LabManual Part1

P HYS 2 6 2 :
ADVAN CE D P HYS I CS LAB

THE ART OF GOOD MEASUREMENTS
January 2006
Lab Manual Phy.s 262

1
TAB LE OF CONTE NTS
Contact Informations
4
Introduction (Sy#abus)
5
Writing lab reports and scientic articles using LaTeX
10
Basic Geometric Optics: Microscope and Telescope
17
Polarization
30
Computer Control of Instrument using Labview
36
Machine Shop
38
Interferometry
55
Laser Diodes
62
Solid State Lasers and Nonlinear Optics
72
Optical Fiber Ampliers
80
Fiber Laser
90
Appendix
96
Intro-Lecture
97
Basics of a Lock-In Amplier
106
Sample Midterm
116
Datasheets
117

2
3
Introduction
Contact Informations
Instructor:
Volkmar Dierolf
Phone: 610-758-3915
E-mail: vod2@lehigh.edu
AIM: mihovolk1

4
Introduction
Introduction (Syllabus)
The inuence of physics onto society and the contribution by physicist in the modern workplace is
twofold. On one hand, physicists explore new frontiers of understanding the world. In doing so, ad-
vanced experimental techniques are developed that all by itself have a large impact. Many of the
breakthroughs in physics have been achieved by careful detailed measurements. A good physicist
(besides having a good understanding of concepts) needs to be a master of the most accurate meas-
urements.
This course is designed to train you in this aspect and therefore the character is dierent from the
theory-based lecture courses that you have experienced in your major and also from the intro-
physics teaching labs.
The main dierences are the emphasis on hands-on experience, the creative design of the measure-
ments by the students, and the absence of partial credit. The latter is due to the fact that in the real
world a wrong measurement or a measurement with unreasonable large error is more harmful than
now measurement at all. Instead of getting partial credit, when measurements did not turn out well,
you will be given the chance to repeat it.
As a consequence of mentioned differences, you need to be aware of the following important points:
The lab manual is not a cookbook. It just gives you some background and suggestion of further
reading and denes the tasks,
The steps described in the procedures are suggestions to get you started but need to be re-
ned in all cases to obtain the optimum result.
You are dealing with state-of-the-art equipment that is suitable to get research level accu-
racy. In many cases, this equipment is more complex to use but it is expected that you will master
this. You are expected that you get an understanding of the basic principles of the instrumentation.
Good experiments take time. So expect and plan that you will need the whole lab period for
the experiments. Sometimes you may even nd that it is helpful to stay longer to complete a
measurement that you started.
This is not a course that you can do just on the side
Once you get the hang of it, doing experiments is fun and can be addictive.

5
Introduction
I. Expectations and Grades
Grading:
10% for each Lab Report (40% total). Most of the labs have quantitative aspects to it and you
need to put in eort to measure these quantities. Your grade will be based on it.
30% Performance in the Lab including the Lab Boo
15% Midterm
15% Final
Work in the Lab
You will work on the experiments in groups of two. Each group will be assigned experiments that
the students in the group are to conduct together during the times assigned in the Syllabus. Each
student will have to write her/his the report independently and needs to know what went on during
the experiment. Each student needs to keep an independent lab book. Lab times are WF from 1:10-4
and you are expected to use this time eectively. You may not be able to get through the experi-
ments unless you come prepared and work intensely while you are in the lab
I do encourage you to work with your partner not only during the experiment, but also during
preparation and analysis of your experiment and data. While setting up for and doing the experi-
ment, I want both of you to keep a lab notebook independently! Making the necessary entries will
slow you down, but the time spent on this will be more than made up for when you get to analyzing
your data and writing your reports or paper. If your notes are incomplete, you will nd it very hard to
write a consistent paper that reects your experimental ndings. Even a good memory will typically
not tell you what happened in an unbiased way. If you do not know what a lab notebook is, please
read as of paragraph 9, chapter 9 in part II of a once famous book: Zen and the Art of Motorcycle
Maintenance (http://virtualschool.edu/mon/Quality/PirsigZen/ ) by Robert M. Pirsig. The relevant
paragraph starts: For this you keep a lab notebook. (You may want to read from the fourth para-
graph already to get more of the picture...) - And since I experienced that nobody takes a lab note-
book serious: The way you keep your lab notebook will enter into your nal grade in this course. The
lab notebook will be indispensable for you when you write your lab reports and the paper on your
project. I will take the liberty to disregard parts of your paper if I nd that they cannot be substanti-
ated from your log in your lab notebook. The lab notebook will have to be submitted with your pa-
per and reports.
II. Lab Reports and Papers
You are required to write a lab report for all experiments in phase 3 and one for phase 2 and keep your
own lab book for all experiments and tasks. The lab reports will be 4 pgs. in the format of Physical Re-
view. It will contain the following sections:

6
Introduction
Abstract
Introduction to the topic of the experiments
Simple statement of purpose and the basic method
Theoretical background
Experimental Procedures
Apparatus - Pictures are good but are usually not sufficient.
Procedure It is helpful to sketch the procedure ahead of time, but in the lab book the procedure
should be written (or at least confirmed) as the experiments proceeds. The lab book is a record of
what was actually done in the lab. In your report, you will summarize the procedure, which turned
out to be the one that you finally used.
Experimental Results and their discussion (including error analysis)
Show your data in formatted tables and gures
Calculations leading to the nal results and analysis of their error. Details of the calculation
need to be done in the lab book
Summary
Point out the important results and their significance.
The papers will be written using Latex and REVTeX-style. This style is the standard for submission of
articles to the Physical Review, one of the most important journals in physics.
The first homework, should prepare you to tackle the task of using this program package.

7
Introduction
III. Schedule:
Overall we meet 28 times
Phase 1 (all together)
Meeting 1:
Basic Introduction + Labview Movie, Introduction to LaTeX (Homework)
Meeting 2:
Basic Instrumentation: Lock-In Amplier, Digital Oscilloscopes, lecture + hands-on
experiments.

Topics of lecture:
Error analysis
Principle of Lock-in amplier
The concept of system theory: Example slow detection system for the measurement of fast proc-
esses
Spectrometers
Phase 2 (in 4 groups): Meeting 3 to 14
Over the next 12 meetings we will do 4 tasks for three meetings each:
Task 1: Machine Shop
Task 2: Labview Programming
Task 3: Geometric Optics
Task 4:
Polarization
For all experiments you will need to keep a detailed lab notebook. For Task3 or Task4 you need to
hand in a 4 page paper written in LaTeX on the meeting 14. Lab reports will be returned to you after
meeting 15 and you will be given a chance to improve on the report. The corrected version will
be graded. The corrected version is due 1 week later. For each day late, you will loose 1point. (i.e.
10 days late=0 pts).
Meeting 15:
Midterm
Phase 3 ( in 4 new groups): Meeting 16 to 27
Over the next 12 meetings we will do 3 tasks for 4 meetings each. The experiments will be
pick out of the following:
Task 5:
Interferometry

8
Introduction
Task 6: Solid State Laser (and Nonlinear Optics)
Task 7:
Semiconductor Laser
Task 8: Fiber-Optical Amplier
Task 9: Fiber Laser
Task 10: Magnetic Resonance, hopefully available in the middle of the semester
For all experiments you will need to keep a detailed lab notebook. For all tasks you need to hand
in a 4 page paper written in LaTeX, one meeting after you have nished the experiments.
You will get the paper one week after that and have again one week to do the corrections. For each
day late, you will loose 1 point. (i.e. 10 days late=0 pts). No mercy on this
Meeting 28:
Final
Before you start with the experiments 3-9 arrange a pre-meeting with the in-
structor to get a brief introduction in the used equipment.
Most of the background physics that will be covered in this lab is in its details new to you.
Don t worry. This is intentional since it reects the research life which this lab intends to
imitate. The Lab Manual will only be a rst guideline of the background you need to know.
There will be material available in the lab that allows you to nd out more details. A portion
of each lab will be spend doing reading.

9
Writing lab reports with LaTEX
Writing lab reports and scientic articles using LaTeX

What Is TeX?
TeX (= tau epsilon chi, and pronounced similar to blecch, not to the state known for `Tex-Mex
chili) is a computer language designed for use in typesetting; in particular, for typesetting math and
other technical (from greek techne = art/craft, the stem of `technology) material.
In the late 1970s, Donald Knuth was revising the second volume of his multivolume magnum opus
The Art of Computer Programming, got the galleys, looked at them, and said (approximately) bleccch!
he had just received his rst samples of the new computer typesetting, and its quality was so far be-
low that of the rst edition of Volume2 that he couldnt stand it. He thought for a while, realized
digital typesetting meant arranging 0s and 1s (ink and no ink) in the proper pattern, and said (ap-
proximately), As a computer scientist, I really identify with patterns of 0s and 1s; I ought to be able
to do something about this, so he set out to learn what were the traditional rules for typesetting
math, what constituted good typography, and (because the fonts of symbols that he needed really
didnt exist) as much as he could about type design. He gured this would take about 6 months. (Ul-
timately, it took nearly 10 years, but along the way he had lots of help from some people who should
be well known to readers of this list - Hermann Zapf, Chuck Bigelow, Kris Holmes, Matthew Carter
and Richard Southall are acknowledged in the introduction to VolumeE, Computer Modern Typefaces,
of the Addison-Wesley Computers & Typesetting book series.)
A year or so after he started, Knuth was invited by the American Math Society (AMS) to present
one of the principal invited lectures at their annual meeting. This honor is awarded to signicant
academic researchers who (mostly) were trained as mathematicians, but who have done most of their
work in not strictly mathematical areas (there are a number of physicists, astronomers, etc., in the
annals of this lecture series as well as computer scientists); the lecturer can speak on any topic s/he
wishes, and Knuth decided to speak on computer science in the service of mathematics. The topic
he presented was his new work on TeX (for typesetting) and Metafont (for developing fonts for use
with TeX). He presented not only the roots of the typographical concepts, but also the mathematical
notions (e.g., the use of Bezier splines to shape glyphs) on which these two programs are based. The
programs sounded like they were just about ready to use, and quite a few mathematicians, including
the chair of the Math Societys board of trustees, decided to take a closer look. As it turned out, TeX
was still a lot closer to a research project than to an industrial strength product, but there were certain at-
tractive features:
it was intended to be used directly by authors (and their secretaries) who are the ones who really
know what they are writing about;
it came from an academic source, and was intended to be available for no monetary fee (nobody
said anything about how much support it was going to need);

10
as things developed, it became available on just about any computer and operating system, and
was designed specifically so that input files (files containing markup instructions; this is not a
WYSIWYG system) would be portable, and would generate the same output on any system on
which they were processed - same hyphenations, line breaks, page breaks, etc., etc.;
other programs available at the time for mathematical composition were:
proprietary;
very expensive
often limited to specific hardware,
if WYSIWYG, the same expression in two places in the same document might very well not look
the same, never mind look the same if processed on two different systems.
Mathematicians are traditionally, shall we say, frugal; their budgets have not been large (before computer
algebra systems, pencils, paper, chalk and blackboards were the most important research tools). TeX came
along just before the beginnings of the personal computer; although it was developed on one of the last of
the "academic" mainframes (the DECsystem ("Edusystem")-10 and -20), it was very quickly ported to
some early HP workstations and, as they emerged, the new personal systems. From the start, it has been
popular among mathematicians, physicists, astrophysicists, astronomers, and any research scientists who
were plagued by lack of the necessary symbols on typewriters and who wanted a more professional look
to their preprints.
To produce his own books, Knuth had to tackle all the paraphernalia of academic publishing - footnotes,
floating insertions (figures and tables), etc., etc. As a mathematician/computer scientist, he developed an
input language that makes sense to other scientists, and for math expressions, is quite similar to how one
mathematician would recite a string of notation to another on the telephone. The TeX language is an in-
terpreter. It accepts mixed commands and data. The command language is very low level (skip so much
space, change to font X, set this string of words in paragraph form, ...), but is amenable to being enhanced
by defining macro commands to build a very high level user interface (this is the title, this is the author,
use them to set a title page according to AMS specifications). The handling of footnotes and similar struc-
tures are so well behaved that "style files" have been created for TeX to process critical editions and legal
tomes. It is also (after some highly useful enhancements in about 1990) able to handle the composition of
many different languages according to their own traditional rules, and is for this reason (as well as for the
low cost), quite widely used in eastern Europe.
Some of the algorithms in TeX have not been bettered in any of the composition tools devised in the
years since TeX appeared. The most obvious example is the paragraph breaking: text is considered a full
paragraph at a time, not line-by-line; this is the basic starting algorithm used in the HZ-program by Peter
Karow (and named for Hermann Zapf, who developed the special fonts this program needs to improve on
the basics).
In summary, TeX is a special-purpose programming language that is the centerpiece of a typesetting sys-
tem that produces publication quality mathematics (and surrounding text), available to and usable by in-
dividuals.

11
What does TeX need to work?
It does not require applications like PageMaker, Quark Express, Fontographer or FontLab. A TeX system
can stand on its own, provided all the fonts one needs are available. TeX uses only the metrics, and pro-
duces a "device independent" output file - .dvi - that must then be translated to the particular output de-
vice being used (an imagesetter, laser printer, inkjet printer; in the "old days" even daisy-wheel printers
were used). The DVI translator actually accesses the font shapes, either as bitmaps, Type 1 fonts, or
pointers to fonts installed in a printer with the shapes not otherwise accessible.
PostScript is one of the most popular "final" output forms for TeX; in this respect, TeX is comparable to
Quark, for example. However, pdf-output become more popular these days. Pdf-Output can be produced
using pdfTeX which is an option in most modern TeX-distributions.
Depending on the desired output figures should be produced as .eps-files or pdf-files with appropriate
graphic programs.
As an aside, TeX can be the cause of religious wars. For those of us who need the capabilities of TeX - for
production of books and journal articles in research mathematics - no other current composition tool, pro-
prietary or otherwise, can handle the material and produce high-quality, publication-worthy output, and
simultaneously be usable by the writer of the document. The audience is much too small, and the problem
too complex for a Microsoft or Quark or Adobe to be interested. On the other hand, if you want a tool for
producing a newspaper or a novel or a slick advertisement or a letter to Aunt Henrietta, unless you're al-
ready using it for something else (say your dissertation), TeX is not the tool for you.
Where can you get help ?
Since using LaTeX is like a religion, there are many people out there that like to help you. Several free
tutorials and introduction documents are available on the web. Here is a list of a view of them
http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/info/lshort/english/lshort.pdf
http://www.tug.org.in/tutorials.html
http://www.comp.leeds.ac.uk/andyr/misc/latex/
For specific problems user groups offer very fast help. Look for instance under
I. http://www.tug.org/, the TeX Users Group Web Site.
Where can you get LaTeX ?
LaTeX exists for all computer platforms. For a basic installation you need the LaTeX files for your plat-
form and a good text-editor. Often the two are combined into one combined package.
For the MAC

12
Texshop: http://www.uoregon.edu/~koch/texshop/texshop.html
OzTeX: http://www.trevorrow.com/oztex/
For the PC
MikTex: http://www.miktex.org/
To download and successfully run TeX, you will need to get 3 different programs: (1) Winedt, (2)
Ghostscript/view and (3) MiKTeX. Installation help can be found for instance under
http://www.princeton.edu/~gchouse/tex.htm
For Linux
TeX was first developed for Unix and Linux so many distribution come with a TeX installation. The stan-
dard distribution is called TeTeX and can be obtained from any so called ctan-server and from the TeTex
homepage: http://www.tug.org/teTeX/
Can I do WYSIWYG with LaTeX ?
There are several commercial packages that promise WYSIWYG functionality with LaTeX. All of them
have there clitches and take away from the beauty of TeX.
There is an Open Source program that comes quite close to combine the best of both worlds. It is called
LyX and is available for Linux (native), Mac OSX and Windows. See the LyX homepage for download
links: http://www.lyx.org/
TASKS
Create using LaTeX and the REVTeX-style of the APS, the document shown on the following
pages
PROCEDURE
Obtain the RevTex package from http://publish.aps.org/revtex4/
The example file that comes with the REVTeX-style gives instruction and examples. Go about it
by trail-and-error and try to produce an output that is as close as possible. The figure you can get
be cropping it out of the pdf-file. You need to convert the result to an .eps-file

13
This is still a preprint
Example for a LaTeX document written with LaTeX

Ann Author and Second Author
Authors institution and/or address
This line break forced with \\
Charlie Author
Second institution and/or address
This line break forced
(Dated: January 17, 2005)
An article usually includes an abstract, a concise summary of the work covered at length in the
main body of the article. It is used for secondary publications and for information retrieval purposes.
Valid PACS numbers may be entered using the \pacs{#1} command.
PACS numbers: Valid PACS appear here
I. INTRODUCTION more text here. We need of course more text here. We

