast in some chapels that instead of giving pleasure and delight, the ‘music made people turn their backs, close their ears, and at times ‘even leave the church, And I have been amazed especially to see that the singers beating with such great speed, being unable to keep up with the speed of the facius, were always half a tartus behind; and one ‘lashing with the voice of another, they made such discordant melody FT should call it melody) that nothing similar could be heard (any: where]... [have also seen this when the ‘actus is so fast the motions from one interval to the next, which are those that we commonly call the beat, not being equal, are altered in an ugly and monstrous way, there being always more’time on the upstroke than on the down. stroke, and it seems that in lowering his hand, the person who is beat. ing always touches things that sting or shock him. ‘The choice of sign by the composer, like the choice of tactus by the is a matter of judgment. If the tempo appropriate to the jon sign conflicts with the musical style, Zacconi recommends choosing tempo and actus on the basis of the style, not the sign: “The actus... should not be taken so slowly that it goes beyond its ordinary measure, because it is easier for a singer to read one figure with the © “Le Musiche secolari, essendo Vilanell, Canzonete, ¢ Madrigal, si cantano, ¢ possino cantare 4 commun volere di color, ee le cantano, efanno cantare; ma perche eceesiastiche sono daltra natura, econsideratione; per questo fo mi sone posto a fame it presente ragionamento con die. Che A tre cose grandisimamente vi bisogna avert, Tl terz0 +4 € il ttt, con eu le Musiche verano sumministrate, & informate: i quale, quantungue sian libertad col, che lo ministra i ministrarlo comungue vuole, on nut cd, & pur la sua debbita linitauone; cog, che non sa, ne oppo lent, che gener tedio, «languiderra, ne anco pot tanto veloce, che venghi a produrre disonanz, Aispiacere, ¢ schifezza. Questo io lo ico: perche, ho senito in aleune capelle suinis- trarlo tanto velocemente, che in Mogo le loro Musiche 'aggradire, piacere, e diletare, faceano viger le sale, chiuder Vorecehie, & anco ale vote dalla Chiesa uscire. Eto in partcolare mi son preso non picciola maravigla, in vedere, che i Cantor! battendosi con fanta accelerite prestezza, per non poter loro seguitar la ylocia del rato, andavano Sempre mezzo tat indietro. & uno uftando con la voce del ‘melodia, (se melodia Ia debbo chiamare) ch'alia simile ‘edto anco questo di pi nel batter cost presto: che gl'at sono quel, che noi communemente chiamamo batuta, non essendo” equal. sono tera! di brut, e mostruosaalteatone, esiendo sempre pitt tempo nella leita, che nella caduta e pare apunto che quel tale ce bate, nel calar della mano, occhi sempre cose, che To punghino, 0 scottino, Pratica (1622), Dk, Like sugar and gems, proportions must be used with discretion, because they are precious in small quantities, but lose their effect or become distasteful in excess. All proportions share the general effect of unequal tactus, but within this broad category, many more subtle distinctions can be made (on the basis of the rhythms and textures of different passages. The pure and natural rhythms of proportions are those that conform most closely to the ternary division of the tactus (see Example 3).27 Proportions using only those rhythms in homorhythmic textures are called scilte (unbound), while more complex ones combining independent rhythms in different voices are called alacciate (bound) (see Examples 4 and 5) = Spataro finds fault with three compositions of Aaron's on this bai and accuses hhim_of being among those who beat ¢ in semibreves, although Aaron agrees with Spataro's wiews of lacus in hie writings. Letters of 30 January 154¢ and 27 November In38, in A Comspandenc of Reniscance Musicians, ed, Bonnie J. Blackburn, Edward E, Lowinsky, and Clement A. Miller (Oxford, 1991). 416, 419, and 448. See aso commen fan, ibid, 113 fs Letter of 4 March 153 Letter of 27 November 153 2 Pratica (4592), bh. 3, chs. 58 Tid, Bk. 3 chs. Bob, fo 0 Tid BR 3. ch. 65, fol 178 hid, 620-21, ‘bid 149, andl commentary, 118, note 22 1460, fos. 174" and 175 161 162 THE JOURNAL OF MUSIGOLOGY EXAMPLE 3. Pure and natural rhythms of proportions. ‘ t oy ohn . oo Ch, | 4 t ot Hew wo RI LI ' ello ek EXAMPLE 4, Proportion’ sciolt, Zacconi, Prattica (1592), £. 186, EXAMPLE 5. Proportione alacciata. Zacconi, Prattica (1592), £1860. 4 1 DEFORD EXAMPLE 6. Proportion with “strange and unusual” rhythms. Zacconi, Prattca (1592), £. 181v. ‘ n ‘The latter are more artful, but both types are equally important, because they correspond to different textual affects.*8 Rhythms not conforming to the unequal factus in proportions pro- duce a variety of different effects, A series of six notes that divides the downstroke into four parts and the upstroke into two may sound more like a rhythm with equal (actus than a proportion, because the equal division of each stroke may be more prominent than the unequal divi sion of the complete tactus9 If the notes divide the strokes of the tactus even more extensively, the rhythms will sound more like passaggi or co: lorature than proportions.»° Syncopated minims and semibreves pro- duce “strange and unusual” effects in proportions. Zacconi describes Example 6, which illustrates various rhythms conflicting with the divi sion of the tactus, as follows: In it, the proper effect (of proportions] is changed by a strange and ‘unaceustomed disposition of the figures and transformed into a forced and harsh effect, an improper and disproportionate effect more like that of sesquialine and other opposed numbers. This is because the diverse quantities of the figures not conforming to the ternary division and its multiples create the effect that is heard. But one cannot say of it, ‘as was said previously of figures arranged contrary to custom, that these figures may not be used because of their bad effector the difficulty of| singing them. The above figures are free and have been used by many ‘composers with such strange effects. When I say that they produce an Thi, bh. 9, hs. 75°78, fle 18648. Zacconi's definition of propetion scnte includes only the two thythis in Example q, but the third rythm in Example 3 i also ‘common inthe ively, dancedike, homophonic episodes he i evidently