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Approach Answer: General Studies Mains Mock Test 934 (2017)

1. Discuss the feasibility of using methane as a source of energy and fuel in India. How can it contribute
to socio-economic development and environmental protection?
Approach:
Evaluate feasibility of the parameters of availability, cost, technology required, alternatives available,
etc.
In the second section, clearly delineate the potential of methane usage in helping socio-economic
development and environmental protection.
Answer:
Methane as a source of energy is less polluting and more efficient than conventional fossil fuels. The
feasibility of using Methane as a fuel for transportation or generating power or in industrial processes
(e.g. fertilizer) depends upon the following factors:
Availability: India has atleast 38 tcf of proven Natural gas reserves. Besides, there are still many
sedimentary basins that have not been explored. Currently India meets most of the requirement
from imports.
Technology: Methane can be extracted from natural sources as well as anthropogenic activities. With
current available technology, it is very difficult to capture Methane from Oceans, termites and
wetlands; however, it is possible to extract methane from landfills, agriculture waste and coal bed
methane. Obtaining shale gas through fracking is still costly in India.
Accessibility: In India, coal bed methane and landfills are considered as potential reserves of
methane. . However, the use of landfills has practical challenges like:
o Direct exposure to methane gas and seasonal changes in temperature etc.
o A lack of local service and technology providers for methane identification, quantification, and
mitigation activities.
o There are legal and regulatory issues in obtaining access to the electricity grid to sell back power.
Affordability: Many coal mines do not have adequate internal investment capital for project funding,
and thus a lack of adequate financing remains an important challenge.
Alternatives: Decline in energy cost from non-conventional sources of energy, such as solar, wind,
etc. pose a stiff competition to use of methane. Also, with a prolonged suppression of oil prices,
competitiveness of natural gas is being eroded.
Contribution in Socio and Economic development and environment protection
Social:
Methane provides a valuable, clean energy source that can improve the quality of life, especially of
rural women who otherwise use natural fuels for cooking causing health hazard. Access to energy is
sine-qua-non for standard of living. Methane, which can be transported through pipelines can
provide 24x7 access to remote areas once the infrastructure is developed.
By linking communities with innovative ways to deal with the waste it can help in better waste
management and responsible community planning.

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Economic:
Methane as an energy resource would promote local economic development by providing power to,
cottage, micro and mini enterprises.
It would also promote employment opportunities in providing various kinds of services related to the
energy production, maintenance etc.
Capturing methane from coal mines, landfills, and oil and gas facilities can also improve safety
conditions by reducing explosion hazards.
Environmental:
It can replace the existing fossil based energy, thereby reducing local environmental pollution.
Methane capture will witness improvement in local air quality and climate warming.
It will benefit water quality, particularly in the agricultural sector, via improved management of
animal waste.

2. What do you understand by seasonal shifting of pressure belts? What impact does it have on the
formation of various climatic regions across the globe? Discuss its socio-economic significance.
Approach:
To start with, directly explain shifting of pressure belts and its cause.
Link various climatic phenomena with associated regions which are influenced by shift of the belts.
Discuss socio-economic significance through their impact on livelihood.
Answer:
Pressure belts on earth's surface appear to move along with the Sun. This is because of inclination of
earth to its axis. With the apparent shift of the Sun between the tropics, both the thermally formed
pressure belt (EQLP) and the dynamically formed pressure belt (STHP - North and South) move along.
For example, in summers, when Sun is directly above tropics, rather than at equator, the entire belt
system (EQLP and STHP) shifts northwards. As such, the High Pressure belt which is generally found at
25-30 degrees latitude also shifts northwards to up to 30-35 degrees. Similarly the Equatorial low also
shifts upwards, varying considerably over the landmass and the ocean. On the Indian landmass, it can
reach up to 20-22 degrees North because of immense heating of North Indian landmass and the
consequent low pressure. On Oceans, the belts are fairly stable because the variances in temperature are
not much pronounced.
Impact on formation of climatic regions:
Most significant impact is in form of inhibition of cloud formation under the HP Belt. As HPBs move
over an area, it experiences lesser rainfall.
STHP lies over Mediterranean region in summers, leading to aridity. When it moves southalong with
the apparent shift of the Sun, the region receives rainfall. During winters, Westerlies prevail and
cause rain, where as in summers, the dry trade winds blow offshore.
On Monsoon: Only on the northward shifting of the EQLP in the form of ITCZ (Inter-tropical
Convergence Zone) do the south-east trade winds cross the equator and reach as monsoon winds.
Besides convergence, convectional uplifting which causes rainfall in the northern plains also occurs in
the shifted EQLP i.e. ITCZ.
Sahara desert remains almost entirely in the region where STHP is found. The edges of Sahara
experience some rainfall and therefore a transitional climatic zone has developed there.
Regional climatic zones: Many regional and local climates owe their existence to shifting pressure
belts. For example, Chinese type, Gulf type, Natal type and so on.
Socio-economic significance:
Mediterranean climate is conducive for growing citrus fruits and therefore it has developed as major
supplier of fruits as well as wine worldwide.
Similar climate in Natal (South Africa), Southern Australia and California has given to similar social
setup there based on vineyards and fruit production.
Monsoon determines the socio-economic setup of India via its agricultural economy.

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3. What are sunrise industries? Elaborate on the potential of these industries in India with a special focus
on the food processing industry.
Approach:
Explain the term sunrise industry and give a few examples of such industries in India.
Discuss the potential of these industries in India.
Elaborate on the food processing in India, its contribution and its growth prospects.
List a few initiatives taken by the government to give impetus to the food processing industry.
Answer:
A sunrise industry is an emerging industry that is looked upon as a favourable investment venture by
investors. Sunrise industries are deemed as engines of future economic growth due to their steadily
rising generation of employment and profit prospects. Proliferation of these industries will lead to
product diversification and reduced costs due to backward and forward linkages
India is expected to continue on a path of economic expansion and these industries in several sectors
such as food processing, fisheries, tourism will benefit from increased investment and liberalization of
government policies.
Food Processing Industry in India:
Potential:
Food processing industry accounts for 32 per cent of Indias total food market, one of the largest
industries in India and is ranked fifth in terms of production, consumption, export and expected
growth.
It contributes around 14% of manufacturing GDP, 13% Indias exports and 6% of total industrial
investment.
The high potential of food processing industry in India is due to following factors:
o Provides linkages between agriculture and manufacturing
o Packaged food in busy life
o Reduce food wastage
o To promote crop diversification
o Increased export earnings
o Will curb food inflation
o Generate employment in rural areas, thereby reducing distressed migration.
Challenges:
Over- or under- regulation of food processing sector, especially the dysfunctional operations of FSSAI,
and overlapping laws of Centre and states.
Infrastructure bottlenecks, like lack of cold storages, processing facilities etc.
Small Land holding: About 90 percent of farmers in India are small and marginal, making food
processing unviable as it creates problems in procurement.
Poor quality exports: As a result the processed food from India faces frequent restrictions in foreign
markets.
Measures taken or needed:
National Food Processing Mission was launched by the Centre to promote this sector, it also includes
modernization of abattoir.
Merchandise Exports from India Scheme (MEIS) was launched as part of Foreign Trade Policy. It
includes setting up of agencies for aquaculture and fisheries in coastal states and export incentives
for marine products.
Mega Food Parks policy: It intends to promote food parks for boosting food processing on regional
basis.
100% FDI in trading of food products, including through e-commerce, among others.
Promote contract farming to make food processing viable for small and marginal farmers.