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should also be outlined what will follow in the following.
III. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
II. EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES In this section we may have some formula

There are different formats for them depending on how
long their are and if they have to be grouped together.
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+ (p) ! [2|p|(|p| + pz )] , (1)
A. Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Scattering px + ipy
Detection # $a %
1
s 2b . (2)
A
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IV. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

Also at Physics Department, XYZ University.
Electronic address: Second.Author@institution.edu In this section we will have figures (see Fig. 1 and 2 and
URL: http://www.Second.institution.edu/ Charlie.Author tables (I-IV). Figures and tables are typically floats

14
TABLE I: This is a narrow table which fits into a narrow col-

umn when using twocolumn formatting. Note that REVTEX 4
adjusts the intercolumn spacing so that the table fills the en-
tire width of the column. Table captions are numbered au-
tomatically. This table illustrates left-aligned, centered, and
right-aligned columns.
Lefta Centeredb Right
1 2 3
10 20 30
100 200 300
FIG. 1: A figure caption. The figure captions are automati-
cally numbered. a Note a.
b Note b.
which means that their final position is determined by

LATEX while the document is being typeset. LATEX isnt TABLE II: A table with more columns still fits properly in
always successful in placing floats optimally. a column. Note that several entries share the same footnote.
Inspect the LATEX input for this table to see exactly how it is
done.
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text here. We need of course more text here. We need Cu 0.800 14.10 2.550 Sna 0.680 1.870 3.700
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here. We need of course more text here. We need of Au 1.150 15.90 2.710 Cac 0.750 2.170 3.560
course more text here. Mg 0.490 17.60 3.200 Srd 0.900 2.370 3.720
Zn 0.300 15.20 2.970 Lib 0.380 1.730 2.830
We need of course more text here. We need of course Cd 0.530 17.10 3.160 Nae 0.760 2.110 3.120
more text here. We need of course more text here. We Hg 0.550 17.80 3.220 Ke 1.120 2.620 3.480
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15
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Acknowledgments
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here. of contribution
[1] R. P. Feynman, Phys. Rev. 94, 262 (1954).
on new page
4
TABLE III: This is a wide table that spans the page width in twocolumn mode. It is formatted using the table* environment.
It also demonstates the use of \multicolumn in rows with entries that span more than one column.
1 5
D4h D4h
Ion 1st alternative 2nd alternative lst alternative 2nd alternative
K (2e) + (2f ) (4i) (2c) + (2d) (4f )
Mn (2g)a (a) + (b) + (c) + (d) (4e) (2a) + (2b)
Cl (a) + (b) + (c) + (d) (2g)a (4e)a
He (8r)a (4j)a (4g)a
Ag (4k)a (4h)a
a The 1
z parameter of these positions is z 4
.

16
Geometric Optics
Basic Geometric Optics: Microscope and Telescope
GOALS:
Introduction into the basic concepts of optical instruments and the concept of magnification.
We will build a basic microscope and telescope using an eyepiece and various objectives. The microscope
will be equipped with a simple CCD camera and used to measure sizes of objects. The theoretical back-
ground of this experiment is quite simple allowing to concentrate the attention to precise measurements.
The experiment also includes cases in which the measurement is impossible unless the set-up is modified.
TOOLS:
1. Optical rail system from LINOS
2. Light source
3. Eyepiece
4. Several microscope objectives
5. Objective for Telescope
6. Plane mirror
7. Variable Pinhole
8. CCD camera
9. Micrometer adjustments stages

17
Geometric Optics
BACKGROUND:
Much more detail can be found at:
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/anatomy/primer/
Introduction and some history

Microscopes are instruments designed to produce magnied
visual or photographic images of small objects. The micro-
scope must accomplish three tasks: produce a magnied im-
age of the specimen, separate the details in the image, and
render the details visible to the human eye or camera. This
group of instruments includes not only multiple-lens designs
with objectives and condensers, but also very simple single
lens devices that are often hand-held, such as a magnifying
glass.
The microscope illustrated in Figure 1 is a simple compound

microscope invented by British microscopist Robert Hooke
sometime in the 1660s. This beautifully crafted microscope has an objective lens near the specimen
and is focused by turning the body of the microscope to move the objective closer to or farther from
the specimen. An eyepiece lens is inserted at the top of the microscope and, in many cases; there is
an internal eld lens within the barrel to increase the size of the vieweld. The microscope in Fig-
ure 1 is illuminated through the oil lamp and water-lled spherical reservoir, also illustrated in Figure
1. Light from the lamp is diused when it passes through the reservoir and is then focused onto the
specimen with a lens attached to the reservoir. This early microscope suered from chromatic (and
spherical) aberration, and all images viewed in white light contained halos that were either blue or
red in color.
Since so many microscope users rely upon direct

observation, it is important to understand the rela-
tionship between the microscope and the eye. Our
eyes are capable of distinguishing color in the visi-
ble portion of the spectrum: from violet to blue to
green to yellow to orange to red; the eye cannot
perceive ultraviolet or infrared rays. The eye also is
able to sense dierences in brightness or intensity
ranging from black to white and all the gray shades
in between. Thus, for an image to be seen by the
eye, the image must be presented to the eye in colors of the visible spectrum and/or varying degrees
of light intensity. The eye receptors of the retina used for sensing color are the cone cells; the cells
for distinguishing levels of intensity, not in color, are the rod cells. These cells are located on the ret-
ina at the back of the inside of the eye. The front of the eye (see Figure 2), including the iris, the

18
Geometric Optics
curved cornea, and the lens are respectively the mechanisms for admitting light and focusing it on
the retina.
For an image to be seen clearly, it must spread on the retina at a sucient visual angle. Unless the
light falls on non-adjacent rows of retinal cells (a function of magnication and the spreading of the
image), we are unable to distinguish closely-lying details as being separate (resolved). Further, there
must be sucient contrast between adjacent details and/or the background to render the magnied,
resolved image visible.
Because of the limited ability of the

eyes lens to change its shape, objects
brought very close to the eye cannot
have their images brought to focus on
the retina. The accepted conventional
viewing distance is 10 inches or 25
centimeters.
Fig. 2
Around the beginning of the 1600s,
through work attributed to the Janssen
brothers (see the microscope in Figure 3) in the Netherlands and Galileo in Italy, the compound mi-
croscope was developed. In its simplest form, it consisted of two convex lenses aligned in series: an
object glass (objective) closer to the object or specimen; and an eyepiece (ocular) closer to the ob-
servers eye (with means of adjusting the position of the specimen and the microscope lenses). The
compound microscope achieves a two-stage magnication. The objective projects a magnied image
into the body tube of the microscope and the eyepiece further magnies the image projected by the
objective.
Compound microscopes developed during the seventeenth

and eighteenth centuries were hampered by optical aberra-
tion (both chromatic and spherical), a aw that is worsened
by the use of multiple lenses. These microscopes were actu-
ally inferior to single lens microscopes of the period because
of these artifacts. The images they produced were often
blurred and had the colorful halos associated with chromatic
aberrations that not only degrade image quality, but also Fig. 3
hamper resolution. In the mid 1700s lens makers discovered
that by combining two lenses made of glass with dierent color dispersions, much of the chromatic
aberration could be reduced or eliminated. This discovery was rst utilized in telescopes, which have
much larger lenses than microscopes. It wasnt until the start of the 1800s that chromatically cor-
rected lenses became commonplace in compound microscopes.
The eighteenth and nineteenth centuries witnessed a great improvement in the mechanical and op-
tical quality of compound microscopes. A typical microscope of the early twenties century period is

19
Geometric Optics
the Zeiss Laboratory microscope pictured in Figure 4. This type of microscope is very functional and
many are still in use today. The microscope that we will build
resembles the one in Figure 4.
An important issue of a microscope is how one projects light

onto the sample. Nevertheless, we will pay little atten-
tion to this aspect in our short lab experiments. Proper
illumination is an art all by itself. In classical biological
microscopy, very thin specimens are prepared and the light is
passed or transmitted through the sample, focused with the
objective and then passed into the eyepieces of the micro-
scope. For observing the surface of integrated circuits (that
comprise the internal workings of modern computers) light
passed through the objective and is then reected from the
surface of the sample and into the microscope objective.
The Concept of Magnification

A simple microscope or magnifying glass (lens) produces an
image of the object upon which the microscope or magnifying
Fig. 4
glass is focused. Simple magnier lenses are bi-convex, mean-
ing they are thicker at the center than at the periphery as illustrated with the magnier in Figure 5.
The image is perceived by the eye as if it were at a distance of 10 inches or 25 centimeters (the ref-
erence, or traditional or conventional viewing distance).
Since the image appears to be on the same side of the lens as the object, it cannot be projected onto
a screen. Such images are termed virtual images and they appear upright, not inverted. Figure 1
presents an illustration of how a simple magnifying lens operates.
The object (in this case the subject is a rose) is being viewed with
a simple bi-convex lens. Light reected from the rose enters the
lens in straight lines as illustrated in Figure 1. This light is re-
fracted and focused by the lens to produce a virtual image on the
retina. The image of the rose is magnied because we perceive
the actual size of the object (the rose) to be at innity because
our eyes trace the light rays back in straight lines to the virtual
image (Figure 5).
When you look into a microscope, you are not looking at the
specimen, you are looking at the image of the specimen. The
image appears to be oating in space about 10 millimeters be-
low the top of the observation tube (at the level of the xed dia-
phragm of the eyepiece) where the eyepiece is inserted. The im- Fig. 5
age you observe is not tangible; it cannot be grasped. It is a
map or representation of the specimen in various colors and/or shades of gray from black to white.

20
Geometric Optics
The expectation is that the image will be an accurate representation of the specimen; accurate as to
detail, shape and color/intensity. The implications are that it may well be possible (and is) to produce
highly accurate images. Conversely, it may be (and often is) all too easy to degrade an image through
improper technique or poor equipment.
To understand how the microscopes lenses function, you should recall some of the basic principles
of lens action in image formation. We will now review several dierent imaging scenarios using a
simple bi-convex lens:
Light from an object that is very far away from the front of a convex lens (we will assume our ob-
ject is the girae illustrated in Figure 6) will be brought to a focus at a xed point behind the lens.
This is known as the focal point of the lens. We are all familiar with the idea of a burning glass
which can focus the essentially parallel rays from the sun to burn a hole in piece of paper. The verti-
cal plane in which the focal point lies is the focal plane.
Fig. 6
The distance from the center of the convex lens to the focal plane is know as the focal distance.
(For an idealized symmetrical thin convex lens, this distance is the same in front of or behind the
lens.) The image of our girae now appears at the focal plane (as illustrated in Figure 6). The image is
smaller than the object (the girae); it is inverted and is a real image capable of being captured on
lm. This is the case for the camera used for ordinary scenic photography.
The object is now moved closer to the front of the lens but is still more than two focal lengths in
front of the lens (this scenario is addressed in Figure 7). Now, the image is found further behind the
lens. It is larger than the one described above, but is still smaller than the object. The image is in-

21
Geometric Optics
verted, and is a real image. This is the case for ordinary portrait photography.
Fig. 7
The object is brought to twice the focal distance in front of the lens. The image is now two focal
lengths behind the lens as illustrated in Figure 8. It is the same size as the object; it is real and
inverted.
Fig. 8
The object is now situated between one and two focal lengths in front of the lens (shown in Figure
9). Now the image is still further away from the back of the lens. This time, the image is magnied
and is larger than the object; it is still inverted and it is real. This case describes the functioning of all
nite tube length objectives used in microscopy. Such nite tube length objectives project a real, in-
verted, and magnied image into the body tube of the microscope. This image comes into focus at
the plane of the xed diaphragm in the eyepiece. The distance from the back focal plane of the ob-
jective (not necessarily its back lens) to the plane of the xed diaphragm of the eyepiece is known as
the optical tube length of the objective.

22
Geometric Optics
Fig. 9
In the last case, the object is situated at the front focal plane of the convex lens. In this case, the rays
of light emerge from the lens in parallel. The image is located on the same side of the lens as the
object, and it appears upright (see Figure 5). The image is a virtual image and appears as if it were 10
inches from the eye, similar to the functioning of a simple magnifying glass; the magnication factor
depends on the curvature of the lens.
Now we will describe how a microscope works in somewhat more detail. The rst lens of a micro-
scope is the one closest to the object being examined and, for this reason, is called the objective.
Light from the object passes through the objective which creates a real, inverted, and magnied im-
age of the specimen to a xed plane within the microscope that is termed the intermediate image
plane (illustrated in Figure 10). The objective has several major functions:
The objective must gather the light coming from each of the various parts or points of the speci-
men.
The objective must have the capacity to reconstitute the light coming from the various points of
the specimen into the various corresponding points in the image (Sometimes called anti-points).
The objective must be constructed so that it will be focused close enough to the specimen so that
it will project a magnied, real image up into the body tube.
The intermediate image plane is usually located about 10 millimeters below the top of the micro-
scope body tube at a specic location within the xed internal diaphragm of the eyepiece. The dis-
tance between the back focal plane of the objective and the intermediate image is termed the optical
tube length. Note that this value is dierent from the mechanical tube length of a microscope,
which is the distance between the nosepiece (where the objective is mounted) to the top edge of the
observation tubes where the eyepieces (oculars) are inserted.
The eyepiece or ocular, which ts into the body tube at the upper end, is the farthest optical com-
ponent from the specimen. In modern microscopes, the eyepiece is held into place by a shoulder on
the top of the microscope observation tube, which keeps it from falling into the tube. The place-
ment of the eyepiece is such that its eye (upper) lens further magnies the real image projected by
the objective. The eye of the observer sees this secondarily magnied image as if it were at a dis-

23
Geometric Optics
tance of 10 inches (25 centimeters) from the eye; hence this virtual image appears as if it were near
the base of the microscope. The distance from the top of the microscope observation tube to the
shoulder of the objective (where it ts into the nosepiece) is usually 160 mm in a nite tube length
system. This is known as the mechanical tube length as discussed above. We will discuss the tube
length in terms of focal planes of the eyepiece and the objective latter on. The eyepiece has several
major functions:
The eyepiece serves to further magnify the real image projected by the objective.
In visual observation, the eyepiece produces a secondarily enlarged virtual image.
In photomicrography, it produces a secondarily enlarged real image projected by the objective.

This augmented real image can be projected on the photographic lm in a camera or upon a screen
held above the eyepiece.
The eyepiece can be tted with scales, markers or crosshairs (often referred to as graticules,
reticules or reticles) in such a way that the image of these inserts can be superimposed on the
image of the specimen. We will do this in our experiment by placing a transparent scale in
the plane of the intermediate image.
The factor that determines the amount of image magnication is the objective magnifying power,
which is predetermined during construction of the objective optical elements. Objectives typically
have magnifying powers that range from 1:1 (1X) to 100:1 (100X), with the most common powers
being 4X (or 5X), 10X, 20X, 40X (or 50X), and 100X. An important feature of microscope objec-
tives is their very short focal lengths that allow increased magnication at a given distance when
compared to an ordinary hand lens (illustrated in Figure 1). The primary reason that microscopes are
so ecient at magnication is the two-stage enlargement that is achieved over such a short optical
path, due to the short focal lengths of the optical components.
Eyepieces, like objectives, are classied in terms of their ability to magnify the intermediate image.
Their magnication factors vary between 5X and 30X with the most commonly used eyepieces hav-
ing a value of 10X-15X. Total visual magnication of the microscope is derived by multiplying the
magnication values of the objective and the eyepiece. For instance, using a 5X objective with a 10X
eyepiece yields a total visual magnication of 50X and likewise, at the top end of the scale, using a
100X objective with a 30X eyepiece gives a visual magnication of 3000X.
Total magnication is also dependent upon the tube length of the microscope. Most standard xed
tube length microscopes have a tube length of 160, 170, 200, or 210 millimeters with 160 millimeters
being the most common for transmitted light biomedical microscopes. Many industrial microscopes,
designed for use in the semiconductor industry, have a tube length of 210 millimeters. The objectives
and eyepieces of these microscopes have optical properties designed for a specic tube length, and
using an objective or eyepiece in a microscope of dierent tube length will lead to changes in the
magnication factor (and may also lead to an increase in optical aberration lens errors). Innity-
corrected microscopes also have eyepieces and objectives that are optically-tuned to the design of

24
Geometric Optics
the microscope, and these should not be interchanged between microscopes with dierent innity
tube lengths.
Our objectives are designed for a tube length of 160mm
Modern microscopes are often modular with interchangeable parts for dierent purposes; such mi-
croscopes are capable of producing images from low to high magnication with remarkable clarity
and contrast.