describing, id. DR. 9, ch. 65, fol 178 Thi DA. $e. 458, and 65, fs 15) 74 and 178 163 164 THE JOURNAL OF MUSICOLOGY improper and disproportionate effect, I say so in comparison to the natural effect [of proportions]. Compared to each other, these effects will be recognized as contrary and not of the same type" Because of the intricacy of the rhythm and the prevalence of relatively short values, this example evidently requires a slower tempo than Exam: ples 4 and 5, but Zacconi attributes its effect solely to the relationshij Denveen the rhythms and the tactus. fall three examples are performed at the same tempo, the distinctions that he makes among them are still clearly audible. Proportions may be notated in ternary groups of white semibreves, black semibreves, white minims, or black minims. They are classified as ‘major or minor on the basis of the note values and as perfect or imper- fect on the basis of the color (see Table 1B). In Zacconi’s view, they should be introduced with a sign of lempus plus the numbers 8, and the temary value (breve or semibreve) is subject to the rules of perfect ‘mensurations when the notation is white. Because all species of pro- portion consist of three equal notes on one unequal factus, they all pro- duce the same effects; but Zacconi nevertheless takes pains to justify the four different ways of writing them. He requires major proportion in and minor inC, so that the factus of the proportion will correspond 18 °Nel quale per una strana & inustatadisposiione di igure sentra cambiarsi ef fewo proprio, & enere da esse igure condoto in uno efeto sort K duro, fetta improprio & sproportionato conforme piu osto 3 giefet delle Sesqutatere, & ogni alto opposio numero: lee nasce dalla dfforme quanti delle figure che non esendo Seconda Ia division teraria & xia multiplicatione, vi fanno quel feta che si sente Onde ait non st che git disee delle figure collocate al contraro de. uso, che per Feeto catino, & ba dificult di pronuntarle non si posano usar: perche le superior igure sono Hibere, & da molti Compasto state cas in strano elfettoadope ‘ate: Er quando # dice che le producano un effetaimproprio & sproportionato, si dice in ‘quanto alla comparatione di questo effet, al effeto naturale: che paragon inseme Seranno tenut de conosci! per effet contri non d'una bess sorte Ibid, Dk, ch Tio. 181"~182. The figures arranged conteary to custom that Zacconi has previously isallowed (iid, Bk. 1, ch. 46, fol. 35'~34°) are semiminims preceding doted minis land chrome preceding dotted semiminims on the fat and alltactas in tmpeect tons ‘hid, bh. 3, ch. 97, ols 153154" In Pratica (1622), kt, ch 12, p13) 230 coni expresses his objecion to nolating minor proportion with “white chrome” (actually Semiminims in white, flagged form). He says that Marenzio used that notation and Ads ano Banchier! approved of it in the eighth document of his Birt dacument maseay bit that Lassus and Monte, with whom he had discussed this nowation atthe Imperial Diet in Ratisbon in 1593, agreed that twas contrary to ule and shouldbe abolished. Banchi leeaise was not published under the tlle Zacconi gives, bu appeared in several editions with eiferent tiles, including Carle muscle (Venice, 16143 reprint Bologna, 1968). Doe. 8 is found on p. 32 ofthat edition, 2 Prtica (gga), Bk. 3, chs. 38 and 6, fos. 154°-155° and 177% The tempus sign ‘may be omited only if the basic sigh ofthe piece sf or if ane species of proportion fol ows another (bid, bk. 3, ch. 68, fol. 180~). Zaccont acknowledges that his contempo- rates often alto observe this rule, especialy in imperfect proportions. “Thi, bk, ch Ba, fl, 176% Zacconi sayy ako that major and minor proportion represent the same thing, hoth because they have the same meaning and becase they were created and established as sich (ibid, bk, ch. 57,0. 173") DEFORD to the theoretical ‘actus of the imperfect mensuration, even though the tempos of proportions are apparently independent of the binary men- surations to which they relate and the tactus of major proportion is cer- tainly not the same length as the breve of .:5 White notation is some- times necessary to avoid ambiguity between the black and white forms of minims and smaller values; black notation gives the composer the option of avoiding the rules of perfection.s° Zacconi’s third category of mensuration consists of three equal notes or the equivalent performed on one equal factus, such that the ternary grouping of the notes conflicts with the binary division of the actus. He calls it tripla, sesquialtera, or hemiolia, depending on how it is notated, and classifies it in the general category of opposed numbers (oppositi numeri), which includes all of the relationships that earlier theo- rists called “proportions” conducted with equal tactust (see Table 1C). Other species of opposed numbers, such as dupla, quadrupla, sesquitertia, ‘etc., have no musical significance to him, He regards ternary opposed imbers primarily as combinations of ternary rhythms in one or more voices with binary rhythms in other voices, but also suggests that a ternary passage in all voices might sometimes require equal tactus:* Opposed numbers are distinguished notationally from proportions in that they are introduced with numerical ratios or black notation, of tempus, and because the tactus is equal, the rules of 5» Zacconi says that composers sometimes write major proportions in pieces in C, thinking they wll be easier to read than minor proportions, but tha they should either folate the proportions as uuinor or change the principal sign ta, even though that ign ic not strietly proper tothe semibreve tatu that the binary pasages require (bi, bk, fh g7. fols 173174"). Thus changing either the principal emus sigh oF the note val lace the proportion does aot affect the relationship between the two sighs. Zaceont ays hothing about how the tempo of a proportion relates to that ofthe binary sgn, but seems {o imply that the ewo are independent: The above recommendation clearly precludes the posilty that the fortur ofa proportion isthe sime length 3s breve of {On the sib- {ect of tempo relations between binary signs and ternary proportions se Ruth I DeFord, “Tempo relationships between duple and tiple time inthe sixteenth century” Bart Music Histary XIV (1955), 1-53 “FT Bk. 3, ch. 63, ol. 177% Zacconi allows