00-ACPA-112F/S.R.

APRIL 2000 9/13/00 2:29 PM Page 1

CONCRETE PAVEMENT TECHNOLOGY & RESEARCH

INCLUDES: Concrete Pavement Surface Textures

FHWA Technical
Working Group Findings
Results of Recent Noise
and Skid Resistance
Studies
Surface textures for concrete pavement have evolved over many years
because of faster vehicles and increasing traffic volumes. A variety of tex-
tures are now available to enhance a pavements skid resistance properties
and provide a safe and quiet riding surface for motorists. Selecting a tex-
ture for a concrete pavement requires an understanding of the particular
needs and requirements of the facility, and matching the skid-resistance and
noise qualities of the available textures to those needs.

Updated Tining Since the late 1970s, the ideal purpose of concrete pavement surface
Specifications Optimized texturing on high-speed highways has been to reduce wet-weather acci-
for Noise dents caused by skidding and hydroplaning.(1) While this primary need
remains important, in many locations noise generation has also become a
Special Textures for
significant issue. One drawback to some of the textures that agencies are
Hardened Concrete
currently using on highways is objectionable tire-road noise. Fortunately,
Pavement
recent studies (2,3) have identified the source of tones that make tire-road
Complete noise objectionable, and have refined textures to reduce or eliminate
Recommendations for: these tones.

Highways Over the past 40 years there have been several shifts in the most commonly
Airports applied texture on concrete pavement highways. While the most common
Streets texture in North America remains transverse tining, many US agencies that are
Local Roads concerned about optimizing the surface for noise and skid resistance, are
Parking Lots
adjusting tine dimensions or switching to an alternate texture for high-speed
Loading ramps
highways.(4) For streets and local roads traditional drag-textures remain the
ideal choice, while on airports, the Federal Aviation Administration has specific
requirements depending upon the use of the pavement.

The character of any texture divides into two categories: microtexture and
macrotexture. Microtexture is fine-scale roughness contributed by the fine
aggregate (sand) in the concrete mortar. Macrotexture is the measurable,
deep striations or grooves formed in the plastic concrete. Macrotexture
also may come from grooves cut or sawed into a hardened concrete sur-
face. Textures that
create high skid resis- Macrotexture
Macrotexture -- formed
formed into
into surface
surface
tance have good quali -
ty microtexture (5)

Selecting a
Texture
An agency must con-
sider the facility or
pavement location Microtexture
Microtexture -- from
from aggregate
aggregate particles
particles
when selecting an near
near the
the surface
surface
appropriate surface
texture. For instance,
00-ACPA-112F/S.R. APRIL 2000 9/13/00 2:29 PM Page 2

The table shows the Texture for Fresh

Description
ten basic surface Concrete
textures for concrete
pavement, including Burlap Drag Produced by trailing moistened coarse burlap from a device that
descriptions of the allows control of the time and rate of texturing - usually a con-
basic processes struction bridge that spans the pavement. Produces 1.5-3 mm
used to produce the (1/16-1/8 in.) deep striations.
textures and recom-
mended dimensions Artificial Turf Drag Produced by trailing an inverted section of artificial turf from a
to optimize skid and device that allows control of the time and rate of texturing - usu-
noise.(1) The surface ally a construction bridge that spans the pavement. Produces
character of each 1.5-3 mm (1/16-1/8 in.) deep striations when using turf with
texture affects the 77,500 blades/m2 (7200 blades ft 2).
textures durability,
surface friction, tire- Transverse Broom Obtained using either a hand broom or mechanical broom
road noise and skid device that lightly drags the stiff bristles across the surface.
resistance. Produces 1.5-3 mm (1/16-1/8 in.) deep striations.

Longitudinal Broom Achieved in similar manner as transverse broom, except that

broom is pulled in a line parallel to the pavement centerline.

Random Transverse Achieved by a mechanical device equipped with a tining head

Tine* (Perpendicular (metal rake) that moves across the width of the paving surface-
or skewed) laterally or on a skew. (A hand tool is sufficient on smaller areas.)
Optimal dimensions are: random tine spacing 10 to 75-mm (1/2 to
3 in.), 3-6 mm (1/8-1/4 in.) tine depth, and 3 mm (1/8 in.) tine
width. (A 1:6 skew provides lowest noise compared to other trans-
verse tine textures.)