25
Geometric Optics
Determination of the magnification
Using simple geometric optics (see also Fig. 11) the magnication of a microscope can be determined
quite easily. It is simply the product of the magnication of the eyepiece and the objective. For a
given tube length g we get for the objective Mobj=-g/f. The - indicates that the image is inverted.
The tube length g is measured from the focal plan of the objective to the position at which the im-
age is formed. For the magnication of the eyepiece the result depends on the accommodation of
our eye. If we accommodate for the near point of 25cm, Meyepiece=25/f+1. If we accommodate for inn-
ity (as shown in the gure below, Meyepiece=25/f.
Telescopes
Telescope have a long history as well. They have been very important in the development of modern
physics and the concept of observation the world as a tool for principle physics understanding. In
some sense, telescopes were the rst experimental instruments that philosophers and theoretician
had to take serious.
A simple working telescope requires nothing more than a pair of lenses mounted in a tube (see Fig.
12). The lens in front, known as the objective lens, focuses an image; the lens in back, known as the
eyepiece lens, magnies that image. Although it may seem like a crude device, a simple telescope
nicely illustrates the basic working principles of more powerful astronomical instruments.
Fig. 11
4. Magnification of a Telescope
The magnication of a telescope can be easily calculated once you know the focal lengths F and f of
the objective lens and eyepiece, respectively. The formula for the magnication M is

M = F / f.

(1)
Here you can use any units for F and f, as long as you use the same units for both. For example, if you
measure F in millimeters, you should also measure f in millimeters.

26
Geometric Optics
Another way to determine the magnication is based on the concept of entrance and exit pupil. One
can show that, if no other obstruction are present within the microscope, the diameter D of the ob-
jective (entrance pupil) is imaged to the exit pupil behind the eyepiece (diameter d) . The ratio,
D/d=F/f=M

(2),
Fig. 12
Diagram of a simple telescope. Para#el light rays enter 'om the left, pass through the objective lens,
come to a focus at the focal plane, and exit through the eyepiece lens. The focal length of the objec-
tive is F, and the focal length of the eyepiece is f.
determines the magnication. D and d can be measured quite easily.

27
Geometric Optics
TASKS:
Build up a basic measuring compound microscope and measure the pixel size of a laser.
Build a basic telescope and determine its magnication
PROCEDURES:
Microscope
For all the experiments the focal length of the lenses and lens systems are required. A convenient
and accurate way to do this is the autocollimination method. The basic set-up is shown below. Us-
ing the adjustable pinhole this method works very well for lenses with longer focal length but fails
for the microscope objectives. Why? For the latter
case think of another method. Pinhole Mirror
Lens
Using just the objective lenses determine their
magnication experimentally for a tube length of
16 cm. Describe how you adjust the tube length to
the desired value and compare your result to the
values written on the objective.
Fig. 13
Determine the magnication of the eyepiece by Ray-diagram for the auto-collimation
comparing the images that you see with two eyes
when you look through the eyepiece with one eye and with the other directly to the object. To
make this comparison use the paper with lines of dierent spacing on it.
Complete your microscope by placing a transparent scale in the plane of the intermediate object
and add the eyepiece and the tube. Determine the total magnication by the same method as
above
Using the transparent scale determine the size of the dots of the printer.
Modify your microscope such that you can make the observations using your camera. For that, use
one of the lenses such that a real magnied image is formed on the camera.
Telescope
With the same eyepiece as above build a telescope using the large objective lenses. Determine the
optimum distance between objective and eyepiece.
Determine the magnication with the same method as (3). To do this for the telescope, place a
sheet of paper with thick equidistant lines on the wall at the opposite site of the room.

28
Geometric Optics
Determine the magnication using equation (2). For this method, illuminate the objective with a
white light source and nd the image of the frame of the objective lens behind the eyepiece.

29
Polarization
Polarization
GOALS:
Obtain a basic understanding of the polarization of light and on how to determine the birefringence
of an unknown element. Learn on how to determine the state of polarization. Learn the use of a
Lock-In amplier. The measurements to be performed in this experiment are quite simple once the
experiment is set-up properly.. The challenge lie in nding the measurement strategy and in under-
standing what the measurements mean and why they yield the desired result. Result from one part
can be used to predict the outcome in the part.
TOOLS:
1. HeNe laser (polarized ?)
2. Several retarder plate
3. Polarizer and analyzer

6.

.
4. /4 retarder plate
5. Photodetector

7.
6. Lock-In amplier
7. Light Chopper


30
Polarization
BACKGROUND:
In this experiment you will use a Lock-In Amplier for the rst time. Please read the les in the
folder Lock-In on the CD that I handed out.
You nd more details of about the basics of polarization in most standard optics book, e.g.: Jenkins
and White: Fundamentals of Physical Optics
The direction of polarization of an electromagnetic wave is dened to be the direction in which the
eld vector E points. Since EM waves are transverse, the E vector always points in a direction which
is perpendicular to the direction of propagation. If the direction of the E vector is constant in time,
the wave is called linearly polarized. For a wave propagation in the z- direction, the E vector of a
linearly polarized plane wave of angular frequency can be written as:
! "
! (z, t) = (Eox x + Eoy y) ei(kzt) = Eox
E ei(kzt)
Eoy
(1)
The amplitude of this E vector oscillates in time, but the

direction is always the same if Eox and Eoy are both real y
(see Fig. 1). The angle , which E makes with the x-axis,
is given by tan=Eoy/Eox.
Eoy

In the general case there may also be a phase difference Eox
between the x- and y- components of the E-vector. One x
example of such a wave can be written in the form:
! "
! (z, t) = (Eox x + iEoy y) ei(kzt) = Eox
E
iEoy
ei(kzt) Fig. 1
(2)
If we rst consider the case where Eox = Eoy, then this wave would be called circular polarized. The x
and y components are equal in magnitude, but 90o out of phase. This results in an E-vector whose
amplitude is constant in time but whose direction is rotation clockwise in a circle (when viewed
head on) at a frequency . Such a wave is called right circular
polarized. y
In the more general case where Eox and Eoy are not equal, the E vector Eoy

amplitude is not constant in time. Instead the tip of the vector traces x
Eox
out an ellipse. (see Fig. 2).
Such a wave is called elliptically polarized. In this experiment, you

will use various linear polarizers and waveplates, in combination with
Fig. 2
a HeNe laser, to study the properties of polarized light and the vari-
ous polarization elements. We address two separate measurements
types:
Determine the nature of an optical element in terms of its manipulation of polarized light

31
Polarization
Determine the state of polarization
Waveplates
To create polarized light we use a Nicol prism as a linear polarizer. The Nicol prism is described in
Jenkins and White, p. 325-327. For our purpose it is enough to think of it as a simple linear polarizer
(which will be called analyzer the rest of this experiment). The analyzer passes only the component
of the incident light, which is polarized along its
transmission axis. optical
axis
We will also use and study the properties of birefrin-
Retardation plate
gent retarder plates. In birefringent materials there
Ee
exists a particular direction called the optical axis.
Light polarized perpendicular to this optical axis
moves with a velocity v0=c/no characterized by the
ordinary index of refraction no. Light whose polari- Eo
zation vector is perpendicular to that of the ordinary

ray will have a component of its E vector along the
optics axis. (see Fig. 3). This extraordinary ray will
Fig. 3
propagate with velocity ve=c/ne. Note that although ne
is a function of , which should not be confused with the angle from above, it is a constant for a
given retardation plate. Since the ordinary and the extraordinary rays travel with dierent velocities,
their relative phase will change as they propagate. Such waveplates, can manipulate the state of po-
larization (SOP). In particular, if the thickness of the plate is such that:
1
(n o n e )d = m + vac
4 (3)
then the plate is called a /4 plate. Such plate can be used to convert linearly polarized light into circular
polarized light. In a similar fashion, a /2 plate is described by
1
(n o n e )d = m + vac
2 (4)
can be used to rotate the direction of linear polarized light.

32
Polarization
State of Polarization
Another set of experiments is dealing with the determination of the SOP of the light. Following the
general denition of the polarized light, the SOP can be described using the ellipse the polarization
vector traces with time. There are several ways to describe the ellipse.
Another way to describe the state of polarization are the so-called Stokes parameters . The Stokes
parameter which describe the state of polarization are dened in terms of the electric eld compo-
nents as follows:
So = E x E x* + E y E y*
S1 = E x E x* E y E y*

(5)
S2 = 2Re( E x E y* )
S3 = 2Im( E x E y* )
The practical value of the Stokes parameters comes form the fact that they can be described by
measured intensities as well and are therefore quite readily measured:
So = Io = Ix + Iy = I45 + I45 = Irightcircular + Ileftcircular

S1 = 2Ix Io = Ix Iy
S2 = 2I45 Io = I45 I45
S3 = 2Irightcircular Io = Irightcircular Ileftcircular

(6)
Furthermore, the Stokes parameter can be visualized on the Poincare sphere (Fig. 4) using the fol-
lowing denitions:
b
with tan =
a
S1 = So cos(2 ) cos(2 )
S2 = So cos(2 ) sin(2 )
S3 = So sin(2 )
(7)
Note that the angles on the Poincare sphere

are always double the once in real space. Con-
sidering rst linear polarized light (i.e.: S3=0),
S1=1 (and the others =0) describes light polar-

ized in x-direction,
S1=-1 describes light polarized in -x-direction. Fig. 5

33
Polarization
S2=1 describes light polarized in 450-direction.
The S3 parameter describes the amount of ellipticity of the polarized light.
S3=1 describes right circular polarized light
S3=1 describes left circular polarized light
In this experiment you will design an instrument based on eq. 6 that is able to determine the Stokes
parameters.
TASKS:
Determine the retardation of several unknown waveplates.
Set-up a polarimeter to determine the state of polarization
PROCEDURES:
General Preparation
Determine if the laser is polarized or not. Align its preferential polarization axis along the horizon-
tal. For this you rst have to determine the polarization axis of the analyzer. Do this by nding in
the hallway on the oor a reex from the lights, which is at the so-called Brewster angle for which
the light is completely polarized in the horizontal direction.
Put the polarizer in front of the laser and measure the intensity as a function of angle. Plot the re-
sult in a polar plot. Using the result, mount the polarizer precisely such that its axis is horizontal
when the reading on the dial is 0.
Retardation of waveplates
Minimize the intensity by setting the polarizer at 900 and place the /4 plate in between laser and
polarizer. Rotate the /4 retarder plate and determine the intensity as a function of angle. Plot the
result in a polar plot.
For the intensity measurements use the Lock-In amplier and the light chopper. This will allow
you to work not in complete darkness.
Align the /4 retarder plate such that the output is maximum and determine the intensity as a
function of the angle of the polarizer.
Repeat the previous steps for two of the unknown retarder plates
In order to determine the retardation of the unknown plates follow the following procedure. Ex-
plain in the write-up why it works.
Set up an analyzer and rotate until extinction occurs

34
Polarization
Insert the /4 retarder plate between source and analyzer and rotate until extinction occurs.
Insert the unknown between the source and the /4 retarder plate. Rotate the unknown rst
until extinction occurs and then additional 45o
Rotate the polarizer until you achieve extinction again. The angle you have to rotate the po-
larizer is related to x by: =/x. (x=2 for a /2 , x=4 for /4 and so forth).
Measurement of Stokes Parameters
Take one of the unknown elements and rotate it to angle of 30o and determine the Stokes Parame-
ters of the laser light after the element.
Use the /4 retarder plate and the polarizer to determine the intensities Ii from equation 6 by
changing their relative orientation but without removing one of the elements. Before you start,
discuss your design with the instructor.

35
Labview
Computer Control of Instrument using Labview
GOALS:
Introduction to the basic techniques of controlling an instrument using Labview. Write a program that you
will need in a later experiment. This experiment has not a unique solution. Writing a good program will
influence the success in a later experiment. The challenge in this experiment lies in testing and guarantee-
ing that the computer really does what you expect it to do.
TOOLS:
1. Computer
2. Labview 6.1
3. GPIB controller card and cables
4. Motion Controller with GPIB interface: Newport ESA
5. Power meter with GPIB interface: Newport 1830C
6. Fabry-Perot interferometer
Power meter contro#er (with attached GBIB cable on the right) and Motion Contro#er

36
Labview
BACKGROUND:
NI LabVIEW is the graphical development environment for creating exible and scalable test,
measurement, and control applications rapidly. With LabVIEW, engineers and scientists interface
with real-world signals, analyze data for meaningful information, and share results and applications.
Regardless of experience, LabVIEW makes development fast and easy for all users.
More background can be found in the Labview book, the material that comes with the tutorial , the
Labview Movie and on the National Instruments web-site: http://www.ni.com/labview/. The
graphical nature of Labview allows you to write simple control programs by a learning by
doing approach
TASKS:
Write a Labview program that does the following
moves the mirror of the Fabry-Perot interferometer,
reads out the transmitted intensity on the powermeter,
displays the intensity in a chart during the measurement and in a graph when it is nished
saves the data in a format that can be read by Excel.
Graph the data that you measured using Excel
PROCEDURES:
Familiarize yourself rst with Labview by going through the tutorial. Once you feel comfortable with
the basic concept start with the program and proceed stepwise. For instance like that:
The two instruments have sub-vi drivers that can be used. Experiment with them. Understand
their inputs and outputs
write a program that continuously reads the power meter and display the output in a chart
write a program that moves the motion controller between two user dened positions (voltages)
and step-size
Include power meter readout and chart display
Include a graph
Include the commands necessary to save the data. Watch out that you save the number in the
proper format with sucient digits.

37
Machine Shop
Machine Shop
GOALS:
To learn basic machine shop skills, including precision measurement and safety. To develop an apprecia-
tion for the process involved in design and development of laboratory apparatus. The piece that will be
fabricated will be used in a later experiment. This is an example of an experiment that does not allow par-
tial credit. The piece has to work.
TOOLS:
Engine Lathe
Vertical milling machine
measuring tools (calibers)
Soldering equipment
BACKGROUND:
Safety:
Careless use of machine shop equipment can cause serious injuries to you and others. It
is mandatory that you follow the follow safety rules.
Safety glasses or goggles will be provided and must be worn at all times.
Hair longer than shoulder length must be tied back.
No sandals or open toe shoes are permitted.
No rings, watches, or neckties are allowed
Clean chips and debris away from your workplace frequently with a brush.
Never leave a chuck wrench in a chuck after use
Never leave measuring tools on the machine. Keep them protected from chips at all times
Think before you act
Ask question frequently
Leave the work area and machine clean when nished
For further Donts for machinist see attached pdf-le

38
Machine Shop

39
Machine Shop
Lathe

40
Machine Shop

41
Machine Shop

42
Machine Shop

43
Machine Shop

44
Machine Shop

45
Machine Shop

46
Machine Shop

47
Machine Shop

48
Machine Shop

49
Machine Shop
Drilling, Reaming and Tapping

50
Machine Shop

51
Machine Shop

52
Machine Shop
TASKS:
Manufacture an optical cell ( see below) which will be used in a laser interferometer experiment to
determine the refractive index of air. The cell must be able to hold a vacuum. This job consists of
several parts that will make use of the Engine Lathe and the Vertical Milling machine. Assembly of
the piece includes two soldering techniques performed with a mixed fuel torch.

53
Machine Shop
PROCEDURES:
Our machinist will guide you through the steps

54
Interferometry
Interferometry
GOALS:
Obtain a basic understanding of interferometry and its use to measure wavelength and re-
fractive indexes. Learn about the use and characteristics of nano-actuators based on piezoe-
lectricity and stepping motors. You will use and modify the oftware and hardware that you
build in earlier modules.
TOOLS:
HeNe laser
Several mirrors
Beamsplitter
Newport electrostrictive actuators with controller
Stepping motor based translation Stage with controller
Lock-In Amplier
Function generator

55
Interferometry
BACKGROUND
Actuators using Piezoelectricity
Also known as pressure electricity, a property of some crystalline materials. When these ma-
terials are compressed, they produce a voltage proportional to the applied pressure. Con-
versely, when an electric eld is applied across the material, there is a change of shape. Sev-
eral natural materials exhibit piezoelectric properties, but most devices now use polycrystal-
line ceramics such as lead zirconate titanate (PZT). Typically, linear extensions of up to 200
mm are obtained when suitable voltages are applied to the appropriate ceramic geometries.
Several families of ceramics and types of devices were developed when designers attempted
to accentuate the more desirable properties and minimize the less appropriate ones for spe-
cic applications. Although similar materials are used, it is proper to refer to devices that
operate in the ferroelectric region below the Curie temperature as piezoelectric and to
those that operate in the paraelectric region above the Curie temperature as electrostrictive.
Piezoelectric. Ceramic-based actuators with a non-symmetric crystal structure capable of moving

and measuring at the nanometric level. The most common piezoelectric crystal is lead zirconate ti-
tanate (PZT).
Electrostrictive. Ceramic-based actuators with a symmetric crystal structure capable of moving

and measuring at the nanometric level. Although similar to piezoelectric actuators, they expand ac-
cording to the square of the eld (to rst order) whereas piezoelectric materials expand linearly (to
rst order). Electrostrictive materials exhibit less Hysteresis than piezoelectric materials, but are
dicult to use at very low voltages.
Detailed information are found in the pdf-les obtained from two suppliers of actuators.
Note, that each of them tries to promote their own products.
Summarize the advantages and disadvantage of each type in an objective way.
Michelson Interferometer
The Michelson interferometer is an optical instrument of high precision and versatility. It

generally is used in investigations that involve small changes in optical path lengths. With
the Michelson interferometer, one can produce circular and straight-line fringes of both
monochromatic light and white light. One can use these fringes to make an accurate com-
parison of wavelengths, measure the refractive index of gases and transparent solids, and de-
termine small changes in length quite precisely. The instrument can be used as a stable mode
selecting resonator element in laser cavities as well. The Michelson interferometer is per-
haps the best known and most basic in a family of interferometers, which includes the
Fabry-Perot interferometer, the Twyman-Green interferometer and the Mach-Zehnder in-
terferometer.