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4. According to a recently released WHO report, low and middle income countries account for 90% of air
pollution related deaths. In this context, discuss the environmental and economic burden of air
pollution in India. Enumerate the steps taken by the government and directions given by the Supreme
Court to tackle this issue.
Approach:
Briefly list the health and environmental effects of air pollution.
Examine the overall consequences of air pollution in India in recent times.
Mention the steps taken by the government in this regard.
State the directions given by the Supreme Court to tackle the problem.
Answer:
Long-term exposure to air pollution can cause cancer and damage to the immune, neurological,
reproductive, respiratory systems and death in extreme cases. Environment effects include acid rain,
eutrophication, crop and forest damage, ozone depletion, etc.
Air pollution could have killed at least 600,000 Indians in 2012, a study conducted by the World Health
Organisation revealed. India is second among all countries, behind China, in the absolute number of
deaths caused due to exposure to air pollution.
According to a recent report The cost of air pollution: strengthening the economic case for action,
India reported the highest loss in labour output in 2013, owing to air pollution globally, at 0.84% of
its GDP.
The number of deaths due to air pollution was significantly higher for children and older people.
For young children, the majority of deaths resulted from lower respiratory infections, while for the
older age groups, heart and pulmonary diseases were the major causes.
To minimise the level of air pollution in India, the government has taken the following steps, among
others:
o Advancement of dates of implementation of Bharat Stage VI norms to 2020, skipping Bharat
Stage V.
o Formulation of Air Quality Index covering 8 pollutants and dissemination of data through media
to create awareness.
o Increasing of cess on use of coal (effective carbon tax) to disincentivise its use.
o Norms for disposal of construction waste and fly ash which contribute to Particulate Matter.
o Construction of alternative roads and highways to bypass cities (such as western and eastern
peripheral expressways for Delhi).
The Supreme Court has repeatedly directed the Central and state governments to take steps to curb
and reduce air pollution.
Among others, it directed the Uttar Pradesh government to take measures to reduce air pollution in
areas near Taj Mahal as pollution was turning the monument yellow.
It also intervened and banned the registration of diesel SUVs and high-end vehicles in New Delhi with
engine capacity of over 2000 cc until March 31, 2016 and stopped entry of goods vehicles not bound
for Delhi to contain increasing levels of air pollution in Delhi.

5. What factors are responsible for the origin and modification of ocean currents? Explain with examples
how ocean current currents affect the climate of surrounding regions.
Approach:
First of all, bring out factors which are responsible for the origin and modification of the ocean
currents and elaborate them briefly.
Then, with examples, elaborate how ocean currents determine the climate of surrounding regions.

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Answer:
The factors responsible for the origin and modifications of ocean currents can be enumerated as:
Origin It is attributed to density differences in different layers of ocean waters. Heavier water sinks
and causes the overlying surface water to move in its space. This gives rise to global oceanic
circulation.
Other factors Accumulation of water on east coasts leads to gravity induced movements down the
slope.
Expansion due to heat Even though water is considered practically incompressible, minor
expansion due to excess solar heat in equatorial regions causes a slight gradient and water tends to
flow down the slope.
Modification Wind, Coast line and inundation, large river discharge, presence of partially enclosed
seas.
Periodic reversals due to heating and accumulation can also cause modification such as in case of El-
Nino current caused by a stronger counter equatorial current.
Coriolis force - This force intervenes and causes the water to move to the right in Northern
Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. These produce large circular currents in all
the Ocean basins. One such circular current is in the Sargasso Sea.
Ocean currents have direct and indirect effects on the climate of the regions. These can be enumerated
as:
West coasts of the continents in Tropical and subtropical are bordered by cold currents. Their
average temperatures are relatively low with narrow diurnal and annual ranges. There is fog, but
generally areas are arid due to the desiccating effect leading to formation of deserts in the area.
Example. Cold Peruvian current- Atacama Desert.
East coasts of the continents in the middle and higher latitudes are bordered by warm currents
which cause a distinct marine climate. They are characterized by cool summer and relatively mild
winters. E.g. China type of climate.
Warm currents flow parallel to east coasts of the continents in tropical and subtropical latitudes. This
result in warm and rainy climates. E.g. Florida.
Foggy weather and drizzle in the mixing zones of warm and cold current.

6. Climate change is one of the many challenges that coral islands face today. Comment. What measures
can be taken to prevent the further depletion of coral islands?
Approach:
Define coral islands and discuss the major challenges faced by them.
Suggest conservation measures like recognizing carrying capacity of each atoll, observing caution in
using coral as building material, reducing sand loss from the atoll etc.
Answer:
Coral islands develop from coral reefs either by uplift or by accretion. Coral islands may also be formed
from atoll reefs wherein they manifest as a string of roughly circular islands with shallow lagoons.
Examples of coral islands include Maldives, Kiribati islands, Lakshadweep etc.
Climate change is only one of the many challenges which coral islands face today as illustrated below:
Global Warming: Warmer water temperatures brought on by climate change stress corals and cause
coral bleaching. Bleached corals are weaker in strength.
With climate change, acidity of oceans increases because of dissolution of carbon dioxide. This is the
major cause of death of corals.
Many coral islands are small and near sea level, so they are at constant threat from cyclones, storms
and rising sea levels. As the ocean level rises, coral islandsand any infrastructure on themare
flooded and may drown altogether.
Relatively rapid establishment, growth of the tourist industry, and the introduction of mechanized
fishing.
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Coral mining, construction of groynes (barrier built out into the sea from a beach to check erosion
and drifting), breakwaters, and jetties, and anchor damage and siltation caused by speedboats cause
considerable damage to coral islands.
Most tropical raised atolls have been dramatically altered by human activities such as species
introduction, phosphate mining and even bomb testing.
Livelihood concerns - Atolls have few natural resources. Soil quality on atolls is very poor, and erosion
is a constant threat. Most native residents on atolls practice subsistence agriculture and fishing.
Fisheries and support for the shipping industry help support communities on remote atolls.
Other threats include pollution, increased shipping traffic, risk of oil spills and dumping, inadequate
waste disposal, and the overuse of water pumps and fertilisers for agriculture.
Measures:
Political measures: The global agreements combating climate change must keep the needs of coral
islands as top priority. Maldives often leads international conferences on the impacts of global
warming, which is associated with sea level rise. Maldives and Kiribati have also taken steps to
outline a permanent evacuation process should sea level rise threaten to drown inhabited atolls.
Geo-engineering solutions: For example, island nations such as Maldives and Kiribati are fortifying
their atolls by dredging the seafloor. Sand elevates certain areas and widens others, creating a more
stable landmass.
Switching to sustainable livelihood measures: It is high time to recognize the carrying capacity of
each coral island ecosystem and limit population growth, tourist foot fall etc. at these islands.
Developing alternative livelihoods like establishing sustainable fisheries could significantly slow the
decline of many reefs. Some atoll communities have taken advantage of their equatorial location and
established launch sites for low-orbit satellites. Similarly, Tuvalu, receives millions of dollars for use of
its ".tv" Internet domain name.