Achieved in similar manner as transverse tining, except that tines

Longitudinal Tine * are pulled in a line parallel to the pavement centerline. Optimal
dimensions are: 20-mm (3/4-in.) uniform tine spacing, 3-6 mm
(1/8-1/4 in.) tine depth, and 3 mm (1/8 in.) tine width.

Occasional European practice of applying a set retarder to the

Exposed Aggregate new concrete surface, and then washing away surface mortar to
expose durable chip-size aggregates. Requires uniformly apply-
ing chips to fresh surface and mechanically abrading surface to
wash away still-wet mortar.
Texture for
Description
Hardened Concrete
Diamond Ground Longitudinal, corduroy-like surface made by equipment using
diamond saw blades gang-mounted on a cutting head. The
cutting head produces 164-197 grooves/meter (50-60
grooves/foot) and can remove 3-20 mm (1/8-3/4 in.) from the
pavement surface.

Diamond Groove Grooves sawed into surface longitudinally for highways and
transversely for airports. Made by same equipment for diamond
grinding. Typically, the grooves are 6 mm (1/4 in.) deep, 3 mm
(1/8 in.) wide and spaced 20 mm (3/4 in.) apart. On airports
grooves are 6 mm (1/4 in.) deep, 6 mm (1/4 in.) wide and
spaced 40 mm (1-1/2 in.) apart.

Abraded (Shot-blasted) Etched surface produced by equipment that hurls abrasive

media within an enclosed housing. The abrasive media impacts
the surface and removes a thin layer of mortar and aggregate.
The depth of the removal is controllable and the dust is vacu-
umed into a baghouse.

* For best results, most agencies precede tining with a burlap or artificial turf drag texture.
00-ACPA-112F/S.R. APRIL 2000 9/13/00 2:29 PM Page 3

Textures for Fresh Concrete

Burlap
Burlap Drag
Drag Random
Random Transverse
Transverse Tine
Tine

Artificial
Artificial Turf
Turf Drag
Drag Longitudinal
Longitudinal Tine
Tine

Broom
Broom Exposed
Exposed Aggregrate
Aggregrate

Textures for Hardened Concrete

Diamond
Diamond Ground
Ground Diamond
Diamond Groove
Groove

Abrated
Abraded(Shot-Blasted)
(Shot-Blasted)
00-ACPA-112F/S.R. APRIL 2000 9/13/00 2:29 PM Page 4

the need for a high degree of texture is

not as great on parking areas with slower Facility Texture
traffic and little potential for hydroplaning. Airport apron, runway Burlap drag, or
Similarly, airports often use different tex- or taxiway Broom, or Turf drag,
tures on runways or high-speed taxiways
than on aprons where aircraft travel more Airport runway (high- Transverse groove
slowly. speed)