56
Interferometry
The Michelson interferometer operates on the principle of division of amplitude rather

than on division of wavefront. According to this principle, the incident beam of light falls on
a beam splitter which reects roughly half of the intensity of the beam cross section or
wavefront in one direction and transmits the other half of the intensity of the entire wave-
front in another direction. The two beams which travel dierent optical paths are subse-
quently recombined in a common region where interference occurs and fringes are formed.
The character of the fringes is directly related to the dierent optical path lengths traveled
by the two beams and, therefore, is related to whatever causes a dierence in the optical
path lengths.
Optics of the Michelson Interferometer. The important parts of a Michelson interferometer

include a sturdy base, a diusing glass, a beam splitter, a movable mirror with a micrometer screw for
measuring distance of movement, a xed mirror, and compensating glass. These parts are shown in a
typical physical arrangement in Figure 1. The
light source shown to the left can be a white
light or spectral light source. It is not generally
considered a part of the Michelson interfer-
ometer.. An accurately machined micrometer
screw (in our case an electrostrictive actuator) is
attached to the movable mirror, permitting the
mirror to be moved toward or away from the
beam splitter by a precisely determined amount.
The micrometer generally has about one inch of
movement and usually can measure mirror mo- Fig. 1
tion to within 0.002 mm. The two mirrors, beam
splitters, and compensating glass all are made of Basic set-up of a Michelson Interferometer
carefully annealed glass (e.g., borosilicate-
crown). The mirrors are front-coated with alumi-
num and protected with a wavelength layer of silicon monoxide. Both mirrors are flat over the reflecting
surfaces to about wavelength of mercury green light. The beam splitter is flat to about wavelength, while
the compensating glass is flat to about wavelength. The diffusing glass generally is mounted on a filter
holder and fitted with a metal pointer for alignment purposes.
The optical arrangement for the Michelson interferometer is shown schematically in Figure 2. Light
from a broad spectrum source S, such as an incandescent bulb, passes through a diusing glass
DG(e.g., a ground glass plate) , and strikes the beam splitter P. The beam splitter is a half-silvered
glass plate (silvered on the back side) which reects half of the light toward mirror M1 and transmits
half of the light (but the entire cross section) toward mirror M2. We are using a laser as a light
source and replace the diusion glass by a small lens.

57
Interferometry
Fig.2
Optical arrangement and light path in a Michelson Interferometer
The compensating glass, CG, of identical composition and thickness to the beam splitter, is included
so that each of the two beams (paths PM1PO and PM2PO in Figure 2) passes through the same
thickness of glass. Note that otherwise the beam that travels along pathPM1PO would pass through
a thickness of glass three times while the beam that travels along the other path would pass through
the same thickness of glass only once. The compensating glass is necessary if one wishes to produce
white-light fringes; it would not be needed if one only worked with highly monochromatic light.
If we use a beamsplitting cube, is CG required ?
Condition for InterferenceMonochromatic Light
If the optical path length PM1P is equal to the other optical path length, or if these two paths dier
by a whole number of wavelengths , the condition for constructive interference is met. Thus,
bright fringes will be formed for that wavelength. This condition is written as Equation 1.
PM1P PM2 P = p (bright fringes)

Equation 1
where:
p = The order number (may be 0, 1, 2, 3, and so on).
If, on the other hand, the two optical paths dier by an integral odd number of half wavelengths (p/
2) , where p= 1, 3, 5, and so on, the condition for destructive interference is met and dark fringes
will be formed in accordance with Equation 2.
PM1P PM2P = (p/2) (dark fringes)

Equation 2

58
Interferometry
If the two mirrors M1 and M2 are not aligned precisely perpendicular to one another, the
path dierence will depend on the particular region of mirror M1 (and the corresponding
region of M2) which we are observing from the position O. The eld of view, then, seen by
looking at mirror M1 from position O will be made up of a series of alternately bright and
dark fringes, nearly straight and parallel, similar to those produced by interference from a
simple wedge. Such fringes are referred to as fringes of equal thickness, or straight-line
fringes. If the path dierence is near zero, the fringes will be broad and widely spaced in the
eld of view. On the other hand, if the path dierence is on the order of 40 or 50wave-
lengths (p = 40 or 50), the fringes will be narrow and closely spaced, so much so that they
may be not resolvable with the naked eye.
If the two mirrors are precisely aligned such that their planes are exactly perpendicular to one an-
other, thus ensuring that path dierences over dierent regions of the mirrors are constant, the
fringe pattern will be seen by the observer at 0 to consist of a series of concentric rings. Each ring
will correspond to a dierent angle of view measured from the perpendicular direction to the mirror
M1, as illustrated in Figure 3. The fringes shown are called fringes of equal inclination. When the
mirrorM1 is moved so as to approach the condition for zero path dierence, the fringe pattern will
appear to collapse with all fringes moving toward the center, then disappearing.
Fig. 3
Circular 'inges (equal inclination) as seen in a Michelson intererometer
Why do we use a lens to create the fringes?

59
Interferometry
TASKS
Set-up a Michelson interferometer
Calibrate and use an electrostrictive actuator to use for precision positioning
Calibrate and use the stepping mot0r controlled for precession positioning
Accurately measure the wavelength of a laser
Determine the refractive index of a glass plate
Determine the refractive index of air
PROCEDURE
(Details of the procedure have to developed independently)
Align the Interferometer such that the path length dierence is almost zero. Use a ruler to
determine the position of the beamsplitter and the mirrors to achieve this. First, set-up the
interferometer without the lens. You need to align the mirrors such that the two reections
from the mirrors overlap. If you include the lens at this point you should see fringes at this
point. Do a ne adjustment to center the frinces and have only a round bright or dark spot
in the center. Place one mirror on a mount the can be displaced by the electrostrictive ac-
tuator and another mirror on a mount on top of the stepping motor controlled translation
stage.
Inlcude the Lock-In amplier module and the stepping motor control into your program.
(sub routines are provided)
Calibrate the electrostrictive actuator using the HeNe laser. Change the voltage to the actua-
tor up and down and determine the number of bright/dark sequences for small voltages steps
and translate these measurements into displacement of the actuator. Optional: Apply an up/
down ramp from a function generator to the actuator and observe the intensity of the cen-
tral interference spot using a photo detector and an oscilloscope. Translate the trace on the
oscilloscope into a displacement vs voltage plot
Replace the HeNe laser by the unknown laser pointer and determine its wavelength. Know-
ing the displacement/voltage characteristic of the actuator, change its voltage and count the
bright/dark sequences in the linear region of the actuator..
Introduce a glass plate on a rotating stage into one of the arms of the interferometer and de-
termine its thickness (assuming you know its refractive index). Compare your result to the
result you get with a caliber. The optical pathlength dierence can be changed by changing

60
Interferometry
the angle the light goes through the glass plate. Determine this change as a function of angle
by counting again the bright/dark sequences
Introduce your air-cell into one of the arms of the interferometer and determine the refrac-
tive index of air. Determine the number of dark/bright sequences between several pressure
steps, as you go down in pressure. To be accurate you also need to know the air pressure in
the room for the day you do the experiment.

61
Laser Diodes
Laser Diodes
GOALS:
The goals of this experiment are twof0ld. On one hand, it will give you a basic understanding of the
properties of a diode laser, such as laser threshold, its T-dependence, and longitudinal modes. You
will also get a sense for the dimensions of this laser. On the other hand, the experiment includes a
signicant instrumentation component. You will learn about the alignment, calibration and opera-
tion of a monochromator, the use of a CCD array in a spectrometer, and the safe operation of a la-
ser diode with its current and tempeerature controllers.
TOOLS:
Red laser diode mounted in a special mount equipped with a thermoelectrical cooler
HeNe laser for alignment and calibration
Laser Diode Controller
Temperature Controller
Mirrors
Monochromator
CCD array
Digitial Oscilloscope

62
Laser Diodes
BACKGROUND
(This description assumes a basic familiarity of semiconductors and terms such as p-n junction, Fermi energy,
bandgap. This background is found e..g. in Optolectronic and Photoncs: Principle and Practice by S.O. Kasap. The
book is available in the teaching lab)
The principle of a laser diode was rst demonstrated in 1962, but these small devices did not come
into common use until the 1980s with the advent of the audio-disk player. Since then, there has been
a continuous push for higher power, longer lifetime, and dierent wavelengths. Today, diode lasers
are readily available at wavelengths varying from 630nm to 1.6m and above, and at output
power ranging from a few milliwatts to several watts. Because of their small size and exceptional e-
ciency, diode lasers have replaced the HeNe laser in many OEM applications, particularly in those
where beam quality, wavelength stability, and unit-to-unit repeatability are not critical.
The typical diode laser is an edge-emitting device with a Fabry-Perot lasing cavity processed into the
length of the semiconductor. In our experiment we will study an edge emitting diode laser.
Because of the small size and rectangular conguration of the cavity, the resulting beam diameter is
very small (~1m), beam divergence is quite high (20-40 degrees), and the beams are astigmatic and
elliptical ( typically 3:1 or greater, we will determine this ratio in this experiment). These drawbacks
can be reasonably corrected with appropriate collimating and anamorphic beam-conditioning optics,
but it is important to recognize that these parameters can vary signicantly from laser to laser, plac-
ing constraints on unit-to-unit repeatability with a standard optic set. To further complicate issues,
diode-laser wavelength can var y sev eral
nanometers with changes in substrate tem-
perature, thus requiring tight temperature con-
trol for stable operation.
Properly handled and operated, diode lasers

have an expected life ranging from 10,000 to
50,000 hours. The lasers, however, are ex-
tremely sensitive to electrostatic shock, and
improper assembly can reduce the life by an
order of magnitude or more. For this reason,
you should wear a wrist band that is connected Fig. 1
to ground whenever you handle the laser di-
Schematic diagram of an edge emitting diode laser.
ode. This will ensure that no voltage surges go http://britneyspears.ac/physics/fplasers/fplasers.htm
through the laser. Since you do not directly
handle the diode, it is sucient if you discharge yourself on a regular basis by touching the metal
surface of the optical table
Figure 1 shows the structure of a typical edge-emitting laser. The dimensions of the active region are
200 m in length, 2-10 m lateral width and 0.1 m in transverse dimension. In reality there are
many dierent designs of edge-emitting lasers.

63
Laser Diodes
One of the results of the experiments will be an estimate of the dimension of the lasers. Current
ows from the p to the n-type semiconductor with electrons and holes being injected in the active
region. These electrons and holes recombine under the emission of a photon. This can in principle
be exploited for laser emission. However, the current required to achieve lasing this way is enor-
mous. This is because there is no dened region for radiative recombination to occur. Electrons and
hole can just drift through the junction without recombining. A more ecient solution is to use het-
erostructures and double heterostructures.
A heterostructure, as the name suggests uses to dierent types of semiconductor with one with a
larger bandgap than the other. When the two semiconductors are brought together potential barri-
ers are formed which can conne the electrons and holes. The situation is further improved in the
double heterostructure.
A further advantage of the double heterostructure is that the large bandgap semiconductor has a
lower refractive index than that in the active region giving index guiding in the transverse direction.
In the plain of the active region the emission is conned by gain guiding, where the refractive index
is modied by the carrier density. The formation of a stripe contact separated by a semi-insulating
regions of proton bombarded semiconductor allows the current to ow through a restricted portion
of the active region. This also aids the optical
connement in the plane of the active region.
Figure 2. a) shows a NpP double heterostruc-

ture, (the capital letters represent the larger
bandgap semiconductors). In this case for
AlGaAs/GaAs/AlGaAs in equilibrium. The
Fermi level is constant across the junction and
causes the band prole to bend as shown. In
Figure 2. b), the double heterostructure has
been forward biased causing an injection of
electrons and holes into the device, the deple-
tion region is reduced and the bands of the N-
type AlGaAs shift upwards. When the voltage
is sucient, the quasi-Fermi level for the N-
type material is at the same energy and the
electrons can overcome the potential barrier
Ec and ow into the p-GaAs region where Fig. 2
they are conned by the lower bandgap mate-
rial. Similarly, holes ow in from the P-type Bandedge diagram of a NpP AlGaAs/GaAs/AlGaAs
AlGaAs to the p-GaAs valence band. The elec- heterostrcuture
trons and holes are conned where they can
combine radiatively.

64
Laser Diodes
Population inversion is not enough to create a laser. In order for stimulated emission to become sig-
nicant, the light must interact with the electrons in the conduction band. This is achieved by cre-
ating a resonant cavity in which the light is reected back and forth many times before leaving the
cavity. If the gain equals loss, lasing will occur. This means we can qualitatively analyze the loss proc-
esses and calculate the minimum gain as well as the resonant cavity conditions.
The design of the cavity structures for modern heterostructure lasers can be much more compli-
cated incorporating more than one set of cladding layers to conne the carriers (Separate Conne-
ment Heterostructure SCH) or GRaded-INdex Separate Confinement Heterostructures
(GRINSCH). Quantum well and Multiple Quantum Well (MQW) active regions have superseded
bulk active-regions because of the advantages
that they oer. A quantum well is formed when
the width of the active region of the laser be-
comes comparable with the De-Broglie wave-
length, (approx. 100 ). In this situation, the
electron states are no longer quasi-continuous
but become separated until only a few states
lie within the well. The width of the well de-
Fig. 3
termines the number and separation of the
energy levels within the well, thus the allowed Wave propagation through the semiconductor cavity.
energy transitions. Radiative recombination in
the quantum well is predominantly from the rst energy level in the conduction band to the rst
energy level in the heavy-hole valence band. Therefore, the separation of the energy levels can be
tailored by careful design of the well width. Another advantage of quantum well lasers is that the
temperature dependence of the intrinsic threshold current (i.e. only including properties that are
intrinsic to the gain medium.) is linear with temperature. Well designed quantum well lasers have low
threshold currents and are very reliable with estimated lifetimes of greater than 106 hours.
Cavity Modes
Consider a semiconductor laser cavity of length L with a plane wave with complex propagation con-
stant that includes attenuation of the light during propagation
and amplitude E incident on the left hand side of the cavity. The ratio of transmitted to incident
light is t1 and the ratio of transmitted to incident elds at the left is taken as t2. The ratio of reected
to incident elds with the optical cavity is r1 exp(iq1) at the left-hand mirror and r2 exp(iq2) at the
right-hand mirror. For a low loss medium, the phase shifts q1 and q2 are small and are generally ne-
glected.
Without time dependence, the plane wave electric eld is

65
Laser Diodes
such that Ex is ti Ei at the rst boundary t1 Ei exp(-KL) just inside the right boundary. The rst por-
tion of the eld transmitted at the right boundary is t1 t2 Ei exp(-KL). The next portion of the wave
transmitted is at the right boundary becomes t1 t2 r1 r2 Ei exp(-3KL) and so on. Addition of these
transmitted elds gives:
The sum is a geometric progression which permits the last equation to be written as
When the denominator of the last equation tends to zero, the condition of a nite transmitted wave
Et with zero Ei is obtained, which is the condition for oscillation. Therefore the oscillation condition
is reached when
The substituting the term for K dened above and remembering that k0 =2p /lo and also k =a l0/4p
into the resonance condition we obtain:
The absorption term has been written as the dierence between the gain and the losses ai. The con-
dition for oscillation represents a wave making a round trip of 2L inside the cavity to the starting
plane with the same amplitude and
phase, within a multiple of 2p . The
amplitude condition is:
This is more usually written as, Fig. 4
Schematic laser cavity showing the first three modes

66
Laser Diodes
where R =R1= r1r1*= R2= r2r2* is the power reec-

tivity. For cleaved semiconductor facets in GaAs
R~0.3. An additional factor which is often in-
cluded is the optical connement factor G which
measures the ratio of the emission mode that is
conned within the active region. For bulk edge
emitting lasers this is close to unity but for quan-
tum well lasers it is considerably smaller (about
0.1).
The phase condition becomes:
which reduces to
A resonance occurs when an integer number of

half-wavelength 0 will t into the cavity. For ex-
ample in a GaAs cavity of 200 m in length there Fig. 5
will be around 1600 modes. The longitudinal mode
Emission spectra of an edge-emitting diode laser
separation is given in first approximation by
below and above threshold
with L>> the mode spacing is rather small and many modes will t into the cavity of the laser. The
diagram shows the emission spectra of an edge emitting laser just below threshold. The closely space
modes are superimposed on the spontaneous emission prole. As the current is increased to just
above threshold one lasing mode becomes dominant. Since the spontaneous emission spectrum is
rather broad, several modes compete to become the dominant lasing mode and this mode can switch or
mode hop while operating. This characteristic is most undesirable in lasers for telecommunications.
Temperature dependence of the emission wavelength
As the temperature is changed the properties of the laser is changing in several aspects:
The density of electron and hole states in the pn junction is changing towards smaller energy
dierences

67
Laser Diodes
Nonradiative processes will increase and therefore the threshold current is increasing and
the output power at a given current is decreasing
The cavity length is changing due to the expansion of the material.
Combined this leads to a small tunability of the laser with temperature. You will investigate that in
this experiment. The result will allow you to determine L (mode jump).

