Engineering does not tell men what

they should want or why they want it.

Rather it recognizes a need and tries
to meet it.

Hardy Cross, 1952

1
Chapter 2: Materials
Essentials of Quality Concrete
The performance of concrete is related
to:
workmanship
mix propor6ons
material characteris6cs
adequacy of curing
Essentials of Quality Concrete
The produc6on and tes6ng of raw
materials
Determining the desired proper6es of
concrete
Propor6oning of concrete cons6tuents to
meet the design requirements
Batching, mixing and handling to achieve
consistency
Essentials of Quality Concrete

Proper placement and nishing

Adequate consolida6on to ensure
uniformity
Proper maintenance of moisture and
temperature condi6ons to promote
strength gain and durability
Tes6ng for quality control and evalua6on
Concrete basically composed of:
1. cement
2. water
3. coarse and ne aggregates
Suitable Materials
The cement and water (also called
paste) binds the aggregates into rocklike
mass as the paste hardens from the
chemical reac6on between cement and
water.
Supplementary cemen))ous materials
and chemical admixtures may also be
included in the paste.
The paste may also contain entrapped air
or purposely entrained air.
Range of Proportions of Materials
Used in Concrete

Up to 8% Air
7 15% Cement
60 75% Aggregates
(Coarse and Fine)
14-21% Water
Portland Cement
Portland cements are hydraulic cements composed
primarily of hydraulic calcium silicates
Hydraulic cements set and harden by reac6ng chemically
with water and maintain their stability under water.
Hydraulic cements include:
portland cement
blended cements: natural cement and slag cement
Terminology
Cement is a Manufactured Material
Obtaining Raw Materials
Raw Materials
Chemistry vs. Types of Cement
Strength and Heat Development
Typical Uses: Type I Cement
Typical Uses: Type II & Type V
Sulfate Resistant Cements
Typical Uses: Moderate and
Low Heat Cements
Typical Uses: Type III High
Early Strength Cements
Supplementary Cementing
Materials
Aggregates
Aggregate occupies about 75% of the total volume of
concrete (least expensive part). Fine aggregate (sand) is
material less than 3/16 in. and coarse aggregate (gravel)
large than that. The nominal maximum size of coarse
aggregate from ACI - 3.3.2 is governed by the clearance
between the sides of a form and the adjacent bars as
follows:
1. 1/5 the narrowest dimension
between sides of forms
2. 1/3 the depth of slabs
3. 3/4 the minimum clear spacing
between reinforcing bars


Aggregates
Aggregates should consist of par6cles:
with adequate strength
resistance to exposure condi6ons
should not contain materials that will cause
deteriora6on of the concrete.

A con6nuous
grada6on of aggregate
par6cle sizes is
desirable for ecient
use of the paste
Gradation of Aggregates
Chemical Admixtures
1. Adjust se^ng 6me or
hardening
2. Reduce water demand
3. Increase workability
4. Inten6onally entrain
air
5. Hydra6on control
6. Adjust other fresh or
hardened concrete
proper6es
Cross section of hardened
concrete
Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio
The strength of the concrete depends solely on
the rela6ve quan6ty of water compared with
cement.
The strength is a func6on of the water to
cement ra6o (w/c), where w represents the
mass of water and c represents the mass of
cement
Unnecessarily high water content dilutes the
cement paste (the glue of concrete) and
increases the volume of the concrete produced.
 Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio
Some advantages of reducing water content include:

Increased compressive and exural strength

Lower permeability and increased water6ghtness
Increased durability and resistance to weathering
Becer bond between concrete and reinforcement
Reduced drying shrinkage and cracking
Less volume change from we^ng and drying
 Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio
Smaller amounts of mixing water result in s6er
mixtures; with vibra6on, s6er mixtures can be
easily placed.
Consolida6on by vibra6on permits improvement in
the quality of concrete.
Proportioning
Dene the propor6ons of a concrete mix in terms of the total
weight of each component needed to make up 1 yd3 of wet
concrete:
For example:
517 lb of cement
300 lb of water
1270 lb of sand
1940 lb of coarse aggregate
Plus the total volume of air, in percent, when air is deliberately
entrained in the mix (typically 4 to 7%)

Mix Proportion
1:2:4 by Weight
1 part cement : 2 parts sand : 4 part aggregate

Max Aggregate: , , 1 and 1.5

Freshly mixed concrete
Should be plas6c or semiuid and generally capable of being
molded by hand.
A very wet concrete mixture can be molded in the sense that
it can be cast in a mold.
Plas6c that which is pliable and capable of being molded or
shaped like a lump of modeling clay.
In plas6c concrete mixture, all grains of sand and par6cles of
gravel/stone are encased and held in suspension.
The ingredients are not apt to segregate during transport.
Freshly Mixed Concrete
The Trip to Pour Concrete Begins
 Mixing of Concrete
Ensuring that components of concrete are combined into a
homogeneous mixture requires eort and care.
The sequence of charging ingredients into a concrete mixer
can play an important part in uniformity of the nished
product.