Airport taxiway (high- Transverse groove

If posted speeds are less than 72 km/h speed)
(45 mph) a drag texture is sufficient for
Existing Roadway Longitudinal groove,
safety, and is less costly and quieter than
most tine textures on a roadway. Tine (High-accident area) or abraded surface
textures were originally developed for Existing Roadway Diamond ground,
highways to address concerns over (Noise-sensitive area) or abraded surface
hydroplaning and stopping from higher
speeds, and are an unnecessary Highway (urban or Burlap drag or turf
expense on streets and local roads. In rural, high-speed) drag with random
selecting a texture for a highway, the tex- transverse or
tures tire-road noise qualities ought to be longitudinal tine
considered, particularly in populated Loading docks Burlap drag, turf drag,
areas. For airports, tire-road noise is of or broom
no concern and the Federal Aviation
Administration requires specific textures Parking lots & garages Burlap drag, turf drag,
for runways, aprons and taxiways that or broom
must be specified. Ramps Burlap drag or turf
drag with transverse or
The table below shows recommended longitudinal tine
textures for various applications. These
Streets or roads Burlap drag or turf
textures provide acoustically favorable
[>72 kmph (>45 mph)] drag (random
characteristics without sacrificing skid transverse or
resistance or safety.(1,2,3) Several alternate longitudinal tine
textures are feasible for each facility;
choosing amongst the alternates requires Streets or roads Burlap drag, turf drag,
evaluating their cost and appropriateness [<72 kmph (<45 mph)] or broom
for the facility. With many choices avail- * See Table on page 2 for optimal dimensions for
able, in no way should the feasibility of a these textures.
pavement project be limited by the sur-
face material or texture.
microtexture, aggregate properties (espe-
cially fine aggregate) will essentially deter-
Texture Durability- mine if the surface will remain rough or
The wear resistance or durability of a sur- become polished with wear. Coarse
face is an important consideration for con- aggregates are not usually exposed at the
structing a skid-resistant pavement. Both pavement surface, and therefore do not
microtexture and macrotexture wear under contribute much to pavement friction,
traffic, and therefore skid resistance of any except for an exposed aggregate, abrad-
surface decreases some over time. (5) The ed or diamond ground texture.
rate of surface wear depends upon the
traffic, including use of studded tires, and Use of polish resistant aggregate is
material properties. advisable to maintain surface friction over
long periods. Fine aggregates with at
Since it is the natural roughness of aggre- least 25% siliceous particles are known
gate that provides the pavement surface to give excellent friction performance. (7)
00-ACPA-112F/S.R. APRIL 2000 9/13/00 2:29 PM
However, any hard aggregate will also
work well. Aggregate selection decisions
should always consider local availability
and cost.
Surface Friction-
Pavement surface friction depends upon
a complex interaction between three
components: pavement surface, tire rub -
ber and vehicle operation. The presence
of water or other lubricants on the sur-
face and vehicle speed are generally the
primary factors reducing pavement fric-
tion.(5) While only a driver can alter the
effects of vehicle speed on frictional
resistance, the pavement surface texture
can reduce the impact of pavement sur-
face lubricants.
Surface channels or grooves (macrotex-
ture) allow water to escape from beneath a
tire to reduce hydroplaning. Hydroplaning
is tire separation from the pavement by a
layer of water, which causes loss of vehicle
steering and braking control. (1)
Modern vehicles with improved tires and
anti-lock braking systems also reduce
hydroplaning and skidding potential,
which increases operational safety.(A dis-
cussion of other ideas ro reduce
hydroplanning is found on page 9.)
The tire tread pattern becomes an
important factor when dealing with fric-
tional resistance on wet pavement sur-
faces. The squeegee action provided
by a tire tread reduces the quantity of
water between the tire and the pave-
ment surface, enhancing the frictional
resistance created by the surface micro-
texture. Microtexture creates adhesion
or shear resistance along the actual tire
contact area.
Noise -
Pavement noise may be a concern when
building new and widening older pave-
ments. In fact, noise pollution is one of
the factors requiring evaluation in an
Environmental Assessment (EA) for a pro-
ject using federal funds (6). A noise pollu-
tion analysis for an EA must show the
Page 5
noise generated at ground level near the
receptors (houses, buildings, etc.) along a
roadway. A noise level exceeding about
67 dBA (A-weighted decibels) requires a
noise-abatement feasibility analysis. The
feasibility of noise-abatement measures is
also assessed if the total noise at the
receptors increases by more than about
10-12 dBA due to a project.
Exterior Noise - The surface texture type
may slightly influence total noise at a
receptor, but rarely are receptors close
enough to high-speed roadways to make
these slight differences critical in an EA.
More likely, road geometrics and available
right-of-way are the issues impacting total
noise at neighboring receptors.
Noise levels dissipate as sound waves
move farther from their source. Past
noise studies show that total noise from
vehicles traveling at high speeds on typi-
cal concrete or asphalt surfaces are
about 69-72 dBA at distances of 8 m (25
ft) from the pavement. (1,3,5) Typical local
building codes require residential build-
ings to be at least 9 m (30 ft) from the
right-of-way or property line; receptors
(buildings) are therefore often 15 m (50 ft)
or more from a pavement.
Doubling the distance from the source
can reduce noise intensity by as much as
6 dBA. Because the noise dissipates as
sound waves travel away from the pave-
ment, slight differences from surface type
are far less influential on total noise at a
receptor than the closeness of the road-
way to the buildings and inhabitants.
Tire-pavement interaction is just one of
three sources of pavement noise. The
other sources, motor noise and exhaust
noise control total noise levels for both
automobiles and trucks at speeds below
about 55 km/h (35 mph) .(1,5) It is at
speeds greater than about 55 km/h
(35 mph) that tire-pavement interaction
becomes the principle source of pave-
ment noise for automobiles.
Interior Noise - According to a recent six-
state study (3) , total noise is not the sole
00-ACPA-112F/S.R. APRIL 2000 9/13/00 2:29 PM Page 6