68
Laser Diodes
TASKS:
Determine the current/output power characteristics of the laser diode. Determine slope e-
ciency and threshold as a function of temperature
Determine the dimensions of the laser diode using its spatial and spectral emission charac-
teristics
Calibrate the monochromator/CCD combination for relative and absolute wavelength meas-
urements
Determine the temperature tunability of the laser diode.
PROCEDURE
General:
Dealing with laser diodes requires special care since they are very sensitive to electrostatic dis-
charges and overheating. As you will determine the active area of the laser is very small and in this
area a lot of power (mW) is produced. For this reason, we operate the diode always with the ther-
moelectric cooler switched on.
Switch-on Procedure of the laser:
Switch-on the line power of the two controllers for current and temperature
Set the temperature controller to about 20C.
Switch on the temperature controller.
Make sure the temperature is regulated to the desired value.
On the current controller turn the current control to the left.
Enable the current output.
Increase the current to the desired value (smaller than 70mA)
Switch-o Procedure of the laser:
Disable current output
Switch-o temperature controller output
Switch-o the line switch of both instruments

69
Laser Diodes
Determine Spatial Emission Characteristics
With the lens removed from the laser diode assembly draw a rough picture of the emission
prole at a distance of 5 cm. Use this to roughly estimate the diodes lateral dimensions as-
suming the end-facet acts as a rectangular slit
For more precise measurements, place a pinhole in from of the photodetector and move it
horizontally and vertically using the x-y-z translational stage. Determine the intensity for
each point
Assuming we are dealing with the fundamental Gaussian modes in both direction determine
the dimensions of the laser assuming the waist of the Gaussian beam is at the center of the
laser diode. In one dimension the beam divergence angle is given as
1.27
=
D
if we measure the laser beam diameter from the points at which the intensity is reduced to 1/
e2 relative to the center value.

I=1/e2
laser D
Determine I-P curves
Attach the objective to the laser diode assembly and collimate the laser beam.
Place the photodetector such that laser hits it is right in the center. Use the attenuator.
Measure the I-P curves from I=0 to 80mA in steps of 3mA for T=10, 20, 30,C
Determine the threshold and slope eciency of the laser by tting a straight line to the data
above threshold. The slope of this line is the slope eciency, its intersect with the I-axis is
the threshold current.

70
Laser Diodes
Calibrate the monochromator.
Use the HeNe and adjust it such that the laser beam goes central through the entrance slit of
the monochromator and hits the rst mirror in the middle. For that purpose use two kine-
matically mounted mirrors.
Move the counter of the monochromator to 632.8nm. The beam should no go through cen-
tral all the way.
Close the entrance slit almost completely
Place the CCD linear array such that the laser hits it in the center. Check this by looking
onto the image on the oscilloscope.
Move the CCD back and forth to get a peak with the minimum width.
At this point the monochromator should be calibrated for the center wavelength. We still
need to calibrate in term of the wavelength changes per pixel on CCD or time-unit on the
oscilloscope. To do this, we move the monochromator counter by a small amount in observe
by how much it moves. The center of the CCD is the wavelength indicated on the counter.
The emission peak is at 632.8. From the dierence we can deduce the required information.
Measure the spectra of the Semiconductor laser.
Replace the HeNe laser by the Semiconductor laser
Adjust the laser again to be central on the rst mirror
Observe the spectrum while you change the temperature (I=40mA, T=10-..30C)
You can save some of the spectra using Labview
Measure the spectral position of the emission maxima as a function of temperature.
Determine the jumps in modes. If you cannot identify such a jump ask the instructor to
show it to you. For that move the grating to 2nd order.
Measure the spectra as a function of current.

71
Solid State Lasers
Solid State Lasers and Nonlinear Optics
GOALS
Understand the function of a cw laser and its components. Learn strategies to align a laser cavity.
Get a basic understanding of the principle of Q-switching and how it can be used to create laser
pulses. Understand the concept of nonlinear optics and its application to second harmonic genera-
tion.
TOOLS
1. Nd:YAG laser including a Nd: YAG crystal rod, halogen pump lamps, adjustable cavity mirrors,
and Q-switch assembly
2. Electronic Driver for Q-switch
3. IR-viewer card
4. Optical Spectrum Analyzer
5. Polarizer
6. Grating
7. Photodetector
8. Power meter
9. CCD camera
10. Computer

72
Solid State Lasers
BACKGROUND
(The description here is very basic but should be enough to give you the basic idea). A more detailed descrip-
tion can be found in Laser and Electr0-Optics by C.. C. Davis. The book is available in the teaching lab)
In this experiment we are working with a laser that is invisible to you eye but is very
powerful. Extra caution is required when working with it. In particular protective gog-
gles have to be worn whenever the laser is operated. Watch the presentation on laser
safety.
The Nd:YAG laser is a four-level system in which the lasing transition occurs at 1.064m. The en-
ergy level diagram for a four-level system is shown in gure 1.
Figure 1
(left) Level scheme of a four level system, (right) Basic optical resonator
The atoms in the ground state are pumped to state 3 and then the excited Nd3+ ions rapidly relax to
the upper lasing state 2. Lasing occurs between states 2 and 1 at a wavelength of 1.064m. The ions
then relax rapidly back to the ground state 0 and are available again to be pumped back up to state 3.
Nd:YAG lasers can be operated in a continuous wave (cw) or a pulsed mode. In this laboratory we
will study both modes of operation. The laser is pumped by a tungsten-halogen lamp in a double el-
liptical pump cavity. The lamps are at one focus of the ellipse and the Nd:YAG rod is at the other
common focus. Heat is removed from the system by owing water around the Nd:YAG rod and
through the elliptical housing.
The lasing rod is a crystal of yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG), which has been doped with neodym-
ium ions The optical cavity is formed by two mirrors which are coated for high reectivity at
1.064m. The output mirror is a 98% reector and the back mirror reects greater than 99.9%.
Since the lasing transition for the Nd:YAG laser is in the near infrared, an infrared viewer or a phos-
phor card is needed to see the laser.

73
Solid State Lasers
Q-switched mode.
Q-switching is the generation of high power optical pulses by switching the loss of the laser cavity
from high loss (low Q) to low loss (high Q). Q-switching is done by introducing a fast optical shutter
in the cavity which for our laser is an acousto-optical modulator. When the shutter is closed, the
population inversion is allowed to build up to a very high level without lasing. Energy is stored in the
laser crystal. When the shutter opens, the photon ux inside the cavity builds up rapidly but decays
shortly after that because the population inversion is quickly depleted. If the shutter is not closed
immediate then further smaller pulses may develop.
Second harmonic generation.
The invisible infrared output of the Nd:YAG laser can be frequency-doubled to 0.53m, the green
portion of the visible spectrum, by using a nonlinear crystal. Since the eciency of the frequency
doubling (second harmonic generation, SHG) is rather low, it is important to match the velocities of
the phase fronts of the fundamental and the second harmonic waves in the crystal. This so-called
phase-matching results in orders of magnitude improvement in the conversion eciency. In order to
achieve phase-matching the indices of refraction for both the fundamental and second harmonic
waves must be equal. This is usual not the case because essentially all materials exhibit a wavelength
dependence of their refractive index (dispersion). In a number of birefringent crystals, it is possible
to achieve phase matching at a given fundamental wavelength by a proper choice of polarization di-
rection of the light beam, orientation, and temperature of the crystal. The trick is to match the
phase velocity of one polarization at the fundamental wavelength with the phase velocity of another
polarization at the second harmonic wavelength.

74
Solid State Lasers
TASKS
Get the laser to work
Determine the threshold and slope eciency of the laser
Determine the polarization behavior of the laser with and without a Brewster plate
Determine the spatial mode of the laser
Characterize the laser output in its Q-switched operation mode
Study extra-cavity and intra-cavity SHG and its dependence on fundamental laser power
PROCEDURES
Alignment of the laser cavity using a HeNe laser
Set the He-Ne laser in a horizontal position, its beam at about the same height as that of the
Nd:YAG rod. Set up mirrors M1 and M2, and an aperture as shown in Fig. 2
Remove the output coupler. With mirrors M1 and M2, direct the He-Ne beam through the
ND:YAG rod. Observe the emerging spot on a piece of paper. Similar as in earlier experi-
ments, we use 2 mirrors to steer a laser beam in a desired direction.
Figure 2
With mirror M2, align for the brightest possible He-Ne beam spot on the piece of paper. The
spot is probably not centered in the middle of the projected aperture at this stage (g. 2)

75
Solid State Lasers
Observe the spot reected by the rst surface of the rod on the aperture in front of the He-
Ne laser.
Figure 3
If the reected beam is not autocollimated (i.e., retroreected back through the aperture,
see gure 3), then with mirror M1 alone, increase the oset. Now with mirror M2 alone bring
the beam spot back towards the center of the projected aperture. Repeat this walking of the
beam until the reected beam is well autocollimated and the beam spot is bright and well
centered in the projected aperture.
Next we need to adjust the back mirror of the resonator. Using the mirror mount, orient the
reection back through the aperture. This beam is converging due to the slight curvature of
the mirror. Do not confuse this beam with the collimated beam reected o the at back
surface of the mirror substrate.
Introduce the front mirror (output coupler). Again, you may observe two reections: one
from the inner coated surface 1 and one from the outer surface 2. We need to concentrate on
the beam reected from surface 2. It needs be reected back back through the aperture.
Now the laser should be aligned.
Laser Operation
Ask the instructor to turn on the cooling water. THE WATER SHOULD REMAIN ON
AT ALL TIMES. The laser will not function unless the water ow is on. SAFETY
GOGGLES SHOULD BE WORN. We are entering dangerous terrain.
Turn on the power to the tungsten lamp (set 65V, push button and wait about 20 sec. Slowly
increase the input power up to 95V on the variac. The laser should oscillate (work) now.
Check for an output beam with a phosphor card and a power meter.

76
Solid State Lasers
If it does not lase, make ne adjustments of the output coupler about the position obtained
with the HeNe laser. Watch for the laser to ash as the mirror is adjusted.
Slope Eciency
Using a photovoltaic cell and the digital scope to detect the output beam, determine the
threshold input voltage. Record how the signals look like below, close to, and well above
threshold
Using a power meter with the neutral density lter, measure the maximum output power ver-
sus input voltage. For each measurement, optimize the alignment because it depends on the
input power through thermal lensing eects in the Nd:YAG rod.
The plot of the output power vs input power yields the slope eciency
Output Polarization Control
To analyze the polarization state of the laser output, use the set up shown in Fig. 4 with the
input voltage set such that the laser as well above threshold. Rotate the linear polarizer to
analyze the polarization of the output.
Repeat the procedure after you have introduced the Brewster plate into the laser cavity.
Figure 4
Laser Wavelength
Replace in Fig. 4 the detector by a ber input coupler
Ask the instructor to show you how to couple light into the ber
Use the ber output as the input to the optical spectrum analyzer

77
Solid State Lasers
Measure the spectrum and determine the peak wavelength
TEM00 Mode Operation

Using the phosphor card, an IR viewer or the CCD camera, determine the spatial mode of
the laser. This is easiest to do by looking at the output several meters from the laser.
Play around with the adjustment to check on how the spatial modes are changing.
Adjust the laser such that you have a nice symmetrical round mode with the smallest radius.
This is the TEM00 mode.
Q-switched operation
Set the power of the laser to about 1W. Turn on the Q-switch power supply. Measure the av-
erage power of the laser.
Using a photodiode and the oscilloscope, characterize the output from the laser in the Q-
switched mode of operation by measuring the repetition rate and pulse length.
Calculate the intensity of the pulse for the Q-switched operation. Compare this to the cw
operation
Second Harmonic Generation (extra-cavitiy)
To generate the second harmonic use the set-up shown in Fig. 5
Adjust the angle of the crystal until the SHG is achieved and optimized
Determine the polarization of the SHG signal
Using the Optical Spectrum analyzer determine the spectrum of the SHG light. Conrm
that it is really half the fundamental wavelength.
Determine the SHG output power vs. fundamental output power characteristics. Using the
diraction grating to separate the two wavelengths. Why will your measurements only yield
the relative dependence but not the absolute SHG/fundamental power ratio
Calibrate your ratios using the measurement obtained from the OSA
Turn the Q-switch o and observe the SHG output.

78
Solid State Lasers
Figure 5
Second Harmonic Generation (intracavity-cavitiy)

Adjust the laser for maximum power
Introduce the SHG crystal into the laser cavity and adjust such that lasing occurs again
Adjust the angle such that you see optimum green output.
Determine the SHG output power vs fundamental output power characteristics

79
Optical Fiber Amplier
Optical Fiber Ampliers
GOALS:
Build and characterize a Erbium doped fiber amplifier system capable to amplify incoming sig-
nal light between 1525-1600nm. Understand its basic components. Learn how to handle single
mode fibers and other fiber optical components.
TOOLS:
1. 1525 to 1600nm tunable laser source (including power and cooling)
2. Either:
2.1. 980nm laser source (including power and cooling) and

980/1550nm WDM (wavelength division multiplexer)

1480/1550nm WDM
3. Two 1550nm isolators
4. Er-doped ber (approx. 18.5m)
5. OSA (optical spectrum analyzer)
6. Standard ber and connectors
7. Burleigh Wavemeter
8. White light source

80
BACKGROUND
An erbium-doped optical ber amplier, or EDFA, is an optical repeater that amplies an optical
laser beam directly, bypassing opto-electronic and electro-optical (O/E and E/O) conversion. The
EDFA uses a short length of optical ber that has been treated or doped with the element er-
bium. When the laser that carries the signal causes the signal to pass through this ber, energy is
applied to boost, or amplify, the level of the signal.
In ber optic systems amplication of the signal is necessary , because no ber material is absolutely
transparent. This causes the infrared light (usually around 1530nm) carried by a ber to be attenuated
as it travels through the material. Because of this attenuation, repeaters must be used in spans of op-
tical ber longer than approximately 100 kilometers.
The operating wavelength range of a standard EDFA spans over the entire so-called C band (1530
to 1560 nm) and therefore allows amplication of a variety of wavelength channels that are used
wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) applications. This is a major advantage over methods in
which the optical signal is converted into an electrical signal, amplied and converted back to light.
Due to the last step, such O/E-E/O regenerators require the demultiplexing and multiplexing of each
single WDM channel at each regenerator site and an O/E-E/O pair for each channel.
Operation Principle
The basic operation principle is illustrated in Fig.1. Of the many energy levels of the Er ions only
three are depicted. The pump laser (980nm or 1480) excites the ion into an excited state which
has a fairly long lifetime. This way energy is stored in the amplifier fiber that can be used by the
signal. Through stimulated emission the signal can release the energy. The created photon will
have the same wavelength and direction as the incoming signal photon and hence leads to an
amplification. In the absence of the signal beam we will have spontaneous emission that goes in
Fig. 1. Basic Principle of an EDFA
all direction in is therefore weak along the fiber. This emission, however, adds to the noise and

81
limits the performance of the amplifier.
More details about the energy levels of the Er ion
While for the basic operation of the EDFA the simplified energy level scheme of Fig. 1 is suffi-
cient, details of the behavior requires a more detailed energy level scheme. Most notably, you
will notice a green color of the fiber, while it is pumped with the 980nm laser.
Fig. 2. Detailed energy level scheme
The Erbium ion is one of the rare earth ions (what are others?) that are characterized by an un-
filled 4f-shell. These valence electrons are well shielded from their environment by filled 5s, 5p
shells that have a larger radial extent. Due to electron-electron, spin-orbit interaction the 4f en-
ergy levels are split. The individual levels are denoted by the LS-coupling scheme, although the
latter does not hold perfectly. In this scheme, the angular momenta and spins of the electrons
are added up first giving the quantum numbers L and S. The obtain the total momentum J, L
and S are added as vectors. The labels indicate the approximate value for L, S, and J in the fol-
lowing form: 2S+1LJ, L is denoted with letter (S,P, D,F,G,.. for L=0,1,2,3,4...).