7. Rare earth elements are the 'vitamins of modern industry'. Elaborate. Also comment on their
distribution and production in the world.
Approach:
Give a brief introduction about what rare earth elements are.
Mention their importance and uses in industries.
Give an account of their distribution pattern and production around the world.
Answer:
Rare earth elements (REE) are a set of seventeen elements in the periodic table, specifically the fifteen
lanthanides, as well as scandium and yttrium. They are not especially rare, but they tend to occur
together in nature and are difficult to separate from one another.
Usage of REE in Modern industries:
REE are known as vitamins of modern industries due to their wide use in the variety of industries and
their unique magnetic, luminescent and electrochemical properties.
REE enable many technologies to perform with reduced weight, reduced emissions, energy
consumption, greater efficiency, performance, speed, durability, and thermal stability.
Rare earths are used as catalysts, phosphors, and polishing compounds. These are used for air
pollution control, illuminated screens on electronic devices, and the polishing of optical-quality glass.
The uniqueness of these elements to accept and discharge the electrons enables them to be used in
electronic, optical and magnetic applications. They are used in everyday life as rechargeable
batteries, cell phones, catalytic converters, fluorescent lighting.
The military use includes night-vision goggles, precision-guided weapons, communications
equipment, GPS equipment, batteries and other defense electronics. Rare earth metals are key
ingredients for making the very hard alloys used in armored vehicles and projectiles.

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Uses of Rare Earth Elements

Lanthanum night-vision goggles

Neodymium laser range-finders, guidance systems, communications

Europium fluorescents and phosphors in lamps and monitors

Erbium amplifiers in fiber-optic data transmission

Samarium permanent magnets that are stable at high temperatures

Samarium precision-guided weapons

Samarium "white noise" production in stealth technology

World Distribution and Production of Rare Earth Elements:


Though they are termed as rare earth elements, they are not so rare in occurrence. However, due to
their chemical properties, rare earth elements occur together in small quantities, not in concentrated
form, dispersed throughout the world. It makes their extraction difficult and economically not viable and
also hazardous to extract due to their radioactive nature.
The global reserves of rare earth mineral resources are contained primarily in bastnasite and
monazite. Bastnasite deposits in China and the United States constitute the largest percentage of the
world's rare-earth economic resources, while monazite deposits are found in Australia, Brazil, China,
India, Malaysia, South Africa, Sri Lanka and Thailand.
India has 3% of world reserves. Primarily these minerals are extracted from monazite which is found
in the form of sand on beaches of Kerala. Recently, the Geological Survey of India has found high
concentration of the rare earth elements in western Rajasthan.
Production: China is the world leader and accounts for around 97% of the world production. India,
Brazil, Australia, USA, Russia, Thailand and Malaysia comprise the rest.
Rare earths are also being recycled from e-waste. Vast reserves of rare earth metals on the Pacific
seabed may be procured through seabed mining.
Indias emergence as a supplier, though a small one, is good news for other countries, as it can reduce
their import dependence on China.

8. Scientific and technological advancements have removed the constraints posed by geographical
factors which determine the location of industries. Comment. Giving examples, discuss the new factors
that have come into play as a result.
Approach:
Give details of the traditional geographical location factors which used to be the determinants of
location of an industry earlier.
Explain how scientific and technological advancement has affected and altered the relevance of
these factors.
Hence, write about the new factors in play today.
Answer:
Traditionally, geographical factors were big determinants of location of an industry (especially
manufacturing). These factors include:
Raw material: It is very significant in manufacturing industries. For example Jute mills were set up in
Hooghly region as they got the raw material from the Delta region of the Ganga.

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Energy sources: Most of the industries tend to concentrate at the source of power. Iron and steel
industry, which uses coal for fuel, has been traditionally set up near coal resources.
Site: sites with flat terrain and well served by adequate transport facilities are preferred. Large areas
are required to setup factories.
Climate: Moderate climate like that of west coastal India is quite congenial to the development of
industries. For instance, the cotton textile industry requires humid climate because thread breaks in
dry climate. Consequently, majority of cotton textile mills are concentrated in Maharashtra and
Gujarat.
Availability of transport, labor, water and a market have been strong determinants.
While these factors still exist, they are present in an entirely changed situation i.e. a situation of
technological and scientific advancements. Because of these advancements, the constraining
geographical factors have not remained rigid.
Modem industry is so complex that a wide range of raw materials is necessary for its growth.
Labour has become mobile, because of increased forms, and speed, of transport.
Electricity as a source of energy is easily transmitted over long distance; similarly pipelines and
improved transportation have increased the availability of petroleum fuel as a source of energy even
at distant locations. For instance Industries moved to southern states of India only when hydro-
power could be developed in these coal-deficient areas.
Alternatives to raw material are available. For example now textile industry uses various synthetic
fibers thus reducing their dependence on cotton growing areas.
Climate control is made possible for industrial purpose. For example artificial humidifiers are used for
climate control in dry areas.
The enhanced transportation network coupled with liberalization and globalization has opened up
avenues for larger markets for finished goods.
As regards footloose industries (example software development, telephone sales and call centres) are
concerned, as long as they have suitable transport, energy and communications links, they can locate
themselves virtually anywhere.
Apart from the factors listed above, new factors which have a significant influence on industrial location
today includes:
Availability of technology - It has become a crucial factor today. Modern industries are technology
intensive and require huge resources. Consequently availability of capital and financial resources is
required for developments like automation, robotics, artificial intelligence and 3D printing.
Skilled managerial services which are dependent on sound management, analytics and big data
research.
Government policies, which seek to promote regional parity by locating the industry in backward
regions despite the increased costs. For instance, the oil refinery in Mathura and fertilizer plant in
Jagdishpur in Uttar Pradesh were set up to fulfill developmental objectives.
Complex supply chains also affect the location of industries today. For example China has become
the manufacturing hub as many MNCs set up their manufacturing plants in China due to cost
effective production and favourable policy environment.
Hence, it can be seen that though geographical factors continue to affect the location of manufacturing
Industries, evolving technology, government policies and advancements in finance are becoming crucial
factors in determining the location of an industry.