Graph from
Wisconsin noise
study showing the
prominent peaks
that produce
objectionable
whine. Eliminating
these peaks is the
key to producing a
quieter surface.

indicator of whether vehicle-generated necessary to produce any clearly notice-

noise is considered objectionable. Noise
levels in the interior of a vehicle appear to
determine this perception based on tire
whine (a tonal influence). The table (next
page) shows a ranking of users percep-
tions of loudness from recordings of vari-
ous road surfaces along with the actual
A-weighted noise levels. (3)
Tire whine is audible inside or outside a
vehicle. Interestingly, the perceived loud-
ness of tire whine depends greatly on the
specific tone produced by the tire-to-
pavement interaction. Loudness is a
sensation in the consciousness of a
human observer that is not directly mea-
surable by instruments. Pure tones of
close intensity (dBA), but different fre-
quencies (tones), produce different sen-
sations. The perceived loudness may dif-
fer amongst men and women; however,
high-frequency tones usually seem louder
to most people than low-frequency tones.
For humans, a change of about 6 dBA is
able difference in sound level. (8)
In 1997, Wisconsin (2) first identified that
uniformly spaced transverse tinesthe
typical standard of most statesproduce
noise with a prominent tone, while ran-
domly spaced tines do not. Longitudinal
tines, drag-textures, diamond ground and
abraded textures also do not produce a
prominent tone or whine.
Interior noise spectra for two different sur-
faces from the Wisconsin study show the
prominent peaks that produce objection-
able whine (see graph). Eliminating these
peaks is the key to reducing a pave-
ments tire whine or perceived loudness.
The study found that drag, longitudinal
tine, random transverse tine, and abraded
textures all reduce these prominent peaks
(tones). In the broader six-state study,
longitudinal tining and skewed random
transverse tining were subsequently
found to be most reliable in eliminating
prominent peaks (discrete frequencies). (3)

Sensitivity of human ear to changes in sound level. (1)

Increase in Sound Level (dB) Change in Apparent Loudness
1 Imperceptible
3 Just Barely Perceptible
6 Clearly Noticeable
10 About Twice as Loud
20 About Four Times as Loud
00-ACPA-112F/S.R. APRIL 2000 9/13/00 2:29 PM Page 7