82
The interaction with the host ions is small and just leads the splitting of the (2J+1) degenerate
levels, as shown for three levels in Figure 2. Although comparable small, this splitting allows
amplification and lasing between the two lowest states. The relative population of the sublevels
within each levels is governed by the Boltzmann distribution at a given temperature. For that
reason, the absorption and emission spectra are not identical as seen in Figure 3 and gain can
be achieved on the low energy (long wavelength) side by pumping in the high energy (low
wavelength) side of the absorption. We have affectively a quasi-four level systems.
Fig. 3. Emission and absorption spectrum
Principle Set-up of an EDFA
The principle set-up of an EDFA is shown

in Fig. 4. The pump and the signal light
are combined using a wavelength division
mulitplexer (WDM). They co-propagate
the Er-doped fiber and are separated us-
ing a second WDM. The latter can also be
used to the add another pump source that
will counter-propagate throught the fiber.
In this case the pump laser diodes, need
to be protected using an fiber optical iso-
lator. Isolators are based on Farady rota- Fig. 4. (a) Basic set-up of a EDFA
tion. Details can be found for instance
athttp://www.fdk.co.jp/laboratory/hikariai-e.html. In our experiment will will not use the second
WDM but an isolator that will reduce back-reflection and will filter out the 980nm light as well.

83
TASKS
Determine approximate energy levels of the Er 3+ in the ber
Determine the gain window of the Erbium-doped ber
Determine the wavelength characteristics of the EDFA
Determine the saturation of the EDFA.
Calculate the conversion eciency.
PROCEDURE
Check all ber connectors:
In order to avoid to the critical components of the experiment, we will make sure that all the ber
connectors are clean. For that purpose, we use a Fiberscope in the Fiber Optics Lab in the Whi-
tacker building
Splicing a ber:
Note
Fiber connections are very sensitive always make
In case a ber end is damaged and cannot be saved
sure that when connecting fibers, the connectors
by cleaning it, we will need to splice another ber are aligned and the connections are not over-
with a good connector to the component. You will tightened.
be shown how to use the Fusion Splicer
Measurement of the ASE
You will be able to determine a great deal about the systems amplification abilities without actually am-
plifying the signal. This section will help you understand some different methods of analysis and how
they can be used to understand the results from later sections.
Amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) results from the Er-doped fiber amplifying everything, including
noise. Since noise can be considered white (equal for all wavelengths), looking at how much noise is am-
plified will give us a good idea of which wavelengths are preferentially amplified by our EDFA system.
1. Connect the amplification system as follows:
Connect the end of the 980nm laser to the input on the WDM marked 980
Place a cap on the 1530 input
Connect one end of the Er-doped fiber to the output of the WDM

84
Connect the other end of the Er-doped fiber to the input of the OSA
2. Turn on the OSA and the temperature controller to the 980nm laser (first push the power button on
the left side of the temperature controller and wait until it starts up, then push the output button).
The actual temperature should now stay between 21.9 and 22.1C - if it ever varies from this immedi-
ately turn of the current source. If the temperature is set to something other than 22C, set the tem-
perature by pushing the set temp button and turning the knob to the appropriate value.
3. Set the OSA to the following values:
Span: 1500nm to 1620nm
Setup: Resolution: 0.5nm (the smallest without causing an error)
Setup: Averaging: 3 (will average the last 3 sweeps for display)
Sweep: repeat
4. Ensure the current source is set to const I, the limit switch is turned fully CW (otherwise the cur-
rent supply will not reach 200mA), and the knob above output is turned CCW (so that when output
is pressed, the current source will start at 0mA).
5. Turn on the current source by pushing the power button,

Note
followed by the output button, similarly to how the tem-
Each time before pressing output
perature controller was powered. After the initial value is on the current source, follow the
displayed (should read zero at this point), turn the output flow of the fibers to make abso-
knob until 30.0mA is driven through the laser. The OSA lutely sure that no connection is left
should now show a fairly flat range between 1530nm and open. Certain parts of these ex-
periments will deal with levels of
1570nm, with two peaks, as shown in Figure 3.
infrared light that are not eye-safe
6. Now save these results to a floppy disk. Now save these (are above 10mW), so it is impera-
tive that each fiber ends in a cap or a
results to a floppy disk by pressing floppy, write (first device.
button from the top next to the display), file name (5th
button use the wheel and enter for letters and the num-
ber pad for numbers), done (7th button), execute (7th button), then return (8th button).
7. Now repeat these results for 40mA, 50mA, 100mA, and 200mA to see how quickly the EDFA sys-
tem saturates. In your lab report, make sure to note how close the 50mA peak and the 200mA peak
are (i.e. 5dB, 10dB, 15dB). This will give you a fairly good idea of which frequencies will be preferen-
tially amplified, and why it is important in communications to create a flat-band amplification sys-
tem so that some frequencies do not get significantly more amplification than others.
8. One of the energy levels of Erbium happens to be around 550nm (green), but is mostly robbed of en-
ergy by the 1530nm emission. With the current source at 200mA, set the span on the OSA from
500nm to 650nm and see if you can detect green emission (look for regions where there are no dips
below 60dBm). Turn off the current to the 980nm laser when you are finished.

85
Characterization of the components
Now that you have an idea of what the main components of the EDFA system are, it is a good idea
to nd out exactly how each of the components treats dierent frequencies of light. To do this,
connect each of the following pieces in turn between the white light source and the OSA. Set the
span from 500nm to 1750nm, the resolution to the minimum without causing an error (10nm), the
average to 3, and remember to save the results of each component to disk.
Any piece of connecting ber. In addition to showing how little the ber aects most wavelengths,
this will also show the range of the white light source (becomes irregular below 600nm, and unus-
able below 500nm). It is a good idea to do this for each piece of ber you use, to check that the
ber will pass the desired wavelengths without too much attenuation. An example of this is illus-
trated in the following picture, which shows that one of the bers absorbs much more of the 1500-
1625nm range than the other two bers (arrow) and should not be used for our experiments.
An optical isolator. If the isolator is aimed at use around 1550nm, it will most likely absorb every-
thing below about 1m, since it contains magnetically-sensitive materials that do not work for all
wavelengths. This is important, since you must remember that these isolators should not be used
in between ber that needs to continue carrying, for example, the 980nm pump laser.
The Er-doped ber. The dips in this diagram will show the dierent energy levels. Erbium, like
most rare-earth elements, has an immense number of energy levels, three of which are used for
EDFA systems
(E2 E1 = 1530nm, E3 E1 = 980nm). Notice that broadening of the energy levels allows pumping
at 1480nm (bottom of E1 to top of E2) to cause emission at 1530nm (middle of E2 to middle of E1).
The WDM. It is not necessary to save these results to disk, but notice that sending the white light
into the 980 input and measuring at the output results in an almost identical spectrum as sending
the white light into the output and measuring at the 980 input. The same is also true for the 1530
input. A WDM can thus be used for combining two frequencies on separate bers onto one ber
(multiplexing or muxing), as well as taking two frequencies on one ber and splitting them in two
(demultiplexing or demuxing).
Gain Characteristics
Now that you understand the limitations of each part of the EDFA, you will investigate the behavior
and limitations of the system in amplifying signals. The main task will be to obtain gain vs. wave-
length data that will look very similar to the ASE obtained in Part 1 using the 100mA and greater
currents.
As you will soon discover, tunable semiconductor lasers can lase at a wide band of frequencies, but
the output power vs. current will decrease signicantly toward the limits of the lasers. Thus, to be
able to obtain data that is consistent over the entire range, you must use the same output power for
each wavelength, rather than using the same amount of current.

86
1. Determine the operating parameters for the tunable laser:
Connect the tunable laser directly to the OSA and turn on the cooling to the laser (in an inte-
grated console, do this simply by turning the key on the console to start the power and the
automatic cooling).
Turn on the OSA. Once started, set to the following:
Span: 20nm
Center: 1560nm
Setup: Averaging: 1
Setup: Resolution: 0.2nm
Turn on the laser diode and set the current 85 mA.
Tune the laser until the output matches the center frequency as closely as possible (make sure
there is only one mode if there are two, tune slightly toward the center frequency until the
second mode disappears).
The goal is to nd the currents for each frequency that will output both -10 0.5 dBm and 0
0.5 dBm. For 1560 nm, these outputs will occur with input currents between 50-70mA, and 85-
105 mA, respectively. Write down these values on the following chart as you acquire them.
2. Now that you know that the tunable laser is set to 1560nm and what currents are required to
output -10dBm and 0dBm to sucient accuracy, turn o the laser diode and on the OSA, press
sweep: stop.
3. Make the following connections:
Connect the tunable laser diode to the input on the WDM marked 1530.
Connect the 980nm pump laser into the WDM input marked 980 (if not already connected).
Connect the output of the WDM to the Er-doped ber.
Connect the other end of the Er-doped ber to the input of the optical isolator, and connect
the output of the isolator to the OSA. Once again follow the ow of the bers to make sure
that each ber is connected at both ends.
4. Turn on the laser diode of the tunable laser and check that the current is still set so that the laser
outputs either -10dBm or 0dBm.
5. On the OSA, press peak search to nd the level of laser power that is being passed through the
system and record this level. Notice that this output power is much less than the amount of en-

87
ergy at the input, which means that the EDFA system must rst overcome this intrinsic loss
before being able to amplify the system above its original level.
6. Make sure the cooling to the 980nm laser is still set, and pump 100mA of power through the
system. Record the output and repeat for 200mA.
7. Repeat these results for the remaining four wavelengths (1520, 1530, 1540, 1550nm).
Plot and Calculations
With the data you have now collected, you will be able to see how your particular fiber amplifier behaves
compared to other fiber amplifiers and amplifiers in general.
1. Gain vs. Wavelength plot

With the data from Part 2, you can now make the following plots. The rst should look very
similar to the ASE of the 980nm laser, and the second shows the actual gain vs. wavelength after
the losses through the system are added.
2. Threshold Pump Power Ppth

The rst calculation is to show that, ideally, the threshold pump power is independent of the
input power. The threshold pump power can be dened as the pump power at which the ampli-
er is transparent (gain is zero). Many factors can aect this value so in your experiments it will
not be perfect, but it should be close enough for you to be able to estimate the actual threshold
pump power.
3. Conversion Eciency
This calculation will show that although useful, the conversion eciency of this amplier con-
guration is far from approaching the theoretical maximum (pump/ signal). Conversion eciency
can be calculated by dividing the output signal light by the input pump power (both in mW, not
dBm).
4. Stimulated Emission Cross Section s

Knowing this value is very important in designing and evaluating an amplier system, since many
of the gain equations are dependent on the stimulated emission cross section. The following is a
simple way to calculate this value, but many of the approximations can be calculated more accu-
rately using better ts. One of the more dicult steps is to calculate the full-width half-power
point of the unltered ASE spectrum (). The other required values (wavelength, refractive
index, and spontaneous emission time) are simply constants. To nd the FWHP point of the
ASE spectrum, you can follow the following steps, or as mentioned above, try more accurate ts.
Measure the ASE of the 980nm laser
Insert the ASE into a numerical software program, attenuating the main peak to create an am-
plier that provides equal gain for the majority of the spectrum. You are trying to nd the
FWHP point of the whole spectrum, not just the peak at 1530nm.

88
Find the area under the entire ASE curve, and then, on top of the ASE, plot a Gaussian with
the same area. Now adjust the three parameters of the Gaussian (amplitude, mean, and vari-
ance) until they best overlap the ASE.
Find the FWHM of the Gaussian (the points, in mW, where each side has reduced to half of
the maximum). The value should be in the tens of nm.
Use this FWHM () to compute the stimulated emission cross section as follows:

89
Fiber Lasers
Fiber Laser
GOALS:
Build and characterize a Erbium doped fiber laser. Understand its basic components. Learn how
to handle single mode fibers and other fiber optical components.
TOOLS:
1. Fiber gratings at desired
2. Either:

980/1550nm WDM (wavelength division multiplexer)

1480/1550nm WDM
3. One 1550nm isolators
4. Fiber Optical Circulator
5. Er-doped ber (approx. 18.5m)
6. OSA (optical spectrum analyzer)
7. Standard ber and connectors
8. Burleigh Wavemeter
9. White light source

90
Fiber Lasers
10. B A C K G R O U N D
Laser based on ber optical components have become very popular in recent years. They make use
of the versatility of ber optical devices and the progress that has been made in doped ber with low
propagation losses. One of their main advantages is that they do not any adjustment of optical com-
ponents and are therefore very stable.
Operation Principle
The basic operation of Er-doped ber laser is a logical extension of the ber amplier. To the EDFA
design a feedback is added through ber Bragg gratings. These gratings can be manufacture by illu-
minating properly doped bers with interferometric patterns of UV light and are very narrow band.
For further background on the Er ion see EDFA experiment. You may have noticed that
when you build the amplier a lasing eect occurred under some conditions. This due to the
small reection add the ber ends. The high gain of our medium does not require high re-
ective mirrors. The Bragg gratings that we are using will therefore mainly act as frequency
selector. For that purpose, one grating is sucient. The laser can be tuned by changing the
grating either mechanically or thermally.

91
Fiber Lasers
TASKS
Determine approximate energy levels of the Er 3+ in the ber
Determine the gain window of the Erbium-doped ber
Characterize the dierent components
PROCEDURE
Check all ber connectors:
In order to avoid to the critical components of the experiment, we will make sure that all the ber
connectors are clean. For that purpose, we use a Fiberscope in the Fiber Optics Lab in the Whi-
tacker building
Splicing a ber:
Note
Fiber connections are very sensitive always make
In case a ber end is damaged and cannot be saved
sure that when connecting fibers, the connectors
by cleaning it, we will need to splice another ber are aligned and the connections are not over-
with a good connector to the component. You will tightened.
be shown how to use the Fusion Splicer
Measurement of the ASE
You will be able to determine a great deal about the systems amplification abilities without actually am-
plifying the signal. This section will help you understand some different methods of analysis and how
they can be used to understand the results from later sections.
Amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) results from the Er-doped fiber amplifying everything, including
noise. Since noise can be considered white (equal for all wavelengths), looking at how much noise is am-
plified will give us a good idea of which wavelengths are preferentially amplified by our EDFA system.
1. Connect the amplification system as follows:
Place a cap on the 1530 input
Connect one end of the Er-doped fiber to the output of the WDM
Connect the other end of the Er-doped fiber to the input of the OSA
2. Turn on the OSA and the temperature controller to the 980nm laser (first push the power button on
the left side of the temperature controller and wait until it starts up, then push the output button).