black mi proportion, but requires white notation for proportions conta oul be confused in their black forms with semininims and sal tion. Ibi, Bk ch. 5, fo. 1697 bid, Be 3, ch, 38, fol 151, Zacconi acknowledges that opposed numbers may be called "proportions in'a general sense, but inst that they be qualified as ‘propor tions of uneqdal figures.” in contrast to "proportions of unequal tau and figures” in ‘order to distinguish them from proportions (as he defines them) in the specie sense Tid Bk. g. ch. 8 fl. 197 "All of his examples of opposed numbers are combinations of ternary and binary rhychms. and he says that opposed numbers can be distinguished fom proporuons in the ‘works ofthe ancients because they very afte appear in only one voee (ibid, bk. 3h. 96, ol. 1597, but he alo states that the rules of bom apy whether it appear inal voles ‘or only in some (iid, Bk. 3, ch. 8 fol. +37. Michael B. Collins, “The Performance of ‘Seaquialtera and Hemiolia in the sth Century.” Journal of the Amencan Musical Sct XVII (1964), 11-13, concludes incorrectly that Zaccont aekocats altering the thythms of temary opposed nulmbers to make them confor to the equal tactus. Zacconi not only is i minor imperfect ing other notes that hes of white nota 165 166 THE JOURNAL OF MUSICOLOGY perfect mensurations do not apply to them. Tripla, signed §, has three white semibreves per tactus; sesquialtera signed $, has three white minims per factus; and hemiotia, notated in black notes with an optional number 3, has three black minims per tactus. Sesquialtea and hemiolia differ only in the color of the notes, and the terms may be used interchangeably. Tripla is proper to pieces in 4, and sesquialiera and hemiotia to pieces in Hemiolia with three black semibreves per tactus is not allowed. Zacconi insists on the notational and terminological distinction between proportions and opposed numbers because he believes their aesthetic effects are fundamentally different.1° Because of the conflict between the rhythms and the beat, ternary rhythms conducted with equal actus have none of the jovial, dancelike character of proportions conducted with unequal factus. The way the conductor leads the group and the performers count the beats affects the “feel” of the rhythm pro- foundly. Performing a ternary passage with the wrong factus will there- fore destroy its character entirely.i! Zacconi demonstrates the effect of opposed numbers not by verbal descriptions, but by example, saying that anyone who sings the last verse of Isaac's Tract Domine, non secundum peecata nostra (Example 7)4* Aisinguishes the effect of opposed numbers from that of imperfect tempus, but states explicitly that opposed numbers ate dificult to perform “because of the coateary action, fone of the facts and the other of the notes" Ceomvenendosi fare de attoni contri, tuna del ao, & Falta delle igure”). Pratica (1992), Bk. 3, ch. 36, fol ag. Frederick Newmann, “Confiting Binary nd Ternary Rhythms: From the Theory of Mensural Not tion to the Music ofS Bach” The Muse Fonem V1, roto, gives additional arguments {o refite Callin iterpretation of Zaccon, Ibid, bk, ch 8,2, 26, and 3g, fols 196198, 148, 240°=150" and 1a coni's definition of ipa as tee figures (semibreves in place of one on a single acts (ibid, bk, che 26, fol, 149°), combined with his satement that rhythins of this type should be notated in minim in © and in semibreves in (bid, Bk. 1 ch. 5 Fo. 42"), implies that the tacts is the semibreve under both binary signs, and thatthe distinctions among the species of ternary opposed 1 inetions the ie, at rejects it as so" and 152). ‘He feels so strongly about this point that he devotes ‘chapters of Praticn (1592) to (Dk. g chs. 6.8, 9,25, 25.26, 29, 31-34, $6, and 72), ‘This isa fundamental sue that may apply to musi in any style. Zacconi may have been the first theorist to confront it aesthetic implications. My thanks to Carl Schachter for his observation that some conductors beat the opening of Brahms Syn phony no. $i although the music i clearly notated infin the autograph and fisted Son. Schachter believes (xe Ido) that this practice destroe the effect of Brahms inthe same way that Zacconi believes the wrong fats destroys the effect of Josquin and Iae ‘The example is based on Zaccont, Pratica (1592). Bk. 3, ch. 72, fos. 182-189", withthe text supplied from the modern edition in Helnrich Issac, Chorals constantinas, tI, ed. Emil Bezecay and Walter Rabl, Denkmnsler der Tonkunst ia Osteteich 10 {Wierina, 18985 repr Grat. 1959), 174-75. (All of Zacconis examples ate without text) In this and all other examples, mensuration signs ane note values are dhe same as those in the sources. The passages in open bracket are in black notation. Zacconi often places 1 figure 3 within the fest black ternary group to dstinguish the black minim and semi ‘hinins ftom semiminims and fuse of white notation. The frst note in the alt, m. 22, 2 dotted black semibreve. Te could have been written a a white semibreve without dot, DEFORD. EXAMPLE 7. Hemialia. Isaac, Domine, non secundum peccata nostra, mm. 14-30. Zacconi, Prattica (1592), ff. 182v—183. 167 168 THE JOURNAL OF MUSICOLOGY EXAM LE 7. (continued) can hear that “sesquialtere and triple... produce an effect that cannot be called similar to that of proportion, because the equality of the tactus that informs them gives them a different form and essence."ss When. he attempts to find words for the effects of opposed numbers, he is able to say only that they are “unnamed and out of the ordinary” Cinnominati et straordinari).1+ Based on his definition of sesquialtera, Zacconi clearly regards the tactus of this example as the semibreve in spite of the ¢ signature.»s Since he says that the piece was sung every year during Lent in the chapel of the Duke of Bavaria,t® itis likely that his description of its tactus corresponds to Lassus’s method of con- ducting it. The rhythms of the sesquialiera (or hemiolia) are idemtical to the pure and natural rhythms of proportions illustrated in Example 3, but their effect is different because of the conflict between the note groupings and the (actus. This effect may be felt even in passages where the duple division of the tactus does not appear in the note inst Zacconi (or his source) probably chose a dotted black note to prepare the singers for the black notation ofthe rest ofthe phrase. ‘# “Le Sesqulalere, & le Triple... faranno un'efeto che nom si potra dire ehe sia. ‘etfewo i simi Proportione. Per Fequait del tato ch'informandole lidara alta forma, le constiuira soto alto esere Prttca (1592), Dk 3, ch. 72, fol 189" Eewhere he ‘expresses this view more moderately, saying thatthe eee of ternary opposed numbers is ‘Sil, but notidentiel to that of proportions (bid, bk. 3, ch. 35-453 1 bia, bk. 3, ch. 7o, fol 181 $5 Zacconi sats elsewhere (ibid, bk. 1, ch. 53, f1. 