Texture Subjective Interior dBA Exterior dBA New Findings -

Rank 1 This list provides sig-
nificant conclusions
Random Transverse Tine - skew 1:6 1 67.6 82.4 from the largest
pavement surface
Random Transverse Tine - skew 1:4 2 67.2 83.1 comparison study
Asphalt - SHRP 3 65.9 81.1 ever undertaken.
The study reviewed
Variable Transverse Tine 4 67.7 81.0 57 test sites in
Colorado, Iowa,
25-mm Uniform Longitudinal Tine 5 68.0 83.9 Michigan, Minnesota,
North Dakota and
Exposed Aggregate 6 67.4 Wisconsin.
38 mm Random Transverse Tine (MN) 7 66.9 82.6 * Uniformly-spaced
transverse tines cre-
Transverse Grooved (13 mm intervals) 8 68.2 83.3 ate discrete frequen-
cies (tire whine) and
19 mm Uniform Transverse Tine 9 70.0 83.8 should be avoided.
Diamond Ground PCC 12 69.3 81.2 * Unless carefully
designed and con-
25 mm Random Transverse Tine (WI) 15 68.6 83.4 structed or skewed,
random transverse
25 mm Uniform transverse Tine 20 69.6 86.3 tining can exhibit
discrete frequencies.
1. Twenty surfaces were included in the subjective testing experiment, including some duplicate textures
from various states. 12 sections are included in this table for brevity. ( 25.4 mm = 1 inch). * Deeper tining
results in more noise
regardless of texture
Similar results to those found in the this specification is to create a smooth tire orientation.
Wisconsin study were also found recently in SN40 of about 32 and a ribbed tire SN40 * Longitudinally tined
Colorado.(8) As a result, Colorado changed of about 45. concrete pavements
their highway texturing requirement from a are among the qui-
etest pavements for
25-mm (1-in.) uniform transverse tine to 18- Measuring Textures- interior and exterior
mm (3/4-in.) longitudinal tine. The mean texture depth is estimated by noise, as quiet or
profiling the pavement surface or mea- quieter than some
Minnesota also evaluated their surface sured from the sand patch test. Surface asphalt pavements.
textures recently. In the metropolitan friction is measured using the standard * Random transverse
area surrounding Minneapolis and St. trailer test. tining skewed 1:6 to
Paul, pavement noise has become an the centerline,
exhibits low interior
important consideration as roadways The sand-patch test involves spreading noise, no discrete
there are widened and become closer to a known volume of material (uniformly frequencies and was
the surrounding receptors. Supported by graded round glass beads) on a clean rated best in a sub -
skid and noise data, Minnesota DOT and dry pavement surface and measuring jective noise test.
switched to an artificial turf drag texture the area covered. The material spread on * The lowest interior
on all new concrete pavements in 1999. the surface completely fills the surface noise levels were
The artificial turf drag texture specified in voids to the tips of the surface aggregate found on the random
Minnesota provides skid resistance and skew tined, longitudi-
particles. The area covered by the mater-
nal tined, European,
noise qualities equivalent to asphalt pave- ial is related to the surface macrotexture, lightly tined random
ments in the area. The artificial turf drag and the average depth between the bot- transverse and
specification requires a mean texture tom of the pavement surface and the asphalt surfaces.
depth of 1.0 mm (0.04 in.) or more based tops of the surface aggregate particles. * Longitudinal tining of
on the average of 4 sand-patch tests per The average macrotexture depth is deter- concrete pavement
day. Corrective action via diamond grind- mined from the known volume and the represents the optimal
ing is required if the average of the four measured area. ASTM adopted the test approach to tining.
tests goes below 0.80 mm (0.03 in.) or in (requiring glass spheres instead of sand)
an area represented by a single test as ASTM E 965.
below 0.70 mm (0.028 in.). The goal of
00-ACPA-112F/S.R. APRIL 2000 9/13/00 2:29 PM Page 8