92
Fiber Lasers
The actual temperature should now stay between 21.9 and 22.1C - if it ever varies from this immedi-
ately turn of the current source. If the temperature is set to something other than 22C, set the tem-
perature by pushing the set temp button and turning the knob to the appropriate value.
3. Set the OSA to the following values:
Span: 1500nm to 1620nm
Setup: Resolution: 0.5nm (the smallest without causing an error)
Setup: Averaging: 3 (will average the last 3 sweeps for display)
Sweep: repeat
4. Ensure the current source is set to const I, the limit switch is turned fully CW (otherwise the cur-
rent supply will not reach 200mA), and the knob above output is turned CCW (so that when output
is pressed, the current source will start at 0mA).
5. Turn on the current source by pushing the power button,

Note
followed by the output button, similarly to how the tem-
Each time before pressing output
perature controller was powered. After the initial value is on the current source, follow the
displayed (should read zero at this point), turn the output flow of the fibers to make abso-
knob until 30.0mA is driven through the laser. The OSA lutely sure that no connection is left
should now show a fairly flat range between 1530nm and open. Certain parts of these ex-
periments will deal with levels of
1570nm, with two peaks, as shown in Figure 3.
infrared light that are not eye-safe
(are above 10mW), so it is impera-
6. Now save these results to a floppy disk. Now save these
tive that each fiber ends in a cap or a
results to a floppy disk by pressing floppy, write (first device.
button from the top next to the display), file name (5th
button use the wheel and enter for letters and the num-
ber pad for numbers), done (7th button), execute (7th button), then return (8th button).
7. Now repeat these results for 40mA, 50mA, 100mA, and 200mA to see how quickly the EDFA sys-
tem saturates. In your lab report, make sure to note how close the 50mA peak and the 200mA peak
are (i.e. 5dB, 10dB, 15dB). This will give you a fairly good idea of which frequencies will be preferen-
tially amplified, and why it is important in communications to create a flat-band amplification sys-
tem so that some frequencies do not get significantly more amplification than others.
8. One of the energy levels of Erbium happens to be around 550nm (green), but is mostly robbed of en-
ergy by the 1530nm emission. With the current source at 200mA, set the span on the OSA from
500nm to 650nm and see if you can detect green emission (look for regions where there are no dips
below 60dBm). Turn off the current to the 980nm laser when you are finished.
Characterization of the components

93
Fiber Lasers
Now that you have an idea of what the main components of the EDFA system are, it is a good idea
to nd out exactly how each of the components treats dierent frequencies of light. To do this,
connect each of the following pieces in turn between the white light source and the OSA. Set the
span from 500nm to 1750nm, the resolution to the minimum without causing an error (10nm), the
average to 3, and remember to save the results of each component to disk.
Any piece of connecting ber. In addition to showing how little the ber aects most wavelengths,
this will also show the range of the white light source (becomes irregular below 600nm, and unus-
able below 500nm). It is a good idea to do this for each piece of ber you use, to check that the
ber will pass the desired wavelengths without too much attenuation. An example of this is illus-
trated in the following picture, which shows that one of the bers absorbs much more of the 1500-
1625nm range than the other two bers (arrow) and should not be used for our experiments.
An optical isolator. If the isolator is aimed at use around 1550nm, it will most likely absorb every-
thing below about 1m, since it contains magnetically-sensitive materials that do not work for all
wavelengths. This is important, since you must remember that these isolators should not be used
in between ber that needs to continue carrying, for example, the 980nm pump laser.
An ber-optical circulator. This component is related to a isolator as it lets light travel only in one
direction. It has three parts A, B, C. Light can go from A to B, from B to C, and from C to A, but
not hte other way around
The Er-doped ber. The dips in this diagram will show the dierent energy levels. Erbium, like
most rare-earth elements, has an immense number of energy levels, three of which are used for
EDFA systems
(E2 E1 = 1530nm, E3 E1 = 980nm). Notice that broadening of the energy levels allows pumping
at 1480nm (bottom of E1 to top of E2) to cause emission at 1530nm (middle of E2 to middle of E1).
Fiber gratings. Characterize the reection characteristic of the gratings using the optical circulator.
What is the reectivity of the grating.
The WDM. It is not necessary to save these results to disk, but notice that sending the white light
into the 980 input and measuring at the output results in an almost identical spectrum as sending
the white light into the output and measuring at the 980 input. The same is also true for the 1530
input. A WDM can thus be used for combining two frequencies on separate bers onto one ber
(multiplexing or muxing), as well as taking two frequencies on one ber and splitting them in two
(demultiplexing or demuxing).
Building the ber laser
1. Connect the laser system as follows:

94
Fiber Lasers
Connect one end of the Er-doped ber to the output of the WDM, and connect the other end
of the Er-doped ber to one of the ber gratings
Connect the input end of an isolator to the input of the WDM marked 1530 so that the iso-
lator points away from the WDM, and connect the Optical Wavemeter to the output end of
the isolator
1. Turn on the wavemeter and the temperature controller to the 1480nm laser (rst push the
power button on the left side of the temperature controller and wait until it starts up, then
push the output button). The actual temperature should now stay between 21.9 and 22.1C - if it
ever varies from this immediately turn of the current source. If the temperature is set to some-
thing other than 22C, set the temperature by pushing the set temp button and turning the
knob to the appropriate value.
2. On the wavemeter, set averaging to 6 and make sure that averaging is turned on, and start with a
wavelength range of 1520 to 1627nm. Now, using the horizontal position and horizontal scale
functions, set the scale to roughly 1520 to 1550nm (assuming the gratings are 1530nm and 1545nm
if not, make sure the scale will show the wavelengths of all of the gratings).
3. Turn on the current source, and try to nd the minimum current that causes the output to peak
at the gratings wavelength. Record this output to disk (use the save data function save dis-
play will just save a picture of the current display). The wavemeter does not seem to have a way
to set lenames, so it may be worthwhile to take the disk to a computer after each save to
change the lename.
4. Record the output for pump current values of 100mA and 200mA.
5. Remove the isolator from the system and repeat the measurements for the threshold current
value, 100mA, and 200mA. Based on what you know about modes in a laser, what do you think
this will do to the output linewidth (narrower or broader)? Plot the data from your two experi-
ments, and for each pump current value, see if your prediction was true.
6. To obtain the threshold pump power for your laser, connect the pump laser directly to the
wavemeter and set the current to your threshold obtained in steps 4 and 6 (to obtain the values
with and without the isolator, respectively). This will give you the threshold pump power in
dBm and mW.

95
Appendix
Appendix
I. Intro-Lecture on Errors, Accuracy and Precision
II. Basics of a Lock-In Ampliers

III. Sample Midterm
IV.Data-sheets

96
Appendix
I. Intro-Lecture
What Kind of Errors are There?
! According to Webster- Error is the difference

between an observed or calculated value and the
Errors and Precision true value.
Random Error
adapted from http://www.uiowa.edu/!c004135/lectures/
and
natural scatter in data due to the inherent
"Experiments in Physical Chemistry#, by Shoemaker, Garland and Nibler, 7th edition, McGraw
Hill, 2003.
uncertainty in the measurement.
Systematic Error
! error with a definable and in principle preventable cause.
(Need to improve the experimental technique.)
Accuracy and Precision Accuracy and Precision
! Accuracy - the degree to which the experimental Accurate & Precise Inaccurate & Precise
value comes close to the true value.
True Value True value
The accuracy is due to systematic error.
! Precision - the reproducibility of the experimental
result when the measurement is made repeatedly
with the same instrument. Accurate & Inaccurate & Imprecise
The precision is an expression of the uncertainty due to Imprecise
random error. True value True Value
! In general, the uncertainty of an experimental
result refers to the precision with which the result
has been determined. = one experiment

97
Appendix
Volume Measurements How Are Random Errors Characterized?
! The accuracy and precision of a measured ! Mean (x) (also known as average value)
N x
value should be consistent with the number of x" = ! i
digits reported for the value. i=1 N
Volume measurement taken with a beaker: ! Estimated Variance (S2)
11.!mL (two significant figures). 1 N N
Volume delivered with a buret:
S2 = 2
" (x ! x ) =
N ! 1 i=1 i N !1 [
x2 ! x2 ]
11.23!mL (four significant figures). ! Estimated Standard Deviation (S)
xi is the ith measured value
Errors typically associated with these volume 1 N-1=degrees of freedom- number
measuring devices: about 1 mL for a small 1 #N &2 of independent data points on
S= % " (x ! x )2 (
N ! 1 $i=1 i
which the calculation of S2 is
beaker and about 0.03 mL for a buret. ' based.
Estimated Standard Deviation of the

Mean, Sm Example Data
1 Run #i! ! Volume xi (mL)! ! (xi -x )2

S 1 #N &2
Sm = = % " (x ! x ) 2 ( 1" " " " 25.23" " " " 0.0009
N(N ! 1) $i=1 i
2" " " " 25.26" " " " 0.0000
N ' 3" " " " 25.28" " " " 0.0004
4" " " " 25.24" " " " 0.0004
5" " " " 25.30" " " " 0.0016
! Precision of the mean can be increased by
Sum! ! ! 126.31! ! ! ! 0.0033
increasing the number of individual
measurements. Mean = x = (126.22 / 5) = 25.26 mL
1 25.26(1) mL
Standard Deviation: S = 0.0033 = 0.0287mL
5 !1
0.0287
Standard Deviation of the Mean: S m = = 0.013
5

98
Appendix
Q-Test Q-test (continued)

! Compare the calculated Q with Qc (the critical Q) corresponding to
! When making multiple measurements, it often the number of observations in the series.
happens that one value differs considerably from If Q>Qc, the measurement should be rejected.
the others. Look for an explanation- ie. forgot to If Q<Qc, the measurement must be retained.
zero the instrument. Critical values at 90% confidence level
! Q-Test- when one in a series of 3-10 N 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
measurements appears to deviate by a large Qc 0.94 0.76 0.64 0.56 0.51 0.47 0.44 0.41
amount, calculate Q according to: Only 1 value in a series may be discarded using the Q test.
suspect value ! value closest to it ! For N>10, the data point may be rejected if its deviation from the
Q= mean of the others is >2.6 S, where S is the estimated standard
highest value ! lowest value
deviation of the others from their mean.
Significant Figures Significant Figures in Calculations

! The number of significant figures is the minimum number of digits needed to write a ! Following addition or subtraction, round off so that the sum or difference has the
given value in scientific notation without loss of accuracy. same number of decimal places as there are in the measurement with the smallest
number of decimal places.
! EXAMPLES: ! For numbers expressed in scientific notation, first write the numbers with the same
exponent and then follow the rule above.
1236! 1.236x103! 4 significant figures
0.0123! 1.23x10-2!3 significant figures
! EXAMPLES:
42,100! 4.210x104! 4 significant figures
83.17g+0.041g =83.211g = 83.21g
9.253g -1.3g = 7.953g = 8.0g
! Rule of thumb: the first uncertain digit is the last significant figure. (12.30(0.01) mL)

99
Appendix
Significant Figures in Calculations Statistical Treatment of Random Errors

!2
! In multiplication and division, the proper number of significant figures in the product or $ 2 Gaussian distribution or normal error
1
quotient equals the smallest number of significant figures in the measured quantities used as P(!) = e 2# probablility function
input. 2"#
! EXAMPLES:
1.2mol x 3.4231g/mol = 4.107720 = 4.1g P(!) = error probability function Normalization :
0.012L x 0.013mol/L = 1.56x10-4 mol =1.6x10-4 mol #
# = s tan dard deviation (parameter that
$ P(!)d! = 1
! Rule of thumb: It is best to carry extra digits through intermediate calculations and round the
characterizes width of distribution ) "#
final answer to the correct number of significant digits.
1
$ 1 N '2 ! can be estimated
! = & # " 2i ) if x0 and "i are known.
% N i=1 (
x0=true value and "i=errors
Other Distributions Normal Probability Function , P

! When errors are not knownassume P(")
! If random errors follow a Gaussian distribution and the systematic errors are ! To determine the probability that an error is less than # or in the range -# to +#, the
negligible, the best estimate for x0 (the true value) is the mean of experimental integrated probability has a certain value.
measurements.
! Other distributions can be used:
Binomial distribution- the result is one of a small number of possible final states $ 1 ' #& 2 *
-heads or tails
P= % exp ) , d&
2 are less than !. There
Poisson distribution- counting experiments where the data represent the number of
items or events observed per unit time
! 2!" )(2" ,+
If !=#, then P=0.6826. In other words, 68.26% of all errors
#$x will lie between (- !) and (+ !) where =true
is a 68.26% probability that
Student t distribution mean.
Gaussian or normal distribution- most important in statistical analysis of data

100
Appendix
95% Confidence Limit P(x-) = P(")

P(x-) P(x-)
! If P=0.95, then 95% of all errors are less than !.
! 0.95 = 1.96" # 2"

! 95% confidence limit for an individual measurement
! N should be at least 20.
-! 0 ! x- -1.96! 0 1.96! x-
Uncertainty ! 1.64! 1.96! 2.58! 3.29!
Confidence 68.26 90 95 99 99.9
Level
standard deviation error limits 95% confidence
limits
Sm and # Student t distribution
! Estimated Standard Deviation of the Mean, Sm, ! How do we characterize the mean and the standard
deviation of the mean for small samples with N<20?
also called standard error:
Need to use a new distribution function
12
S 1 #i=N 2&
Sm = = % " (x i ! x ) ( ! student t distribution-shape depends on N and approaches
N N( N ! 1) $ i=1 ' As N-->!, S--> ! the normal distribution as N gets large.
Rule of thumb: N>20
+ # N& . )N
- "% ( 0# 2 & 2
! 95% Confidence Limit in the Mean, #: $ 2 ' 0%1 +
! (
1.96S 2S P(!) = -
! = " m,0.95 S m = # - ( N ) 1)* "([N ) 1]) 0%$ N ) 1('
N N -, 2 0
/
(# = 95% confidence level in the mean.) Normalization constant, K

101
Appendix
Student t distribution-cont. Presentation of Data

! This distribution can be used analogously to the ! Estimated Standard Deviation:(single digit !2 or 2 digit number <15)
normal distribution. Limit of error, !, defined as 3.42 bar S=0.04 bar 3.42(4) bar
0.451 nm S=0.012 nm 0.451(12) nm
the value of x- that corresponds to the limit of
integration, t.
S ! 95% Confidence Limit:(single digit !3 or 2 digit number <25)
! = tSm = t 66.32 JK-1 !=0.21 JK-1 66.32 0.21 JK-1
N
S ! Preferred method: indicate level of confidence and number of
" = t 0.95S m = t 0.95 measurements:
N w=142.10.3 mg (95%, N=7)
See Fig. 5 for student t distribution (Shoemaker, p.49).
t 0.95 is given in Table 3, (Shoemaker, p. 50) under P=0.95
for the appropriate number of degrees of freedom, "=N-1.
Example- Hard Water Titration Revisited Next another set of data...

2.5
N=20
Mean=12.26 mL
Mean = 12.26mL 20
N=255
2
Std. deviation=1.01
Mean=12.42 mL Mean = 12.42mL
S m = 1.01/ 20 = 0.22 = 0.2 15
Std. deviation=0.76
S m = 0.76 / 255 = 0.048 = 0.05

1.5
! = t 0.95Sm
Count
Count
10 ! = t 0.95Sm
1 ! = 2.09(0.22) = 0.460 = 0.5
0.5 5 ! = 1.96(0.048) = 0.094 = 0.09
0 0
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
mL EDTA added mL EDTA added
So, mean and Sm should be reported as: 12.3 (0.2)mL So, mean and Sm should be reported as: 12.42 (0.05)mL
And the mean and 95% confidence limit in the mean should be And the mean and 95% confidence limit in the mean should be
reported as: 12.3 0.5 mL (95%, N=20) reported as: 12.42 0.09 mL (95%, N=255)

102
Appendix
Propagation of Random Errors? Propagation of Error
! The volume of a box is given by: ! F=f(x,y,z) where x,y,and z are directly measured
V=LWH quantities and F is the desired numerical result.
where L=length; W=width; H=height ! !x, !y and !z are the uncertainties in x,y, and z;
usually in the form of 95% confidence levels.
F = f(x,y,z,...)
! What is the uncertainty in V given the
uncertainties in L, W and H? # "F & 2 # "F & 2 # "F & 2
!2 (F) = % ( !2 (x) + % ( !2 (y) + % ( !2 (z) + ...
$ "x ' $ "y ' $ "z '
Note: assumes that covariance is zero.
V=LWH Examples of Propagation of Error
V = f(L,W,H) 1. F = ax by cz
$ #V'2 $ #F '2 $ #F '2 !2 (F) = (a )2 !2 (x) + ( b )2 !2 (y) + ( c)2 !2 (z)
"2 (V) = & ) "2 (L) + & 2 2
) " (W) + & ) " (H)
% #L ( % #W ( % #H (
2. F = axyz
"2 (V) = (WH) 2 "2 (L) + (LH) 2 "2 (W) + (LW) 2 "2 (H)
!2 (F) = (ayz )2 !2 (x) + (axz )2 !2 (y) + (axy )2 !2 (z)
!2 (F) !2 (x) !2 (y) !2 (z)
= 2 + 2 + 2
F2 x y z

103
Appendix
Examples of Propagation of Error Example- Propagation of Error

Simple case:
3. F = axn 4. F = ae x ! Titration data from previous example is used to calculate (moles of
Ca+2 and Mg+2) from the following expression:
n#1 2 2 2
"2 (F) = nax ( ) " (x) ( )
!2 (F) = ae x !2 (x) (Moles Ca+2 and Mg+2) = c V
where c=concentration and V=volume EDTA added.
2 2 2 2n #2 2
" (F) = n a x x " (x) ! (F) = a 2 e x e 2 !2 (x)
2 ! What is the error associated with the calculated (moles of Ca+2 and
Mg+2) ?
"(F) n"(x) !(F)
= = !x
F x F # "(cV)& 2 2
!2 (moles Ca +2 and Mg +2 ) = % 2 2
( ! (V) = c ! (V)
5. 2 $ "V '
a !x
F = a ln(x); !2 (F) = 2 !2 (x); !(F) = a !(molesCa +2 and Mg +2 ) = c!(V)
x x
Introduction to Linear Regression Example

! Consider a set of laboratory data (x1,x2,x3,xn) where x1,x2,x3,
xn are measured quantities.
! What is the relationship between the liquid flow
! We can consider 2 fundamental questions about the data:
rate, q, from a draining orifice and the height of
With what certainty may the data be fit to a specific function, y=f the liquid above the orifice?
(x1,x2,x3,xn) ?
Given an anticipated functional dependence on the variables (x1,x2,x3,
xn) , y=f(xn) what are the quantitative values for the parameters in f(xn) h
including their uncertainties?
Dimensional analysis suggests: q
q!ch0.5

104
Appendix
Example, cont.
! Experimental procedure would be to

acquire the data and then test the hypothesis
that q=ch0.5.
! Given q=ch0.5, we use the data (q,h)i to

determine the parameter, c.