42") that performing a piece in with a semibreve satus does not alte the fact thatthe thee Bigures of square ‘a, oF tnpla (which he has ustzated, but not yet named) ate ung %0 One equal lacus ‘What he seems to: mean i the converse: i these ehythms appear in the farts mist be the semibreve, Tb. Bk. g, eh. 72 fol 183 Zacconi isnot sure whether the composer is Isaac or Sent DEFORD. rhythms at all (e.g., mm. 22-28, a passage of thirteen tactus in which two equal notes appear only once). Zacconi does not mention the conflict between the tempus sign, which theoretically requires a breve tactus, and the tactus of the hemiolia in this example, nor does he discuss the possibility of performing the piece with a breve factus containing six minims of hemiolia, This inter- pretation would produce a distinctly different effect from the one he describes, since the conflict between the ternary groups and the tactus would disappear and the ternary groups themselves would be paired. His inconsistency on this point is typical of sixteenth-century theorists, including even Heyden, the most rigorous advocate of strict correspon- dence between mensuration signs and tactus, who presented a similar example of hemiolia conflicting with the definitions in his texts Al- though proportions and opposed numbers notated in minims in ¢ were common in practice, few theorists mention the possibility of ‘three ‘equal notes on a half-tactus,s and it is unclear how common this inter- pretation may have been in performance. Zacconi’s notation and terminology for “proportions” and “op- posed numbers” are his own invention, but many sixteenth-century the- orists recognized a similar distinction in terminology, and by implica tion also in effect, between ternary rhythms in all voices and ternary rhythms combined with simultaneous binary ones. Agricola, Bourgeois, Finck, and Zarlino state explicitly that ternary proportions require ‘unequal factus when they appear in all voices and equal tactus when they are combined with binary signs. Glarean objects to the terms tripla, sesquialtea, and hemiolia and their equivalent proportional ratios 10 Heyden, De arte canon, tans, Miller, ex, 24: 85-87, See DeFord, “Tempo relationships 11=13, ‘Tam aware of only (wo examples. Loys Bourgeois, citing the authority of Heyden, says that ipl de wp indicates three semibreves per lacus and tpla de prtatin three inns Bt ha ini ne he es say aed by aang ce mins fon the downstroke and three on the upstroke. Le drt chemin de musique (Gene, 1 fats cd, cd Andre Gailard, Documcnia Musclogca, ero. (ssl 954) eh 6, sig. C3. Vincente Lusitano says thatthe signs and require sx mnims per ictus sn that every propotion sign indicates the numb of ures to be subsite forthe previous number ofthe same type on one ‘actus thus in G2 applies to minims and Sermiminims, while in¢ (which Fequiresa breve lac}, } applies to semaibreves and ‘minim. Since fand {were obsolete by Lastano’s ime and almost never occurs use of theoretical eats, its unclear how his prescriptions relate to musial practice. Ito ‘tone fcissina et novisima di camo forma, gua, contreponte semplig, a incneeo (Rome. 1558): fac. ed. Libreria Musicale Tallana Musurgiana 7 (Bologna, 1989), ig Bi and Ca. ‘0 Marin Agricola, Musica iuralis druduch (Wittenberg, 1532: fcs ed, Hildesheim and New York, 196), ch. 6, sg- Gv, and ch, 12, sg. Lai and Nv Bourgeols, Le doit ‘hemin de musique ch. 6, sig. C3" Hermann Finch, Practica musica (Wittenberg, 1350: facs, ‘cd Hildesheim and New York, 1969), sig. KS Kiv, and Sit. Zaring, Le situtone har Inonice, Dk g, ch. 48, wans. Marco and Pala, 118-19. Colin, “The Performance of 169 170 THE JOURNAL OF MUSICOLOGY for triple meter in all voices, preferring the term trochaic or tribrachic and the sign 08 or coloration for its» Wollick, Vicentino, Tigr Banchieri similarly distinguish between “proportions of inequality,” in which ternary rhythms are combined with binary ones, and “propor- tions of equality,” in which ternary rhythms are found in all voices simultaneously.s' Zacconi takes issue with Zarlino for applying the terms tripla, sesquialtera, and hemiolia to proportions with unequal tac. ‘tuss* but his more substantive disagreement is with Heyden and his fol Scala and Hema” gna, asserts tha al ofthese theorists for arog ternary thyshns combined wih ina sgn to make them conform tothe binary tatae, New tran -Confcting Binary and etary Rhy 17, refutes Colin's interpretation OF mst ofthese theorists tt concedes that Fina allowed performance of a holed ile in binary yt. There however no bas for iterpreng even Finck i hk ‘tay Hic recommen that students race keeping ase beat fit various ners Tabs to iby counting mamber tothe sing ofa lock’A number th a single Sable, suchas es wl rom one bet othe mex, ike a scmbrete, A umber oth two liable, mich a “vee” wil he ke two mini one with thee lables wach 3 SScomehen wi be kes minim and wo semiminime; and one wth for bln mich bs ncbenshen” willbe fhe four wemiminine Fick devribs the promuncaon of “Sechehen fll: "After this, fyou want o pronounce the namie sehen ave hee abe ha ae to be pronounced athe ame npeed in which you spoke One tothe beat othe lock lth heft aber a longs the eter: oe should {ge inthe sme nay when thee novel on ne aa hem of whe mere 15S hal act an he ober to Tose by one bal cy eee} > CPreterea ‘ce conem nmerare wb ess habe, ae miele mm “xpres horolog tact pronancandae sunt, quan ror aba pi quant Sn uperat relgees ec senendum en quando tes note ad am tet Steering pris dimidio tae, rege dae eam dimiio ats mena foc pctol 12) Pete mus bess Fl'This is clear an explanation of how ing {hectpthm shomy inthe cumple: Nethg ic rp abt he ots hte od ‘pul vlucon one ta 2 Meimich larean, Dndcachrdon (Basel 1947) fs ed, Monuments of Musi and Mic Litermure in Fusimie ser no. 6 (New York 1967): tran. Cement A Mile Mscolopeat Seis and Boctnens 6 (ap American aut of Musto. 