In 1994, California
Department of
Transportation
(Caltrans) revisited a
1970s texturing
experiment. After
about 20 years,
most test sections
exceed a skid num-
ber of 30. Their
standard 18-mm lon-
gitudinal tine surface
provides excellent
long-term results.
In 1975, Caltrans
found that longitudi-
nally tined texture
reduces wet pave-
ment accidents and
adopted the surface
as a standard in
1975. Original ques- A more sophisticated method to measure volume pavements (less than 3000 aver-
tions on the effects
surface texture uses ROSAN (Road age daily traffic).
of longitudinal tining
on directional stabili- Surface Analyzer). ROSAN is a van
ty for motorcycles equipped with laser sensors mounted on The bar chart shows ribbed and smooth
and small-tired the vehicles front bumper. The instru- tire skid resistance results from a long-
vehicles was ments can measure the profile accurately term study in California(12). Clearly, differ-
answered by keep- at speeds up to 112 km/h (70 mph). The ent textures produce different skid num-
ing the tine spacing
below 20 mm. laser measurements are stored on com- bers depending upon the character of the
puter and custom software analyzes the texture and the test used. While there is
data to create an estimated texture depth no standard, most studies seem to indi-
(ETD) which is comparable to the sand cate that using both tests (ribbed-tire and
patch test value. smooth-tire) is preferable to using one or
the other alone. (1,5)
Frictional resistance of pavement is com-
monly measured in the United States with Construction-
the locked-wheel trailer ASTM E274. The Contractors drag various materials or
test measures the tractive force required tools across fresh concrete to produce a
to pull a trailer with its wheel locked (skid- surface texture. The texture depth
ding). With the known wheel load, a depends upon the pressure applied to the
skid number or coefficient of friction is texturing tool and the time it is applied.
determined. The Skid Number is defined Therefore, it is important for the contrac-
as the tractive force divided by the wheel tor to determine the optimum time to
load, and then multiplied by 100. The begin texturing to achieve the desired
test allows for a standardized ribbed tire depth, and then consistently apply the
or a standardized smooth tire. Results texture at that time after placement.
vary depending upon which tire is used.
Contractors report improved consistency
Skid Resistance- and the ability to apply curing compounds
No US state agency establishes statutory earlier with longitudinal tining, artificial turf
requirements for minimum skid resis- drag and burlap drag textures. All U.S. state
tance.(9) Reported skid number guide- specifications require curing after texturing.
lines range from 30 to 40 for major high-
ways (interstate highways and other The six-state study found a substantial
roads with design speeds more than 65 variation in the texture achieved on the
km/h (40 mph). (10.11) Lower skid numbers roadways compared to that specified.
are acceptable for low-speed and low- Since deeper and wider textures increase
00-ACPA-112F/S.R. APRIL 2000 9/13/00 2:29 PM
noise and frictional qualities, any factors
that control depth and width during con-
struction are important. Checking the
quality of texture spacing, depth or width
(particularly for tine textures) is paramount
to producing consistent results. The fol-
lowing items are known to influence vari-
ability in textures:
Consistency of concrete properties
(workability)
Time of texturing related to concrete
placement
Presence of bleed water
Total pressure on texturing tools
Evenness of the tool on the surface
Angle of tines to the surface
Cleanliness of burlap, turf or tines
Other Considerations-
A recent hydroplaning study (13) identified
influential factors and provided recom-
mendations to reduce hydroplaning. The
study recommends adjustments to cur -
rent cross-slope standards as the design
speed for a pavement section approach-
es or exceeds 100 km/h (60 mph).
Besides surface texture, the study
emphasizes three other factors influenc-
ing hydroplaning and/or wet-weather
accident potential of a roadway.
Page 9
Controlling the geometry of the pavement
to reduce the distance that the water
must flow before it exits the pavement
surface is paramount. Installing drain
systems to remove water from within the
surface (for expansive areas) may also be
advantageous. Of course environmental
conditions are extremely important, par -
ticularly rainfall intensity and temperature.
All of these factors, including surface tex-
ture, influence the water film thickness on
a roadway during a rainfall event. Water
Film Thickness is defined as the total thick-
ness of water on the pavement surface
minus the mean texture depth. (13) Water
flowing within the mean texture depth does
not contribute to hydroplaning. Water
above the texture does influence
hydroplaning if not removed by tire tread.
Geometry (roadway slope and distance to
edges) influences the time it takes for
water to flow off the pavement. For the
same rainfall and surface character, a
steeper slope and/or shorter flow distance
will result in a thinner Water Film
Thickness, reducing hydroplaning poten-
tial. Therefore cross-slope should be
maximized wherever possible with the
consideration of driver comfort and safety.
Roadway geometry changes constantly
through different sections, such as tan -
gents, superelevated curves, transitions,
crest and sag vertical curves. The table
Minimum Recommended Cross Slopes
provide values for three design speeds
and is based on a broom texture (mean
texture depth of 0.05 mm). These num-
bers apply to 2-lane sections (for water
flow distance).
00-ACPA-112F/S.R. APRIL 2000 9/13/00 2:29 PM Page 10