9. Discuss the environmental impact of electronic waste and the best practices for its handling in the
context of the E-waste (Management) Rules, 2016. Also suggest some ways to incentivise consumers
to utilise and dispose-off the e-waste properly.
Approach:
Define electronic waste and its impact on environment.
Bring out the features of new rules regarding handling of E-waste.
Suggest innovative steps to utilize/dispose e-waste.

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Answer:
E-waste is described as old, end-of-life discarded electronic appliances. It contains toxic substances and
heavy metals that are hazardous to health and environment, like lead, cadmium, mercury etc.
Environmental impacts:
The chemicals in e-waste lead to considerable soil, air and water pollution.
Damage the environment by bioaccumulation in various organisms, causing diseases like Itai-Itai etc.
Incineration of E-waste generates toxic fumes and fine particulate matter, which is linked to
pulmonary and cardiovascular disease.
Chemical stripping may release hydrocarbons which gets discharged into water bodies and cause
acidification.
E-waste disposal by dumping it in landfills leads to leaching of chemicals into the groundwater.
Handling e-waste:
Currently, E-waste is handled by unorganized sector workers causing severe health hazard, like exposure
to toxic substances, explosions etc. As we have seen dumping or burning e-waste causes environmental
damage, therefore the sustainable disposal is by way of recycling it. As a result, Environment Ministry has
come up with new rules for handling e-waste with focus on recycling and reusing.
E-waste (Management) Rules, 2016 provide the following provisions regarding the same:
The rules have notified responsibilities of all stakeholders involved starting from manufacturers,
producers to consumers and recyclers for safe handling of e-waste.
For the first time, the Rules will bring the producers under Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR),
along with targets. Further, various producers can have a separate Producer Responsibility
Organisation (PRO) and ensure collection of E-waste, as well as its disposal in an environmentally
sound manner.
The rules have classified mercury-laden light bulbs as e-waste, which will keep them out of municipal
landfills.
Urban Local Bodies (Municipal Committee/Council/Corporation) have been assigned the duty to
collect and channelize the orphan products to authorized dismantler or recycler.
Role of State Governments has been also introduced to ensure safety, health and skill development
of the workers involved in dismantling and recycling operations.
Process of dismantling and recycling has been simplified through one system of authorization and
the Central Pollution Control Board will give the single authorization throughout the country.
A provision of penalty for violation of rules has also been introduced.
Incentivizing consumers:
Producer-operated buy-back scheme, which aims to refurbish old electronic components and parts
into new products. For example: those introduced by Best Buy and Samsung.
Offer instant rebates to consumers who bring in E-waste. The material can then be used by the
manufactures to create new products at lower cost. Deposit Refund Scheme has been introduced in
the rules as an additional economic instrument.
Partnerships of municipal bodies with manufacturers and retailers can help in starting recycling
services.
It will take a coordinated effort on the part of the municipalities, private industry and individuals to
control the menace of electronic waste.

10. What factors make the Mediterranean region the leading fruit and wine producer in the world? Also
discuss why it has not developed as a prominent animal rearing region.
Approach:
For the first part of the answer, enumerate factors such as climate and farming practices etc which
make Mediterranean the leading producer of fruit and wine.
In the Second part, provide various facets underlying the underdevelopment of animal rearing in the
region.

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Answer:
Warm bright summers and cool moist winters enable wide variety of crops to be cultivated in the
Mediterranean regions. In highly specialized commercial agriculture a wide range of citrus fruits are
grown in this region. Following factors can be cited for this:
In this region soils are not excessively leached and therefore are fairly fertile.
Warm temperature ensures a fairly long growing season.
The fruit trees have long roots to draw water from considerable depths during long summer drought.
In some regions, an elaborate system of irrigation canals enables both fruits and cereals to be
successfully raised.
The thick, leathery skin of citrus fruits prevents excessive transpiration and the long, sunny summer
enables the fruits to be ripened and harvested. Dry summer is favorable for fruit processing and
drying.
This region is a hub of wine and grape production globally. The following factors can be attributed for
it:
The long, sunny summers allow the grapes to ripen.
Historical factors have perpetuated wine and wine making as the traditional beverage and
occupation of the inhabitants, in some parts of the region. In Spain, France, Italy and Portugal, wine
is a national drink.
The quality of fermented grape juice is decided by a number of factors including types of vines
grown, the quality of the soil, the climate of the region, the method and extent of the fermentation.
The fragrance, taste and quality of final product is varied and the price range is tremendous. To
maintain exclusivity, principal wine areas maintain different names. The wine from South Spain is
called Sherry, from Portugal Port Wine etc.
Animal husbandry has generally a comparatively small importance in traditional Mediterranean
agriculture for following reasons:
Conditions of Mediterranean do not suit grass, because most of the rain comes in cool season when
the growth is slow.
Slow growing vegetation, which cannot replenish its foliage readily, and which is without deep
penetrating roots, is least suited here. Even if the grasses do survive, they are so wiry and bunchy
that they are not suitable for animal farming.
The grass, which is replaced by certain drought resistant varieties of shrubs and flowering herbs,
can however, support sheep or goats.

11. Describe the factors responsible for increase in marine pollution in the past few decades. What impact
does marine pollution have on the ocean ecosystem? Discuss the measures taken by the international
community to deal with it.
Approach:
Discuss the factors responsible for marine pollution and the effects they cause to the marine
ecosystem.
Discuss the international measures to tackle the issue.
Answer:
Marine pollution includes a range of threats which include those from land-based sources, oil spills,
untreated sewage, heavy siltation, eutrophication (nutrient enrichment), invasive species, persistent
organic pollutants (POPs), heavy metals from mine tailings and other sources, acidification, radioactive
substances, marine litter, overfishing and destruction of coastal and marine habitats.
Over 80% of marine pollution comes from land-based activities either through deliberate dumping or
from run-off through drains and rivers. The various factors and their impact on the marine system
include:

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Oil Spills: responsible for around 12% of the oil entering the seas each year while 36% comes from
runoff from industries and cities (US National Research Council)
Fertilizer runoff from farms is a huge problem for coastal areas. The extra nutrients cause
eutrophication - flourishing of algal blooms that deplete the water's dissolved oxygen and suffocate
other marine life. Eutrophication has created enormous dead zones in several parts of the world,
including the Gulf of Mexico and the Baltic Sea.
Solid garbage: High concentrations of plastic material, particularly plastic bags, have been found
blocking the breathing passages and stomachs of many marine species, including whales, dolphins,
seals, puffins, and turtles. This garbage can also come back to the shore, where it pollutes beaches
and other coastal habitats.
Sewage disposal: In many parts of the world, sewage flows untreated, or under-treated, into the
ocean. For example, 80% of urban sewage discharged into the Mediterranean Sea is untreated. This
sewage can also lead to eutrophication. In addition, it leads to beach closures.
Toxic chemicals: such as pesticides, chemical weapons, and radioactive waste; Electronic waste and
mine tailings are included amongst the sources of heavy metal pollution in Southeast Asia. Some
toxic man-made chemicals become more concentrated after entering the food chain.
Spread of invasive organisms: Invasive species thrive due to absence of natural predators and may
damage the original ecosystem by consuming native species, competing with them for food or space,
or introducing diseases. For example, zebra mussel was accidentally introduced by a cargo ship into
the North American Great Lakes from the Black Sea in 1988. The tiny mollusk multiplied
uncontrollably, starving out many of the Great Lakes' native mussel populations and interfering with
human structures from factory intake pipes to ship rudders.
Increasing levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide is making the oceans more acidic. This is affecting
corals and the ability of shellfish to form shells. It will also weaken the capacity of the ocean to act as
a carbon sink.
Coastal development: Coastal ecosystems play an essential role in limiting silt and nutrient outflows
to the nearshore marine environment, including run-off of sewage animal waste and top soil during
the heavy tropical rains or from rivers.
Marine life can be susceptible to noise or the sound pollution from sources such as passing ships, oil
exploration seismic surveys, and naval low-frequency active sonar.
These factors will severely exacerbate the effects of extreme weather and the productivity of coastal
ecosystems to supply livelihoods and basic food to impoverished.
Measures taken by the international community
Broadly two juridical systems may be identified:
1) United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982
It lays down a comprehensive regime of law and order in the world's oceans and seas establishing
rules governing all uses of the oceans and their resources. The UNCLOS governs all aspects of ocean
space, such as delimitation, environmental control, marine scientific research, economic and
commercial activities etc. Part XI has established the International Seabed Authority which regulates
the regime of exploration and minerals on the seabed outside any state's territorial waters or EEZ.
The convention dedicates Part XII to the protection and preservation of the marine environment.
2) International Maritime Organisation Conventions
The International Maritime Organization (a UN specialized agency) has developed a number of global
legal frameworks related to shipping safety and marine environment in order to accomplish with its
mandate of improving the safety and security of international shipping and preventing marine
pollution from ships.
The marine environment related instruments can be classed considering the object of their
regulation:
1. Pollution Prevention:
Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from ships 1978 (MARPOL CONVENTION) Annexes
I, II, III, IV, V, VI

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Protocol to the Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from ships (MARPOL PROTOCOL);
Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and other
Matter1972 (LONDON)
Protocol to the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and
other matter 1996
2. Pollution Response:
Convention on oil pollution preparedness, response, and Co-operation, 1990 (OPRC
Convention)
Convention on Preparedness, response and cooperation to pollution incidents by Hazardous
and Noxious Substances, (OPRC-HNS) 2000, etc.
3. Ballast Water Management and Control Convention 2004
4. Anti-Fouling Systems Convention 2001;
5. Safe and Environmentally Sound Recycling of Ships, Honk Kong Convention 2009
6. Wreck Removal Nairobi Convention 2007.

12. Highlight the factors that affect the location of nuclear power plants. Also discuss the potential
benefits of building nuclear power stations on floating platforms.
Approach:
Enumerate factors like availability of fuel and cooling water, proximity to populated areas,
community attitudes, ecology, security, seismic area evaluation etc.
Discuss the advantages of floating nuclear plant (For example, safety from earthquakes and
tsunamis, ease in dismantling etc.)
Answer:
Site selection and evaluation are a crucial part of establishing a nuclear power plant and can be
significantly affected by costs and public acceptance. The aim is to protect the plant against external
threats as well as to minimize any environmental detriments and threats that might arise from it. Some
important factors while site selection:
Ecology concerns: It is essential to conduct detailed studies for potential impact of nuclear power
plant operation due to radioactive and thermal pollution.
Availability of nuclear fuel, cooling water: The site should be such that the fuel required for nuclear
power generation such as uranium and others should be available near the site or transporting such
fuel should not be difficult and time consuming. Also PWR, BWR mostly use light water as their
coolant as well as moderator so water facility should be available near to the site and in plenty.
Population and sources of livelihood in the region: A nuclear power plant site extends to about a
kilometers distance from the facility. It is defined as an area where only power plant related
activities are allowed as a rule. Permanent settlement is prohibited and only very limited employee
accommodation or recreational settlement is allowed.
Human activities and human facilities: In the plants vicinity, no activities may be carried out that
could pose an external threat to the plant. The general principle in the siting of nuclear power plants
is to have the facilities in a sparsely populated area and far away from large population centers. What
justifies placement in a sparsely populated area is that emergency planning will then be directed at a
smaller population group and will thus be easier to implement.
External threats and environmental threats: Examples of exceptional natural phenomena include-
Freezing or other clogging of the cooling water intake, Storms, Flood, Earthquake, Tsunami etc. Apart
from these threats like vulnerability to terrorism and warfare should also be considered.
Transport arrangements and Traffic arrangements: Transport system to the plant should be smooth
and should not affect the working of plant due to delays in transporting necessary material, men etc.
to the plant.
Arrangement to dispose off the nuclear waste safely.

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Benefits of a floating nuclear power plant
A floating nuclear power plant is a site with one or more nuclear reactors, located on a platform at sea.
The worlds first floating nuclear power plant is currently being built at Saint Petersburg, Russia. The
benefits of a floating nuclear plant include:
It would help overcome the increasing difficulty of finding sites for new nuclear power stations
Core of the reactor, lying below the surface, could be cooled passively without relying on pumps
driven by electricity, which could fail.
A floating nuclear power station would be protected against earthquakes and tsunamis.
At the end of its service life, a floating nuclear power station could be towed to a specially equipped
yard where it could be more easily dismantled and decommissioned.
However environmental groups are concerned that floating plants will be more vulnerable to terrorism
and warfare.

13. How is the coal bearing strata of India classified in geological terms? Why does coal remain the most
important source of energy in India and what are its implications?
Approach:
Write about the geological classification of coal deposits in India.
Give the various reasons which make coal based energy a critical part of the energy pie of the
country.
Give the consequences of being highly dependent on coal based commercial energy.
Answer:
Geological classification of coal bearing strata of India:
Gondwana Coals of the Permian, which are confined to river valleys of Damodar, Mahanadi,
Godavari, etc. Its important coal bearing areas and are collectively known as Damudas, which
belongs to the lower Gondwana system. It consists of two main horizons:
o Barakar measures of the lower Permian age. These are more important because they are of
better quality and they occur in all coal fields.
o Raniganj measures of the upper Permian age. These occur principally in Raniganj coalfield.
Tertiary coals of the Eocene, where lignite predominates. It principally occurs in Assam, lower
foothills of Kashmir and in Rajasthan in Eocene strata. Lignite deposits are also found in South Arcot
district of Tamil Nadu, Kutchh in Gujarat and in Kerala.
Coal is an important energy source for India because:
High availability of coal reserves in India; India has worlds third largest coal reserves.
Technological know-how: We are technologically independent for coal based thermal energy, while
for other sources we have to import technology.
Cheaper energy source, coal based thermal power is significantly cheaper. Therefore it accounts for
70.25% of the total installed capacity.
Relative advantages vis-a-vis other sources: In terms of cost, land needed, and potential hazard
when compared to renewable, solar, and nuclear respectively.
It is also more immune to interference from nature, such as earthquakes and floods, economic
vagaries and artificial accidents. Example: the Fukushima nuclear disaster.
Implications:
Environmental Impact: Among the three major fossil fuels, coal is considered the dirtiest. Indian coal
is of low quality and hence generates a lot of waste. It also produces pollutants such as SO2, NOx and
fine particulate matter
Health impact: Coal-based pollution kills about 115,000 Indians annually. It also causes health hazard
with associated health care expenditure.