40), bh3ch Bevo a: 234-35 and, lrcan na that the "rch ato” apes {Seman dhe inate thee by hs eoice of examples (Dk. ch 3 Miler anv wl a: sy4e40 and goo-o tat tue proportons apply primary, i not {helio combina of diferent signin ferent ces ** Nkelass Wollck, Endo mes (ar. 1309) Dk. 5 (Mua at, ch. 6 tig br ofthe agra ed) Nicola Vcenino, Late mata dal adr ratice (Rm 1359) faced Edward E Lomi, Documenta Msisogic, e100. {Kase S85) bh yee gis fol Sp-88. Orr Tigtin I comp de musa Veni 18) face wy Monuments of Manca Moi Exerature In Facer. 0. 35 (Rework 963) bh gch 20 p 90. Bane, Code mostly dow 4-7 49798: THE ‘Sinton fer irom tat of ctor and Gaff, in mhch proportion of ea Stem trues and proporton of inequaiy nce al other rats beoween ie =r"Pccont dacs ot name ht opponen nho cll ipa, sng, and home “proportions in Pies 1998), beh 8 fg, but tn Pate (s6e8), Bk 1h eopes he ad that Zain waste person to nhom he was refering. He cin 10 iiEicifined rom mendoning Zarins mame nthe previous nok bers of hs reat fepuauon andthe respect he el fr him, but the fae iat Zaring det ony to ens ‘efor the pueson ofthe work (and weave daring much of he nef mas Beng srien) may have Been more important coneron DEFORD lowers, who maintain that the tactus should always be equally divided regardless of the rhythms that it governs.ss and with singers of his own time who, lacking familiarity with threeagainst-two rhythms of any Kind, mistakenly believe that all ternary rhythms require unequal tac tus. He regrets that few of his contemporaries understand ternary opposed numbers, because he considers their effects delightful and feels they should not be lost.ss Perfect tempus is a very different type of ternary mensuration from proportions and opposed numbers. Like all theorists since the time of Tinctoris, Zacconi describes it as having a complete equal tactus on cach of the three semibreves that make up a perfect breves# (see Table 1D). Because perfect and imperfect tempus are identical on the level of the factus, he maintains that both mensurations produce the same effect. 57 His explanation of the history of the two types of tempusis quite fanciful: the inventors of musical notation, noting that the factus could be divided into either two or three equal parts felt that the notational system would be more symmetrical if analogous divisions were possible for the breve and larger values.»* Perfect fempus went out of use when people realized that it produced no distinct effect, and its notational complications therefore served no useful purpose.5? Zacconi seems to be unaware of meaningful metric organization on the level of the breve in perfect tempus, although he does point out that for the sake of propriety, pieces in that mensuration should contain a whole number of breve tempora." Surprising as this may seem, he was not the first theorist to focus on the smallscale binary character of per- fect tempus to the exclusion of its larger ternary organization. When Heyden transcribed a Kyrie of Agricola in double values to make it eas ier to read, he changed the mensuration sign from © 10 , thereby elim- inating any notational indication of the ternary grouping of the tactus'* Johannes Buechmaier, a mid-century German musician, similarly “re- solved” Mass movements by Josquin and Isaac from 0 to ¢, but without doubling the values ‘8 Heyden, De arte candend ans Miler 5. Zaccon does not mention Heyden’ fon om the sbject, but sys that he has met people who, daagreing wih com ‘regard the equal fausas the only legitimate one. Pratica (1592), Bk 1 ch. 93, fol 20 5 Pratica (4392), bhe 3, eh $B, fl. 153° Tb Ti, Bk, eh. 935 fol 24% Dk. 2 ch. 4 and 1, fol, 8y* and sand BR. 3, ch 40 fo. 438 7 Tid, Bk. 5, eh 61, fol. 176 9 Ibid BR 2, 12 fol gf 2 Ibid Bk. gh 1 fol 190 bi bh 3, eh a8, fl. gh © Heyden, De ate mond, trans, Mille, 78-79 James Fiaar,“Josquin as Inexpreted by a MidSitcenth-Century German Mus cian.” in Fetch fr Hort Leuchtmans um 65. Grbwsag, ed. Stephan Homer and Bern hold Schmid (Tuzing. 1398). 189-85, 171 THE JOURNAL OF MUSICOLOGY EXAMPLE 8. Perfect tempus. Josquin, Missa La sol fa re mi: Gloria, mm. 14-31 s bie’ ‘ (te) Gra a8 pimus i bi, pro-pterma-gram glo-i-am tam, pro-plerma-gnam pl-r-am tu Gra -ti-as aegimus a) = biprosterma-gnam —glosi-am—_ 172 tw am. Domine De usrex coe = less DEFORD. EXAMPLE 8. (continued) wr A te, Je-su Che iste, Je-su Che kee OS ae Do - Zacconi’s examples of perfect tempus, which he quotes only to illus. trate notational principles, show a complex balance of metric organiza tion on the semibreve and breve levels. The Gloria of Josquin’s Missa La sol fa re mi (Example 8) is typical of them." Dissonance treatment, % Zacconi mentions this piece, along with several others a8 an example of the dot of division in Praca (1598), bk ch. 6 fol 8. He quotes only short passages from individual voices of pieces in perfect tempus a examples, cause he ures them ony t0 iustate notational principles Since their effet is no different from that of pieces in imperfect emus there is no need to discuss them from that point of view. My observ tons about this example are ot taken from Zaccon, but they are an attempt to apply his principles to this mensuration. The example i based om Petruce’ Lae primus misaru Jonguin Venice, 1502). Modern edition sn Jowguin Despres, Wake A. Smijers eta (Amsterdam and Leiprig, (122)6g), Misien, ol. 4.0010: 97-98 173 174 THE JOURNAL OF MUSICOLOGY phrase endings in individual voices, and smalbscale rhythmic patterns are governed by the semibreve tactus. Contra tempo semibreves are com- ‘mon, and rhythms requiring a semibreve tactus, such as syncopated minims and consecutive dotted minims, appear occasionally. The presence of a stroke (downbeat or upbeat) of the factus on each minim, facilitates temporary regrouping of the six minims in a breve as two ‘groups of three, rather than three groups of two. Temporal organiza- tion on the breve level depends on the placement of cadences and prominent voice entries at the beginnings of breve fempora and on occa- sional slow rhythms conforming to the ternary breve tempus. The promi- nence of this largescale meter varies considerably within the piece, and there are passages (e.g., mm. 27-29, a canon at the time interval of a