Dierent sequences
require adjustments
in the 6me of water
addi6on, the total
number of drum
revolu6ons of the
mixer drum and the
speed of revolu6on.
Transporting the Fresh Mix
Transporting
Concrete must be transported to the site and placed
within a reasonable 6me frame once it leaves the batch
plant.
ASTMC 94, Specica)on for Ready-Mixed Concrete
requires:
1. that the concrete be delivered and placed within 90
minutes aker the addi6on of water to the mixture
(when hydra6on begins) to meet the desired se^ng
and hardening proper6es
2. no more than 300 revolu6ons of the mixing drum to
prevent segrega6on and shearing of the aggregate.
Placing the Concrete
Placement and Consolidation
 Concrete is usually consolidated with a mechanical
vibrator. Concrete being placed in forms should be
placed in layers, with each layer being vibrated when
it is placed. Placing too much concrete at any one
area at a 6me, or failing to vibrate concrete
adequately can result in incomplete consolida6on,
causing a honeycomb pacern;
Finishing the concrete
Finishing Concrete
Finishing Concrete
Jointing
Curing of concrete
Hydration and Curing
Hydration and Curing
 Curing: there are three key factors:
1. 6me
2. temperature
3. moisture
Saw-cutting concrete
 Slump (Workability) Test
The workability of concrete is gauged using the slump test.
When concrete is to be used for a construc6on project, the slump is
usually specied.
It is measured by compac6ng a wet concrete mix into a metal cone that is
12 inches high, with openings of 4 inches at the top and 8 inches at the
bocom
 Slump Test
Excess concrete is made level with the top of the cone
The cone is then slowly liked up and away from the
concrete mix
 Slump Test
If the concrete is prepared using a rela6vely small amount of
water then the unsupported cone will collapse or slump only
slightly.
If more water is used, then the concrete slump will be higher
Slump (Workability) Test
Compression Strength, f c
The main measure of the structural quality of concrete is
its compressive strength.
Standard test: Compressive Strength Test on Concrete
Cylinder:
Size: 6 x 12 or 4 x 8 cylinder
Molds are lled with concrete during the
placement of concrete as specied by ASTM
C172, Standard Method of Sampling Freshly
Mixed Concrete
ASTM C31, Standard Prac6ce for Making and
Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Field.
Cylinders are moist cured at 70 for 28 days
 Rate of Loading
Concrete cylinder is tested in the
lab at a specied rate of loading.
Rate of loading: 2000 psi/min
Stress-Strain Curve
 Strength aker:
7 days: 50%
14 days: 65%
28 days: 75%

R/C Beams and Slabs:

f c= 3,000 6,000 psi
R/C Columns:
f c = 4,000 19,000 psi
 Tensile Strength, ft
- Relatively low for concrete

Direct Tension Test: Signicant for judging cracking
poten6al in concrete.
 Tensile Strength
Split Cylinder Test most common test

Concrete cylinder placed in horizontal posi6on

Compression applied uniformly
Cylinder loaded so have nearly uniform tensile stress of magnitude
[2P/(dL)] exists at right angles to plane
Cylinder splits into 2 halves along that plane at a stress, f ct
Tensile Strength
Flexural tensile test:
members subjected to
bending
test to failure
plain concrete beam
6 square cross-sec6on
loaded at its midpoint or
third points
Tensile strength in exure is
known as the Modulus of
Rupture, fr
Modulus of Rupture, fr
As governed by ACI is as follows:

normalweight
fr = 7.5 fc' concrete

fr = 6.4 fc' sand-lightweight
concrete
fr = 5.6 fc' all-lightweight
concrete
Modulus of Elasticity, Ec
Units: lb/in2 (Mpa)
The modulus of elas6city of concrete varies primarily with
strength, but also with weight, age and size. The modulus of
elas)city per ACI - 8.5.1 is as follows:

E = 33w1.5 f ' (all)
c c c

Ec = 57, 000 fc' (normal)

wc = unit weight of hardened concrete in pcf (lb/k3). For normal strength

concrete use 145 lb/k3

fc = strength in psi
Creep and Shrinkage
Creep is the property of concrete by which it
con6nues to deform with 6me under sustained
loads at unit stresses within the elas6c range.
Shrinkage is the property of concrete by which
it con6nues to change in volume with 6me that
is unrelated to load applica6on.
Both rates will decrease with 6me.