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Import dependence: despite having huge reserves we import significant high end coal, because of
poor quality domestic coal and production bottlenecks.
Continued dependence on Coal can exacerbate climate warming with adverse impacts on our
coastal population. This can undo the advancements we have achieved so far, as about 30 %
population lives in coastal regions.
Way forward:
Modernize the exiting coal plants to increase their efficiency. For example, Super Critical technology.
It would reduce emissions even if we have to rely on coal for short time.
Promote renewable energy by promoting Research and Development to reduce cost.
Improve transmission and distribution network to reduce losses.

14. Explain the reasons for the formation of Sargasso Sea. Also, examine the factors for it being a region
with one of the highest ocean salinity.
Approach:
Mention the location and features of Sargasso Sea in brief.
Explain the reasons behind formation of Sargasso Sea.
Write about the Salinity of Sargasso Sea and the various factors responsible for its high salinity.
Answer:

The Sargasso Sea is a vast patch of sea in the North Atlantic Ocean located between latitudes 20N and 35
N and longitudes 30W and 70W, named for a genus of free-floating seaweed called Sargassum. It is the
only sea in the world without a land boundary.
Reasons behind formation:
Sargasso Sea has shores across its border. Its boundaries are defined only by ocean currents. It lies within
the Northern Atlantic Subtropical Gyre. It is encircled by the Gulf Stream in the west, north Atlantic drift
in the north, Canary current in the east and North Equatorial and Antilles current in the south. Since this
area is defined by boundary currents, its borders are dynamic, correlating roughly with the Azores High
Pressure Center for any particular season.
It is assumed that the great currents of the North Atlantic that encircle it, bring into it millions of tons of
floating sargassum weed. However, sargassum fields of the West Indies and Florida are too limited to
supply the immense sea of Sargasso. Hence, it is possible, that the Sargasso weed maintains itself. The
plants have become adapted to life in the open sea, need no roots or holdfasts for attachment, and are
able to propagate by breaking off bits to grow into new plants through vegetative propagation.
The individual plants may live for decades, depending on specific species. The surrounding ocean
currents form a virtual fence and the region provides ideal conditions for them to grow.
High salinity of Sargasso Sea:
Sargasso Sea is characterized by a high salt content of 36 which is a distinct feature of the sea. It can
be attributed to the following factors:

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Prevention of mixing of fresh water from surrounding oceans and poles due to virtual boundary
created by the ocean currents.
Low wind conditions also prevent intermixing with fresh water.
High temperature in the region owing to its subtropical location and very less cloud cover. This
causes high evaporation.
Gulf Stream brings in high salinity water to the sea.

15. How does the Shailesh Nayak Committee on coastal zone regulation addresses the concerns of CRZ
notification of 2011?
Approach:
Briefly introduce the CRZ notification of 2011 and mention the concerns/ limitations of the
notification.
Write about the Shailesh Nayak Committee and its objectives. Discuss how the recommendations of
the committee address these concerns.
Answer:
Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) is the coastal stretch of the mainland and the water area up to its
territorial water limit. The CRZ notification 2011 seeks to protect livelihoods of traditional fisher folk
communities; preserve coastal ecology; and promote economic activities that have necessarily to be
located in coastal regions.
While the CRZ Notification of 2011 has introduced several positive concepts seeking to protect the
interest of the local traditional communities, it does have a few drawbacks such as:
Although the no-development zone of 200 meters from the HTL is reduced to 100 meters, the pro-
vision has been made applicable to traditional coastal communities, including fisher-folk, thereby
giving the chance for increased construction on the coast and higher pressure on coastal resources.
It disallowed Special Economic Zone (SEZ) projects in the CRZ.
There are no restrictions for expansion of housing for rural communities in CRZ III.
Shailesh Nayak Committee
The Shailesh Nayak committee was commissioned in June 2014 after states expressed dissatisfaction
regarding the limitations set by the CRZ notification of 2011. It recommended several relaxations in the
terms set by the 2011 notification to boost tourism, port construction and real estate in the region.
Greater powers and responsibilities to coastal States to regulate development, maintain and
conserve ecologically fragile zones and ensure that environment be protected without neglecting
basic requirements of growing population.
All activities except those requiring environmental clearances should fall under the ambit of the state
and local planning bodies instead of being regulated by central policy.
The urban planning rules prepared by local authorities be prioritised for slum development and
rehabilitation instead of the 2011 regulations which were deemed restrictive by states.
For rural areas with a population density of over 2,161 persons/sq km, the no-development buffer
zone be limited to 50m from the High Tide Line (HTL). For other areas, the buffer has been
recommended at 200m from the HTL.
The report called for allowing reclamation of lands for specific infrastructure such as ports, bridges
and fisheries-related structures for the larger public interest.
Allowing temporary tourist facilities in no-development zones in coastal areas as well as permanent
structures on the landward sides of national/state highways when these pass through these zones.

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Implications:
Extending the no-development buffer zone in non-rural areas will reduce the pressure on coastal
resources.
The central governments role in coastal areas will only be limited to environmental clearances and
regulating environmentally-sensitive areas.
Allowing contraction of tourist facilities, reclamation of coastal regions and so on may dilute the
protection of the sensitive areas.
Way forward:
Build the capacity of local bodies and states commensurate to their responsibility.
Rather than giving blanket permission to undertake construction activities in coastal regions, we can
go for demarcation of areas where such activities are necessary and therefore allowed.