minim) in which it exists only through an implicit continuation of the previously established pattern. The rhythms of this piece differ funda- mentally from those of proportions, such as Example 5, in which the primary metric level is ternary and the dissonance treatment is often governed by the perfect breve tactus, In Example 8, passing tones fall between strokes or on the upstrokes of the semibreve tactus and sus- pensions are never longer than a minim halE-tactus, while Example 5 hhas a passing tone on the upbeat of the perfect breve factus (m. 2) and a suspension that lasts for a full semibreve (m. 8). The sign of cut perfect tempus (p) is problematic for Zacconi, as it had been for earlier theorists, because he recognizes the contradictions among different writers who discuss the sign and the diversity of the ‘music to which it was applied. He explains its origin in two mutually contradictory ways. At one point, he says that it arose by analogy with § since there was a choice of a semibreve or (imperfect) breve actus in imperfect tempus, the same option was necessary in perfect tempus, so that the imperfect species would not be more “perfect” than the perfect ‘ones Elsewhere he says that § was the original sign of major propor- tion, and that the figures $ were added to it later because singers often misunderstood it to require a factus on the semibreve or the imperfect '% Zacconi's definition of syncopation docs not allow fora type in which the ds placed note is shorter than a hall-trts, and thus implies that syncopated sninime Fequire a semibreve tactus Consecutive dotted minims dividing breves into four qual parts appear in the superus, mm. 21~23, This pasage may orginally have been notated 4354 sesqulttia proportion (four semibreves in the tne of the, signed either § of =) ldhough Petrucc! snd all manuscript sources 1 know of have four dotted ainims, The Thythm ie duplet against the minim stroke, or half-tacur (wo notes in the time of three ‘trokes), which wot be very difficult to perform with any farts other than the sem breve. The passage proved difficult for later musicians and is Found in simplified ver sions in two sixteenth-century manuscripts. See Haar, “Josquin as Interpreted by a Mid Shiteenth-Gentury German Musician,” 187-88. My thanks to Professor Haar for confirming that the pasage is notated in dated minis in all souees known to him, Prtica (1598), Be 2, ch. 48 fol 127 DEFORD breve.% These inconsistencies derive not only from disagreements among eatlier theorists on whom Zacconi relies, but also from his obser- vation that pieces with the sign differ in character, and therefore require different tactus for musical reasons. Some work well with an imperfect breve tactus, others are more successful with a perfect breve tactus, and still others are so complex rhythmically that they are difficult to perform with any tactus other than the semibrevet™ (see Table 1D), Zacconi’s example of $ with an imperfect breve tactusis the quarta pars of Senfl’s motet Gaule Maria (Example 9), in which the sign is combined with 4% The four voices in 6 are similar in character to Example 8, but without syncopated minims or other rhythms requiring ‘a semibreve tactus. The tenor, however, creates a hemiola (in the mod ern sense) with the other voices that pairs the perfect breves through- out. An imperfect breve tactus reinforces this pairing, since the down- beats correspond to the beginning of the perfect breve only every other measure.% A semibreve tactus would coordinate the parts correctly, but fail to bring out the metric conflict on the higher level. It would also emphasize the subdivisions of the semibreves and turn the syncopations into contra tempo rhythms with a different, less dynamic effect. His example of ¢ as a sign of proportion is the motet Propter peccata attributed to Josquin, which he says cannot have a good effect, but will sound tedious and unattractive (edioso e disdice vole), unless itis sung with three semibreves on one unequal factus.° This piece, actually a contrafac tum of an instrumental setting of the basse danse La spagna (Example 10) Ibid, bk. ges. 6, 32, and Bg, Fos. 139%196% 452", and 180~ Earlier theorist assigned the fartus off to either the semibreve or the imperfect breve, the former being mote common until e. 1380 and the later becoming dominant thereafter. See Eunice Schroeder, "The Stroke Gomes Pll Cele: and 4 in Writings on Music, ca. 1450-1540." Musica discitina XXXVI (1982), 119-66. Although there = no theoretical precedent for an unequal lacus on the perfect breve in j, Zaccoai claims that ‘many ancient songe suid better when they ae sng in this mayan ay that others share his opinion. Pata (1592), bk. ch. 6, fol 195+ Because of the fundamental difference in effect hemeen equal and unequal tt, he recommends diferent solutions to the problem of pieces that are easier to sing witha semibreve tatu in and While the tc ‘rmay shi rely tothe semibreve inf sibrevetarus in place ofa perfect Breve ta ‘using would alter the character ofthe tase deasially. Because singer in the past some times led a semibreve tatu for ficult songs in, he say, composers added the figures {Ho the sign to be sure their itentions were undefstood (ibid, Dk 3, ch. 32, f0L.152. '™ Zacconi identifies this piece incorrectly as Isaac's Optime paso (rata, 1592, bk 2, ch. 48, fol. 126). The cortect identification fs found in Marin Picker, Henri aw A Guide io Research (New York, 1991), 174. The example is based on Zaccont, with the text added from Liber wrtaru anion quas suey Mudas appllant sex que ot {quatuorvocum (Angsburg, 1520; RISM 1530), ols. 195-198. The sharp in the perio, fh. 5,found in Zaecon, bit not in RISM 15204, is evidently incorrect, wm Zaeconi mentions specifically thatthe mensuation of the tenor isthe reason for the impertect breve lacus of cis example. Praca (1592), bk. 3, ch 73, fi eg, ch 6g, fol 181" THE JOURNAL OF MUSICOLOGY EXAMPLE 9, $ with imperfect breve ‘actus, Senfl, Gaude Maria: quarta /pars, mm, 17. Zacconi, Prattica (1392), ff. 126-1260. cpt tf tt tt ie Em: be at DEFORD. EXAMPLE 10. § with perfect breve actus. Anonymous (attr. Josquin), ropler peceata [= La Spagna), mmm. 17. cig ' cata que sts. quae pee-ea = sis an a sis an. we om, 178 THE JOURNAL OF MUSICOLOGY and almost certainly not by Josquin,7" isa very different