Grade Low Volume Moderate Volume High Volume

70 km/h (45 mph) 85 km/h (52 mph) 100 km/h (62 mph)
TANGENT SECTIONS
0.00 0.015 0.020 0.085
0.01 0.015 0.020 0.085
0.02 0.015 0.020 0.085
0.03 0.015 0.020 0.085
0.04 0.015 0.020 0.085
0.06 0.015 0.020 0.080
0.08 0.015 0.025 0.080
0.10 0.015 0.025 0.080
HORIZONTAL CURVE - RADIUS 300 m (1000 ft.)
0.00 0.015 0.020 0.080
0.01 0.015 0.020 0.080
0.02 0.015 0.020 0.080
0.03 0.015 0.020 0.080
0.04 0.015 0.030 0.080
0.06 0.015 0.030 0.090
0.08 0.015 0.030 0.090
0.10 0.015 0.030 0.090
CREST VERTICAL CURVE - RADIUS 300 m (1000 ft.)
0.00 0.015
0.01 0.020
0.02 0.020
0.03 0.020
0.04 0.020
0.06 0.025
0.08 0.025
0.10 0.025
SAG VERTICAL CURVE - RADIUS 300 m (1000 ft.)
0.00 0.030
0.01 0.030
0.02 0.030
0.03 0.030
0.04 0.030
0.06 0.030
0.08 0.035
0.10 0.035

Improving Surfaces- worn tires, decreasing wet-weather acci -

Improving noise and texture qualities of
existing concrete surfaces can be accom-
plished with diamond grinding, diamond
grooving or abrading.
Diamond Grinding - Although the primary
purpose of diamond grinding is to reduce
an existing pavements surface rough-
ness, grinding also improves pavement
skid resistance by restoring microtexture
and providing some macrotexture. The
increased texture improves drainage at
the tire-pavement interface, especially for
dent potential. Diamond grinding equip-
ment can easily remove as much as 18
mm (0.75 in.) of concrete in one pass.
Immediately after grinding, the locked
wheel longitudinal friction number (skid
number) measured using ASTM E274
increases dramatically. One study
showed an increase in average friction
number from 42 before grinding to 80
after grinding at five projects in the United
States.(14) In some cases such dramatic
improvements may be temporary, particu-
00-ACPA-112F/S.R. APRIL 2000 9/13/00 2:29 PM Page 11

larly if the pavements concrete contains
aggregate susceptible to polishing.
However, in Georgia, and elsewhere, it
has also been found that, although the
values does decrease within the first few
years, adequate texture is maintained for
many years.(14)
The longitudinal texture of grinding also
helps to provide directional stability and
reduce hydroplaning. This may be a very
important factor controlling accident
rates, particularly two or more years after
grinding. Unfortunately directional stabili-
ty cannot be measured using skid trailers.
A 1998 study (15) found that the overall
accident rate for diamond-ground surfaces
was only 60 percent of the rate for the
non-ground surfaces. The diamond-
ground pavements significantly reduced
accident rates up to 6 years after grinding.
This suggests that, in addition to macro-
texture depth, the direction of texture may
be a significant factor affecting accident
rate on diamond-ground pavements.
(Note: this same effect also may explain
the excellent safety qualities of longitudi-
nally tined new concrete surfaces).
er accidents before grooving totaled 515
(over a 25-year cumulative span) and
after grooving only 76 (over a 41.5-year
cumulative span).
Summary -
As a result of new studies and the recon-
sideration of concrete pavement surface
texturing practices by some states, other
states are encouraged to review their
standards, particularly where there is a
need to improve safety and tire-road
noise along projects. The selection of
surface texture for a given project should
be based on site conditions, such as cli-
mate, pavement use, speed limit, cost
and surrounding land use. A variety of
concrete pavement textures are available
that provide safe, durable surfaces with
low-noise characteristics. It is incumbent
on the specifiers to determine environ-
mental and pavement needs of each pro-
ject and then specify an appropriate con-
crete surface texture.

Abrading - Abrading (shotblasting)

removes a thin layer 0-6 mm (0-0.25 in.)
from the concrete surface. It is primarily
used as a preparation and cleaning for
bonded concrete overlays. However, it is
very effective for removing loose material
and creating a uniform texture on pro-
jects where the concrete surface has
scaled or polished. Because the etched
surface has many exposed sand-sized
particles, it provides a high degree of
microtexture or friction.