16. Give a brief distribution of major grasslands of the world. Discuss the reasons behind the temperate
grasslands becoming the grain baskets of the world. Also compare their performance vis-a-vis tropical
grasslands in this regard.
Approach:
Briefly introduce the answer with distribution pattern of the major grasslands of the world both
tropical and temperate.
Discuss the conditions due to which temperate grasslands have emerged as grain baskets of the
world.
In the final part, talk about yield difference per acre as well as per person.
Answer:
Grasslands are characterized as lands dominated by grasses rather than large shrubs or trees. They
are among the largest ecosystems in the world and comprise 40.5 percent of the terrestrial area. There
are two main divisions of grasslands
Tropical Grasslands: Also known as Savannas, these are the transitional regions found between the
equatorial forests and the trade wind hot deserts. They are located in semi-arid to semi-humid
climate regions of subtropical and tropical latitudes. They lie roughly between 70 to 200 north and
south of the Equator.
Temperate Grasslands: Also known as Steppes, they occupy the interior of the continents in the mid-
latitude zone of 400 and 550 North and South. These grasslands occupy vast areas in the Northern
Hemisphere where their east-west extension in broader. In Southern Hemisphere, the grasslands are
small in extent.
The Temperate grasslands differ from the Tropical Savannas in the sense that the former are practically
treeless and the grasses are much shorter and less coarser making them more suitable for animals which
make temperate grasslands more suitable for animal rearing and dairy farming.
The Temperate grasslands are known as the granaries of the world. They are the largest wheat
exporters. The conditions responsible for this are-
The cool, moist spring stimulates early growth and the light showers in the ripening period help to
swell the grains to ensure a good yield.
The warm, sunny summer is not only advantageous for harvesting, but also enables the straw to be
dried for farm use.
The levelness of the Steppes makes ploughing and harvesting a comparatively easy job.
Marked specialization in wheat monoculture, high degree of mechanization, strong forward linkages
are some of the other reasons.

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Performance of Temperate Grasslands vis--vis Tropical Grasslands
Low yield per acre: This is attributed to the greater attention given to a small piece of land in tropical
grasslands, which is not practicable in the extensive lands in temperate regions where a farmer owns
anything from 600 to 40000 acres of land.
High yield per person: Since the temperate regions are marked by high degree of mechanization,
labour force is small and therefore, yield per person is high in temperate grasslands.

17. The Paris Climate agreement sets ambitious goals but does not go far enough in mechanisms to
achieve the aims. Comment. Also highlight the challenges which a developing country like India faces
to achieve the targets it has set for itself.
Approach:
Give a brief introduction about targets agreed under the Paris Agreement.
Explain how the shortcoming in the Agreement may pose challenges in achieving the targets.
Then, move on to the challenges being faced by developing countries which have set announced
ambitious INDCs.
In the conclusion, briefly talk about the role of developed countries in this regard.
Answer:
In December 2015, Parties under the UNFCCC adopted the Paris Agreement, pledging to take on
increasingly ambitious emission reduction targets aimed at keeping global temperature rise to at most 2
degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels. The agreement also includes tools to help countries achieve
their ambitions, including markets and mechanisms.
While the Paris Agreement sets forth an innovative and potentially effective policy architecture for
dealing with global climate change, a great deal remains to be done to elaborate the accord, formulate
required rules and guidelines, and specify means of implementation.
Not a legally binding instrument in its entirety- parties have limited accountability for failure to
fulfill their obligations. Therefore, the developed countries may not provide adequate funding to
implement mitigation and adaptation activities for ensuring climate-resilient development. This
would pose a serious challenge for the developing countries to pursue domestic mitigation and
adaptation activities to address adverse impacts of climate change.
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) - the Agreement does not explicitly mention Intellectual Property
Rights (IPR). Huge upfront investment coupled with absence of intellectual property rights may
hinder the private sectors participation in implementation of the Agreement.
Compensation for losses-although the phenomenon of climate-related loss and damage was
recognised in the Agreement, the possibility of compensation for losses (i.e. compensation to
affected peoples or countries) was not recognised. While the Agreement has recognised the
interrelation between human rights and climate change impacts, there were no obligations on
relocation stated in the agreement to address the rights of the people vulnerable to displacement.
Paris Agreement has also established a new market-based mechanism, under which any signatories
can be buyers or sellers of emissions units, which may now be called internationally transferred
mitigation outcomes or ITMOs. However, concerns related to scarce demand from countries and
questions of environmental integrity are still needed to be addressed.
There are number of emission trading schemes in operation but most continue to co-exist in a
disconnected patchwork that lacks an international regime to link them. Paris Agreement also has
remained silent on linking such schemes.
There are also concerns that the emissions cuts promised by countries are still wholly insufficient to
meet the desired targets.

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Challenges for developing country in achieving the targets
Indias INDC include reduction in the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33 to 35 per cent by 2030 from
2005 level and to create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO 2 equivalent through
additional forest and tree cover by 2030. The various challenges facing developing countries like India in
meeting their INDCs include:
Growing energy demand and urbanization in developing countries like India-With the responsibility
of lifting around 360 million people out of poverty and raising the standard of living of an even
greater number of people, greater monetary support is key for countries like India that can
simultaneously address climate change and development needs.
Technology development and transfer and capacity-building are key to ensuring adequate
development and deployment of clean-technologies. The technology gap between rich and poor
countries remains enormous and the capacity of developing economies to adopt new technology
needs to be enhanced. Enhanced action on technology development and transfer will be central in
enabling the full and effective implementation of Indias INDC.
Developed countries should be supportive and help in transfer of technology, remove barriers, create
facilitative IPR regime, provide finance, capacity building support and create a global framework for
Research & Development on clean coal and other technologies so that desired Paris Agreement targets
can be achieved.

18. Why are river deltas important? Discuss the existing threats to river deltas and the measures needed
to overcome these threats.
Approach:
Explain the importance of deltas as nutrient-rich wetlands having important role of absorbing runoff,
filtering water, reducing impact of pollution flowing from upstream, serving as important habitats for
diverse flora and fauna, supporting livelihoods of numerous tribals etc.
Give an account of threats like excessive river engineering, river pollution, climate change etc.
List the conservation measures like management of sediments, behavioural change, placing storm
surge barriers etc.
Answer:
A river delta is a landform that forms from deposition of sediment carried by a river as the flow leaves its
mouth and enters slower-moving or standing water.
Significance of Deltas:
Ecological: Deltas absorb runoff from both floods (from rivers) and storms (from lakes or the ocean),
filter water and thus reduces the impact of pollution flowing from upstream.
o Deltas are also important wetland habitats. They support extremely diverse and specialized flora
and fauna and are areas of dense forests. Also, a place for many migratory birds.
Economic: Deltas are important places for trade and commerce, and major ports.
o Deltas due to rich accumulation of silt are fertile agricultural areas. World's largest delta is the
GangesBrahmaputra delta in India and Bangladesh, which empties into Bay of Bengal. It is
densely populated supporting livelihood of millions. Fish, other seafood, and crops such as rice
and tea are leading agricultural products of the delta.
o Deltas possess well sorted sand and gravel which is quarried.
o Due to their diversity they are centres of tourism and recreation.
Threats to River Deltas
Human activities, including diversion of water for irrigation and creation of dams reduce
sedimentation, which can cause delta to erode away. Similarly unsustainable mining of sand and
gravel degrades river delta.