type of propor- tion from the ones illustrated in Examples 4~6. The voices other than the tenor have a level of rhythmic activity similar to that of Examples 8 and 9, dissonance treatment is governed by the semibreve, and small cadences may be found on any semibreve, but the tenor, which carries the dance tune, has predominantly the pure and natural rhythms of proportions, The breve measures are paired, as in Example 9, since each note of the cantus firmus occupies two breves, but the pairing is not caused by hemiola rhythms; on the contrary, the rhythm of every measure is emphatically ternary. The piece could be conducted with a semibreve or imperfect breve tactus, and the performers of the faster voices might have to keep their own semibreve factus to manage the short notes, but the perfect breve is the only factus that brings out the character of the dance. The tempo must obviously be much slower than. that of Examples 4-6, but the feel of the meter is similar. ‘The practice of distinguishing different categories of triple meter on the basis of the way the ternary rhythmic groupings relate to the tactus can be traced as far back as the late fifteenth century. Tinctoris describes three different relationships between ‘actus (which he calls mensura) and ternary mensurations: a complete mensura on each of the three notes in a group, a single stroke (half-mensura) on each of the three notes, and a single mensura for the whole group. Each type has its own rules of disso- nance treatment, which he describes in terms of the position of the dis sonance in relation to the strokes of the mensura7 He does not specify whether the mensura that measures a complete three-note group is 1% Gusave Reese and Jeremy Noble, “Josquin Desprez” in The Naw Gnwe High Renaisance Mauers (Neve York and London, 1984), 83. Zacconi discases this pee, but ‘does not inchide ita an example, My example based on Setunda pos maga apes music ‘Quinguesorum (Nuremberg. 1559. RISM 1559". no, 6. Modern edition ofthe instr ‘mental version, which differs i some details from dhe contrafactum, i Joxquin, Wren, Werelaike Werken, vol. 2, no. 528-15, Ope throne, Albert Sea te of Musicology, 1975). 0 ‘bk 2 che. 29 and 25-28: 121-38) The Art of Countapoin, rans, Albert Seay, Mesiology cal Sues and Documents 5 (np: Amerie 15-26 ‘Ghapter 25 covers perfect tempus (with sem ‘minim mensura), both of which have a con soup. Chapters 25, 27, and 28 deal with mensurations and proportions with one stoke, ernary group: O f mis in sabtriple proportion, fect semibreve mensura. (Tineors allows the mensioa of sperfectsemibreve, or perfect semibreve, depending {also discussed in chapter 25, & more complex, but Jated 10 O f. Chapter 26 deals wth proportions wth a single mmtana forthe complete }-C and minim coloration of C Although some of Tinctors’'s| ce treatment are ambiguous, the principle of grouping mensurations on lationship to the mensura and the parallels among the rules forall members ofeach group are clear DEFORD equally or unequally divided, however, and thus does not distinguish between ternary mensurations with equal and unequal tactus (Zacconi’s “opposed numbers” and “proportions”), as many sixteenth-century theo- rists did.rs Zacconi’s preoccupation with the distinetions in. rhythmic character among triple meters with different factus is thus well founded historically despite his late date and lack of appreciation of large-scale ‘metric groupings.71 ‘Modus is even less meaningful to Zacconi than perfect tempus as a practical category of mensuration. Since he does not appreciate even the metrical grouping of semibreves in perfect tempus, i is not surpris- ing that the possibility of organizing time on the level of longs and ‘maximas is inconceivable to him, Modus exists in his view both to com- plete the symmetry of the notational system, allowing for either perfect or imperfect mensuration of all principal note values,» and to provide a means of notating very long notes. If longs and maximas could have only imperfect values, the longest note available would be a dotted ‘maxima with twelve factus, but if all values are perfect, a maxima may have as many as twenty-seven factus, Although Zacconi cannot imagine any real use for such long notes, he believes the notational system would be incomplete if it did not provide a means of writing them.7r Like many sixteenth-century theorists, Zacconi describes a classifi- cation of modus that does not allow for all possible combinations of per~ fect and imperfect mensuration on every level, He believes that the clas- sification of each level of modus (major and minor) as perfect or imperfect defines the mensuration not only of the largest value (the ‘maxima in major modus and the long in minor), but also of all smaller values, Perfect major modus requires perfection of the long and the breve, as well as the maxima. Imperfect major modus requires a perfect 2 The eatiest unequivocal reference to unequal lati found in Agricola, Musica {figuras deuasch, ch. 6. si. Gi Roger Bowers, “Some Reflection Upon Notation and Proportion in Monteverdi's Mass and Vespers of 1610," Music & Late LXXIM (3092), 349, claims that perfect tm ‘pus and major prolaion “were not defunct ether in practice oF in principle (ea 1600) ince all the exendal constituents of © and € mensuration were all in full effective force ‘those passages of music that were governed by the proportional mensuration signs {tes by which plain perfect tempus and major proton had been superseded.” This sew ignores the distinctions among the different tart snd musical ses that had been sociated with these ngns since the fifteenth century, All tiple meters” were not alike, Sind the proliferation of symbols for them may have resulted in part rom attempts fo cap ture the distinct character ofeach type in its notation, 1s Pata (1592), Dh. 2 chs 1-12, fas id, Dh. 2, chi. 2, 12, and 20, fls. 8B, gf and 100%, and Bk. g, ch. 59 fl. 18 nT. bk, 2, chs. 12 and 45, fol gy and 124" Zacconi takes a refreshingly open- ‘minded approach to notational features for which he sees no practical use: they should fot be dicated, because what seems useles io one person may have value 1 someone fie (fol 124") 179 180 THE JOURNAL OF MUSICOLOGY ‘maxima with all smaller values imperfect, In minor modus, the mensu- ration of the breve is ordinarily the same as that of the long, but if a composer wishes to combine perfect longs with imperfect breves, he ‘may use the sign 02 to remove the perfection of the breve All species of modus, like perfect and imperfect tempus, are normally conducted with an equal factus on the semibreve, but in 02, an equal actus on the breve is also an options (see Table 1E). Since the species Of modus have the same tactus as imperfect and perfect tempus, they pro- duce the same effect. The only difference between Oz and € or { is that songs with the latter signs are called “imperfect,” while songs in 02 are called “perfect with perfection removed” (cantilene perfete separate dalla perfttione).