Diamond Grooving - Diamond grooving

has been used on airport, bridge and
high-accident locations since the 1960s.
Grooving provides deep channels to hold
water and excellent lateral control. It is
very effective for transitions and superele-
vated curve sections. Pioneering work
by Caltrans (16) showed a reduction in
accident rates of 85% after grooving
high-accident locations at 14 sites near
Los Angeles. On these sites, wet-weath-
00-ACPA-112F/S.R. APRIL 2000 9/13/00 2:29 PM
References
1. Tire Pavement Noise and Safety
Performance, PCC Surface
Texturing Technical Working Group,
FHWA-SA-96-068, Federal
Highway Administration,
Washington, DC, May 1996.
2. Kuemmel, D.A., and others,
Impacts Related to Pavement
Texture Selection, Final Report,
WI/SPR-06-96, Wisconsin
Department of Transportation,
Madison, WI, January 1997.
3. Noise and Texture on PCC
Pavements - Results of a Multi-State
Study, Final Report,
Wisconsin Department of Trans-
portation, Madison, WI, June 2000.
4. Voigt, G.F., Wu, Chung-Lung, A
New Look at Surface Textures for
Concrete Pavements, 1995
Conference of the Transportation
Association of Canada, Victoria,
British Columbia, 1995.
5. Wu, Chung-Lung, Nagi, Mohammad,
Optimizing Surface Texture of
Concrete Pavement, Bulletin
RD111T, Portland Cement
Association, Skokie, IL, 1995
6. Highway Traffic Noise in the United
States, Federal Highway
Administration, Washington D.C.,
1997.
7. Ray, G.K., Norling, L.T., More
Macrotexture in Concrete Pavement
for Greater, Long-Lasting Skid
Resistance, PCA TA034-01P,
Portland Cement Association,
Skokie, IL, 1974.
8. Ardani, A., PCCP Texturing Methods,
Report No. CDOT-DTD-R-95-2,
Colorado Department of
Transportation, Denver, CO, 1995.
9. Halstead, W.J., Criteria for Use of
Asphalt Friction Courses, National
Cooperative Highway Research
Program Synthesis, No. 104,
Transportation Research Board,
Washington, DC, 1983.
Page 12
10. Loutzenheiser, D.W., Skid This publication is based on the facts,
Resistance Values Used in Geometric tests and authorities stated herein. It
Design, Proceedings, First is intended for the use of professional
International Skid Prevention personnel competent to evaluate the
Conference, Part II, Virginia, 1959, significance and limitations of the
pp. 573-578. reported findings and who will accept
responsibility for the application of the
11. Kummer, H.W., Meyer, W.E., material it contains. Obviously, the
Tentative Skid-Resistance American Concrete Pavement
Requirements for Main Rural Association disclaims any and all
Highways, National Cooperative responsibility for application of stated
Highway Research Program Report, principles or for the accuracy of any
No. 37, Highway Research Board, of the sources other than work
Washington, DC, 1967. developed by the Association.
12. Neal, B.F., et. al., Surface Textures
for PCC Pavements, FHWA-CA-TL-
78-14, California Department of
Transportation, Sacramento, CA,
1978.
13. Proposed Design Guidelines for
Reducing Hydroplaning on New and
Rehabilitated Pavements, Research
Results Digest, Number 243, National
Cooperative Highway Research
Program, Transportation Research
Board, Washington, DC, September
1999.
14. Rao, S., Yu, T. and Darter, M., The
Longevity and Performance of
Diamond-Ground Pavements,
Portland Cement Association, Skokie,
IL, 1999.
15. Drakopoulos, A., and others,
Comparison of Accident Experiences
Between Tined and Continuously
Ground Portland Cement Concrete
Pavements, Presented at the 77th American Concrete Pavement Association
Annual TRB Meeting Committee on 5420 Old Orchard Road
Suite A100
Surface Properties Vehicle
Skokie, IL 60077-1059
Interaction (A2B07), Transportation 847-966-2272
Research Board, Washington, DC, 847-966-9970 fax
1998. www.pavement.com
16. Beaton, J., and others, Reduction of
Accidents by Pavement Grooving,
M&R 633126, California Division of
Highways, August 1968.
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