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The use of water upstream can greatly increase salinity levels as less fresh water flows to meet salty
ocean water.
While nearly all deltas have been impacted to some degree by humans, the Nile Delta and Colorado
River Delta are some of the most extreme examples of ecological devastation caused to deltas by
damming and diversion of water.
Climate change and rising sea level rising sea level flood deltas bringing in saline water and
threatening wetland ecosystem. For example nearly 31 square miles of Sundarbans have vanished
entirely due to sea level rise. Four million people on Indian side, as well as royal Bengal tigers
inhabiting there are threatened.
Measures to overcome these threats
Physical measures aimed at the management of sediment and/or at the management of water-it
can entail full or partial recovery of a water system such as removing dikes, seawalls and dams as
well as steering natural processes by creating flood areas and using sand replenishment along the
coastline. Dredging can be one tool for addressing these problems.
Adapting human behavior may be more difficult, but spatial planning of deltas, which include
evacuation or even relocation of people to less risky higher elevations, can be effective in reducing
harm to life and livelihood caused by flooding. By identifying flood hazard and buffer zones, damage
can be controlled.
Deltas are diverse and complicated ecosystems and no one-size-fits-all solution is suitable. Further study
of ecological, morphological, economic and social factors must be made and international as well as
private sector cooperation is imperative.

19. Transfer of water from one river basin to another is not, per se, either a novel or an untested idea.
However, the river linking project in India requires going beyond mere transfer of water. Assessing the
feasibility of the interlinking of rivers, analyze its potential in addressing water related challenges in
India.
Approach:
First of all give a brief background of the concept of interlinking of river in India.
Then bring out varied dimensions that interlinking of river will involve apart from transfer of water.
After that analyse its potential in addressing the water related challenges in India. Also try to bring
out various challenges in its implementation.
Answer:
The idea of inter-linking Indian rivers is not new. Every irrigation project involves such transfer at some
scale. Originally mooted during by the Britishers, the scheme was revisited by irrigation engineer KL Rao
in 1972. Supreme Court has been issuing orders to the government to implement the scheme to interlink
rivers.
The current interlinking of river programme is based on the National Perspective Plan (NPP) comprising
30 river links. It would consist of more than 3000 storages to distribute 174 billion cubic meters of water
through a canal network of 14900 kms. However, the river linking project is not merely transferring of
water but it involves other varied dimensions as well.
Land acquisition will be a huge challenge in implementing the inter-linking projects which they
require for making dams, canals etc.
Issue of inter-state river disputes will be aggravated.
Some interlinking projects are between rivers with similar regimes. For ex. Ken and Betwa have
similar regime and hence scientists claim that their interlinking is not required.

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Water deficient Peninsular rivers are at higher elevation while, water surplus plain rivers are lower.
This means that water has to be mechanically lifted up snowballing the cost, technology and
manpower needs.
Financial implications - The estimated cost of announced package of 30 projects under National
Perspective Plan was around Rs. 560000 crore.
Livelihood issues - It would involve shifting and rehabilitation of around 3.5-5.5 million people most
of whom are tribals and farmers.
There may be tensions with neighboring countries like Bangladesh, Bhutan and Pakistan which are
dependent on the Himalayan rivers.
Rivers like Ganga are highly polluted and interlinking of rivers may also become way of distributing
pollution to less polluted rivers.
Ecological dimension is also there as interlinking will mean interfering with natural cycle of river
waters flowing into the seas and oceans.
Potential in addressing water related challenges
Those in favour of the interlinking of livers often allude to the uneven distribution of Indias water
resources. It is being seen as the best solution to repeated flooding of Himalayan rivers and the
erratic water availability in peninsular India.
Improving inland navigation with the help of canals that will have to be built as part of the project is
another associated advantage.
Also many problems that confound the country i.e. flood control, irrigation, limiting droughts, and
boosting farm output can be sorted out by interlinking rivers.
Ground water recharge, water conservation, utilization of river basin and lesser use of ground water
for irrigation.
However, the assumption on which potential of interlinking of rivers has been based itself has been
questioned.
Environmentalists opine that no river basin is water surplus. Viewed from a holistic perspective there
is no surplus water in a river basin, because every drop performs some ecological service.
The second assumption that floodwaters can be channelised is equally erroneous. The fact is when
one river is in spate so is next river and transferring water would require huge storage facilities.
Construction of large reservoirs has massive environmental impacts not considered in the scheme.
Many irrigation projects are stalled on this count.
Therefore, concerns and challenges remain in realising the true potential of this project. Detailed
feasibility reports should be prepared along with Social and Environment Impact Assessment Reports.
These challenges need effective solutions before this project can be implemented on such large scale.

20. With increasing urbanisation in India, the land usage pattern is undergoing major changes. Comment.
Approach:
Explain urbanization briefly.
Then discuss how it has impacted the land use pattern.
List the challenges arising out of such changes and suggest remedial measures.
Answer:
Urbanization refers to increase in percentage of population living in urban areas. Consequently rapid
expansion of urban areas due to rise in population and economic growth is causing land-use changes.
These changes are not occurring only in urban but also in rural areas and rural-urban interface.
In particular, these changes can be discerned as follows:

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Agricultural land near urban centres is being used to grow horticultural crops and for poultry and
dairy purposes while food grains in the hinterland.
Decline in agriculture land, natural vegetation and waste land.
Water bodies like ponds and traditional water harvesting structures like step wells, bawadi etc. are
encroached for constructing buildings and roads.
Increase in less and medium density areas in cities which include areas initially under
fallow/sandy/scrub lands.
Increase in urban sprawl which refers to migration of population from populated towns and cities to
low density residential development. The end result is spreading of a city and its suburbs over more
and more rural land.
Sub-urbanization which refers to formation of ruralurban fringe, also known as outskirts or urban
hinterland, is the landscape interface between town and country, or also as the transition zone
where urban and rural uses mix and often clash.
Development of satellite cities i.e. smaller cities that are near to a large metropolitan city due to
which there has also been decline in agriculture land and natural vegetation
As city populations grow, demand for goods and services increase, pushing up prices including that of
land. As land prices rise, working/labor class may be priced out of real estate market and pushed into
less desirable neighborhoods/slums, a process known as gentrification.
While urbanization is a natural corollary of industrial and economic development, unplanned-rapid
urbanization comes at certain social and ecological costs. Resulting change in land use patterns although
create new opportunities but also give rise to many challenges like: food security in future, global
warming, contamination and decline of natural resources, health challenges, perpetuation of class
divisions and rural poverty thus reinforcing further migration.
Hence, we need planned urbanization which should include development of satellite towns with
appropriate connectivity with mega-polis with special attention to public transport, budget housing and
social infrastructure. It should be compounded with development of employment opportunities in tier 2
and 3 towns to ease metro cities, and development of agriculture, agro based industries and social
infrastructure in rural areas.

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