% Zacconi does not discuss any examples of 02, but his description of it agrees with the compositional practice of the Josquin cera, The sign is sometimes interchangeable with signs of imperfect tem- pus and does not always specify regular ternary grouping of breves, although it does, at least in theory, require that the total length of the piece be a multiple of three breves.*: Although it originally required a breve ‘actus, sixteenth-century theorists indicated that it could have a semibreve tactus in practice." Prolation, like modus, adds nothing essential to Zacconi’s mensural system. [tis defined only as a ternary division of the semibreve and clas- sified as perfect or imperfect on the basis of the mensuration of the breve.%s Its only unique function is to notate augmentation with the fac- tus on the minim, increasing the value of the longest possible note (a ‘maxima in perfect major modus) to eighty-one factus$ Since a note of Thi, bk. 2, che, 19 and 25, fols. gg" and 105". Zaccon’s species of modus ate ‘more logical than they appear. Since minor modus presumes imperfect menstration of the maxima, they provide for all possible combinations of perfect and imperfect Tongs and maxims, aldiough not for every combination of those values with both types Of breves. Zacconi quotes Heyden’s mensuration and tats table in bk, ch. 57 fol 130, pparendly failing to notice that it confit in many way with his text. "> Ibid, bhe 2, eh 25 fol 105 © Thid Bk. 2, eh. 25, fo. 105: Zacconi lis the tral number of semibreves proper to every pe of tmypus and ‘modus bic, Bk. 2, ch 18 fo. 98), bast omits O2 from the ls. The principe is spy that {piece should contain awhole number ofthe largest me units defined by the menstration, "Anna Maria Busse Berger, Memsurain and Proportion Signs: Ongen and Fallin (Oxford, 1999); gts: Prati (1582), bk. 2, ch 2 fol. 108% Zaeconi may have taken this definition of prolation from Adrian Pett Coclico, Compendium muses (Nuremberg. 1552): acs. ed fd. Manfred F- Bukotzer, Documenta Musicologica, ser 1. no. (Kassel, 1954). i. Fil. ‘Musical Compendia, wans. Albert Seay. Colorado College Music Press Translations 5 (Colorado Springs, 1973). 17 and ex. 37. He was certainly fauiliar with Coco's book since he refered to tin another context Praia, 1392, Dk. 3. eh. 24, fo 149), "1 Ifall note values are perfect, a maxima has the value of #7 semibreves each max- ima = three longs: each long = three breves and each breve = three semibreves. If the tac tse shifted to the minim in augmentation and each semibreve = three minims, the vale fof amaxima is 3%27 = 81 minims, or Bt tats DEFORD that length is longer than most complete pieces, no additional values were needed to make the notational system complete Without aug- ‘mentation, prolation is equivalent to minor proportion when it appears in all voices and to sesguialtea when it is combined with binary signs (see Table 1F). Ic differs from the latter two species only in that semi- minims and smaller values are written in white, flagged forms, and semibreves are subject to the rules of perfect mensurations even when the tactus is equal. The use of white semiminims under the sign 3, rather than the usual mensuration sign, is the defining feature of pro- lation when it functions like sesquialtera Zacconi does not acknowk edge the possibility, advocated by Heyden and others, of conducting prolation with an equal factus on the imperfect semibreve (making it analogous to § wi perfect breve tactus)," apparently because he sees no reason for the (actus to conflict with the meter unless it corre- sponds to another, simultaneous meter in the music. Pieces in which prolation (in Zacconi’s sense) is combined with perfect or imperfect tempus on the basis of minim equivalence, such as Ockeghem’s Missa ‘prolationum, were obviously unFamiliar to him Zacconi’s ideas and examples demonstrate clearly that for him, the essence of musical rhythm lies in the complex interac tions between note rhythms and actus, Far from the neutral, accentfree ‘measuring device itis often alleged to be, factusis the single most impor- tant determinant of the rhythmic character ofa piece. The equality or unequality of its division creates the effect of rhythm on the most basic level. Downbeats differ in function from upbeats, and both in turn dif fer from the unmarked intervals of time between them. Rhythms may conform to and reinforce the time structure defined by the factus, bring out larger or smaller time units, or conflict with the actus in a variety of ways. Identical rhythms produce different effects if they are performed with different tactus, because each tactus relates to them in a unique way. Conversely, rhythms that are notated differently, but have the same rel- ative note values with the same relationship to the actus, produce iden: tical effects Ideally, every mensuration and proportion sign should specify the type of tactus the composer intends and the note value to which it applies, but given the inconsistencies of actual notational practice, per- formers must often choose the tactus on the basis of musical style, rather than notation. In so doing they must take account of the types of Pratt (1592), Dh. 1, ch. $5, fol. 2324" ‘does not allow prolaion combined with mods Thi, bk 2, chs. band 45, fl 114 ch. go, fol 108 Heyden, Dr art canena, trans. Miller, 72 nd Dk. 2, ch. 40, fol. 120" Zacconi in its augmeatted form. 24° An example f found ibid, Dk. 18 182 THE JOURNAL OF MUSICOLOGY rhythms in the piece and the levels on which they operate, as well as the appropriate tempo. To the extent that

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