105
Appendix
II. Basics of a Lock-In Amplifier

106
Appendix
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Stanford Research Systems phone: (408)744-9040

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107
Appendix
About Lock-In Amplifiers
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108
Appendix
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9*($.+?%#1)%(*23+.%*3%#1)%!#*/)%9&/+*3!;%YR0)$#%*3%#1)%0+()%&'
0.)+3% (*3)% H+>)(8% #1)% #*/)% 9&/+*3% ,)$,)()3#+#*&3% 9&)(% 3&# 61+()%*(%+.H+?(%,)$&,#)9%*3%9)2,))(;%!30)%+2+*38%#1*(%*(%/&,)
0&3>)?%>),?%/"01%*3'&,/+#*&3%+-&"#%#1)%>+,*&"(%',)I")30*)( -?%0"(#&/%#1+3%-?%01&*0);%YI"+#*&3(%H,*##)3%+(%(*3E#%b%F%+,)
H1*01%/+K)%"$%#1)%(*23+.; H,*##)3% +(% *'% *(% *3% ,+9*+3(8% /&(#.?% '&,% (*/$.*0*#?;% \&0KG*3
+/$.*'*),(%+.H+?(%/+3*$".+#)%+39%/)+(",)%$1+()%*3%9)2,))(;
L .&0KG*3% /".#*$.*)(% #1)% (*23+.% -?% +% $",)% (*3)% H+>)% +#% #1)
,)'),)30)% ',)I")30?;%L..% 0&/$&3)3#(% &'% #1)% *3$"#% (*23+.% +,) Dynamic Reserve
/".#*$.*)9% -?% #1)% ,)'),)30)% (*/".#+3)&"(.?;% Z+#1)/+#*0+..?
($)+K*328%(*3)%H+>)(%&'%9*''),*32%',)I")30*)(%+,)%&,#1&2&3+.8 <1)% #),/% !9?3+/*0% ,)(),>)! 0&/)(% "$% ',)I")3#.?% *3
*;);%#1)%+>),+2)%&'%#1)%$,&9"0#%&'%#H&%(*3)%H+>)(%*(%:),&%"3.)(( 9*(0"((*&3(%+-&"#%.&0KG*3%+/$.*'*),(;%=#f(%#*/)%#&%9*(0"((%#1*(

"""#$%&'()*)#+,-

109
Appendix
!"#$%&'%(%)&!!)"%$*#"%+"!(&),%-../$"%!0"%)*123&'%&'4/!%1*'.&.!. 6(&'%+&.!#&;/!&*'%('+%*:"#)*(+%)":")%*5%"(10%6(&'%")"$"'!,%90&.
*5%(%5/))3.1()"%.&6'()%(!%5#"5 4)/.%'*&."%(!%.*$"%*!0"#%5#"7/"'18, #"."#:"% )":")% &.% !0"% +8'($&1% #"."#:"% #"5"##"+% !*% &'% !0"
90"%!#(+&!&*'()%+"5&'&!&*'%*5%+8'($&1%#"."#:"%&.%!0"%#(!&*%*5%!0" .4"1&5&1(!&*'.,
)(#6".!%!*)"#(;)"%'*&."%.&6'()%!*%!0"%5/))3.1()"%.&6'()<%"=4#".."+
&'% +>,% ?*#% "=($4)"<% &5% 5/))% .1()"% &.% @% A<% !0"'% (% +8'($&1
#"."#:"% *5% BC +>% $"('.% '*&."% (.% )(#6"% (.% @% $A DBC +>
6#"(!"#% !0('% 5/))% .1()"E% 1('% ;"% !*)"#(!"+% (!% !0"% &'4/!% F&!0*/! actual reserve
*:"#)*(+, 60 dB specified reserve
60 dB
90"% 4#*;)"$% F&!0% !0&.% +"5&'&!&*'% &.% !0"% F*#+% !!*)"#(;)"!,
G)"(#)8<% !0"% '*&."% (!% !0"% +8'($&1% #"."#:"% )&$&!% .0*/)+% '*!
1(/."% ('% *:"#)*(+% ('8F0"#"% &'% !0"% &'.!#/$"'!'*!% &'% !0" 40 dB
&'4/!%.&6'()%($4)&5&"#<%HIJ<%)*F%4(..%5&)!"#%*#%JG%($4)&5&"#,
90&.%&.%(11*$4)&.0"+%;8%(+K/.!&'6%!0"%+&.!#&;/!&*'%*5%!0"%6(&',
9*%(10&":"%0&60%#"."#:"<%!0"%&'4/!%.&6'()%6(&'%&.%."!%:"#8%)*F 20 dB
.*% !0"% '*&."% &.% '*!% )&2")8% !*% *:"#)*(+,% 90&.% $"('.% !0(!% !0" low pass filter
.&6'()% (!% !0"% HIJ% &.% ().*% :"#8% .$()),% 90"% )*F% 4(..% 5&)!"# bandwidth
#"$*:".% !0"% )(#6"% '*&."% 1*$4*'"'!.% 5#*$% !0"% HIJ% */!4/! 0 dB
F0&10%())*F.%!0"%#"$(&'&'6%JG%1*$4*'"'!%!*%;"%($4)&5&"+%D(
)*!E%!*%#"(10%@C%A 5/))%.1()",%90"#"%&.%'*%4#*;)"$%#/''&'6%!0"
fref fnoise
&'4/!% ($4)&5&"#% (!% )*F% 6(&',% L*F":"#<% (.% F"% 0(:"% +&.1/.."+
4#":&*/.)8<%('()*6%)*123&'.%0(:"%(%4#*;)"$%F&!0%0&60%#"."#:"
;"1(/."%*5%!0"%)&'"(#&!8%*5%!0"%HIJ%('+%!0"%JG%*55."!.%*5%!0"
HIJ% ('+% JG% ($4)&5&"#,% M'% ('% ('()*6% )*123&'<% )(#6"% '*&." 90"%(;*:"%6#(40%.0*F.%!0"%(1!/()%#"."#:"%:.,%!0"%5#"7/"'18%*5
.&6'().%()$*.!%()F(8.%+&.!/#;%!0"%$"(./#"$"'!%&'%.*$"%F(8, !0"% '*&.",% M'% .*$"% &'.!#/$"'!.<% !0"% .&6'()% &'4/!% (!!"'/(!".
5#"7/"'1&".% 5(#% */!.&+"% !0"% )*123&'Y.% *4"#(!&'6% #('6"
90"%$*.!%1*$$*'%4#*;)"$%&.%(%JG%*/!4/!%"##*#%1(/."+%;8%!0" D5'*&."ZZ@CC%2LNE,%M'%!0"."%1(.".<%!0"%#"."#:"%1('%;"%0&60"#%(!
'*&."% .&6'(),%90&.% 1('% (44"(#% (.% ('% *55."!% *#% (.% (% 6(&'% "##*#, !0"."%5#"7/"'1&".%!0('%F&!0&'%!0"%*4"#(!&'6%#('6",%S0&)"%!0&.
I&'1"%;*!0%"55"1!.%(#"%+"4"'+"'!%/4*'%!0"%'*&."%($4)&!/+"%('+ 1#"(!".% (% '&1"% .4"1&5&1(!&*'<% #"$*:&'6% '*&."% (!% 5#"7/"'1&".
5#"7/"'18<%!0"8%1('%'*!%;"%*55."!%!*%N"#*%&'%())%1(.".%('+%F&)) :"#8% 5(#% 5#*$% !0"% #"5"#"'1"% +*".% '*!% #"7/&#"% (% )*123&'
)&$&!%!0"%$"(./#"$"'!%(11/#(18,%>"1(/."%!0"%"##*#.%(#"%JG%&' ($4)&5&"#,%R*123&'.%(#"%/."+%F0"'%!0"#"%&.%'*&."%(!%5#"7/"'1&".
'(!/#"<%&'1#"(.&'6%!0"%!&$"%1*'.!('!%+*".%'*!%0")4,%O*.!%)*123 '"(#%!0"%.&6'(),%90/.<%!0"%+8'($&1%#"."#:"%5*#%'*&."%F&!0&'%!0"
&'.% +"5&'"% !*)"#(;)"% '*&."% (.% )":").% F0&10% +*% '*!% (55"1!% !0" *4"#(!&'6%#('6"%&.%$*#"%&$4*#!('!,
*/!4/!% $*#"% !0('% (% 5"F% 4"#1"'!% *5% 5/))% .1()",% 90&.% &.% $*#"
.":"#"%!0('%.&$4)8%'*!%*:"#)*(+&'6, Dynamic Reserve in Digital Lock-Ins
-'*!0"#% "55"1!% *5% 0&60% +8'($&1% #"."#:"% &.% !*% 6"'"#(!"% '*&." 90"% IU[@C<% IU[\C% ('+% IU[]C<% F&!0% !0"&#% +&6&!()% 40(."
('+% +#&5!% (!% !0"% */!4/!,% 90&.% 1*$".% (;*/!% ;"1(/."% !0"% JG ."'.&!&:"% +"!"1!*#.<% +*% '*!% ./55"#% 5#*$% JG% */!4/!% "##*#.
*/!4/!% ($4)&5&"#% &.% #/''&'6% (!% :"#8% 0&60% 6(&'<% ('+% )*F3 1(/."+% ;8% )(#6"% '*&."% .&6'().,% 90"% +8'($&1% #"."#:"% 1('% ;"
5#"7/"'18%'*&."%('+%*55."!%+#&5!%(!%!0"%HIJ%*/!4/!%*#%!0"%JG &'1#"(."+%!*%(;*:"%@CC%+>%F&!0*/!%$"(./#"$"'!%"##*#,%R(#6"
($4)&5&"#% &'4/!% F&))% ;"% ($4)&5&"+% ('+% (44"(#% )(#6"% (!% !0" '*&."% .&6'().% +*% '*!% 1(/."% */!4/!% "##*#.% 5#*$% !0"% HIJ,% 90"
*/!4/!,% 90"% '*&."% &.% $*#"% !*)"#(;)"% !0('% !0"% JG% +#&5!% "##*#. )(#6"%JG%6(&'%+*".%'*!%#"./)!%&'%&'1#"(."+%*/!4/!%+#&5!,%
.&'1"%&'1#"(.&'6%!0"%!&$"%1*'.!('!%F&))%(!!"'/(!"%!0"%'*&.",%90"
JG% +#&5!% &'% ('% ('()*6% )*123&'% &.% /./())8% *'% !0"% *#+"#% *5 M'% 5(1!<% !0"% *')8% +#(F;(12% !*% /.&'6% /)!#(30&60% +8'($&1
@CCC% 44$PG% F0"'% /.&'6% BC% +>% *5% +8'($&1% #"."#:",% 90&. #"."#:".% DZBC% +>E% &.% !0"% &'1#"(."+% */!4/!% '*&."% +/"% !*% !0"
$"('.%!0(!%!0"%N"#*%4*&'!%$*:".%@%Q%*5%5/))%.1()"%*:"#%@C%G '*&."% *5% !0"%-PJ% 1*':"#!"#,% 90&.% &'1#"(."% &'% */!4/!% '*&."% &.
!"$4"#(!/#"%10('6",%90&.%&.%6"'"#())8%1*'.&+"#"+%!0"%)&$&!%*5 *')8%4#"."'!%F0"'%!0"%+8'($&1%#"."#:"%&.%&'1#"(."+%(;*:"
!*)"#(;)", BC% +>% !"# (;*:"% !0"% $&'&$/$% #"."#:",% DM5% !0"% $&'&$/$
#"."#:"%&.%[C%+><%!0"'%&'1#"(.&'6%!*%^C%+>%$(8%&'1#"(."%!0"
R(.!)8<% +8'($&1% #"."#:"% +"4"'+.% *'% !0"% '*&."% 5#"7/"'18, '*&.",%-.% F"Y))% +&.1/..% '"=!<% !0"% $&'&$/$% #"."#:"% +*".% '*!
G)"(#)8%'*&."%(!%!0"%#"5"#"'1"%5#"7/"'18%F&))%$(2"%&!.%F(8%!* 0(:"%&'1#"(."+%*/!4/!%'*&."_%'*%$(!!"#%0*F%)(#6"%&!%&.,E
!0"%*/!4/!%F&!0*/!%(!!"'/(!&*',%I*%!0"%+8'($&1%#"."#:"%(!%5#"5
&.% C% +>,% -.% !0"% '*&."% 5#"7/"'18% $*:".% (F(8% 5#*$% !0" 9*% ."!% (% .1()"<% !0"% +&6&!()% )*123&'Y.% */!4/!% '*&."% (!% @CC% +>
#"5"#"'1"% 5#"7/"'18<% !0"% +8'($&1% #"."#:"% &'1#"(.".,% S08T +8'($&1%#"."#:"%&.%*')8%$"(./#(;)"%F0"'%!0"%.&6'()%&'4/!%&.
>"1(/."%!0"%)*F%4(..%5&)!"#%(5!"#%!0"%HIJ%(!!"'/(!".%!0"%'*&." 6#*/'+"+,% R"!Y.% +*% (% .&$4)"% "=4"#&$"'!,% M5% !0"% )*123&'
1*$4*'"'!.,%U"$"$;"#<%!0"%HIJ%*/!4/!.%(#"%(!%(%5#"7/"'18 #"5"#"'1"%&.%(!%@%2LN<%('+%(%)(#6"%.&6'()%&.%(44)&"+%(!%^,]%2LN<
*5%V5'*&." 5#"5V,%90"%#(!"%(!%F0&10%!0"%#"."#:"%&'1#"(.".%+"4"'+. F0(!%F&))%!0"%)*123&'%*/!4/!%;"T%M5%!0"%.&6'()%&.%&'1#"(."+%!*%!0"
/4*'%!0"%)*F%4(..%5&)!"#%!&$"%1*'.!('!%('+%#*))*55,%90"%#"."#:" +8'($&1% #"."#:"% )&$&!% D@CC% +>% 6#"(!"#% !0('% 5/))% .1()"E<% !0"
&'1#"(.".%(!%!0"%#(!"%(!%F0&10%!0"%5&)!"#%#*)).%*55,%90&.%&.%F08 */!4/!% F&))% #"5)"1!% !0"% '*&."% *5% !0"% .&6'()% (!% @% 2LN,% 90"
WX%+>P*1!%5&)!"#.%(#"%;"!!"#%!0('%B%*#%@W%+>P*1!%5&)!"#.,%S0"' .4"1!#/$%*5%('8%4/#"%.&'"%6"'"#(!*#%()F(8.%0(.%(%'*&."%5)**#<
!0"%'*&."%5#"7/"'18%&.%5(#%(F(8<%!0"%#"."#:"%&.%)&$&!"+%;8%!0" &,",%!0"#"%&.%.*$"%'*&."%(!%())%5#"7/"'1&".,%I*%":"'%!0*/60%!0"

"""#$%&'()*)#+,-

110
Appendix
!""#$%&' ($)*!#' $(' !+' ,-.' /012' +3%4%' 5$##' 6%' *7$(%' !+' !##' 7+3%4 Dynamic Reserve in Analog Lock-Ins
84%9:%*;$%(2'$*;#:&$*)'+3%'<'/01'#7;/=$*'4%8%4%*;%-'>3$('*7$(%
5$##' 6%' &%+%;+%&' 6?' +3%' #7;/=$*' !*&' !""%!4' !(' *7$(%' !+' +3% Q%;!:(%' 78' +3%' #$C$+!+$7*(' 78' +3%$4' ZGE(2' !*!#7)' #7;/=$*
7:+":+-' >3$(' 7:+":+' *7$(%' 5$##' +?"$;!##?' 6%' )4%!+%4' +3!*' +3% !C"#$8$%4(' C:(+' :(%' &$88%4%*+' +%;3*$9:%(' +7' $C"47B%' +3%$4
#7;/=$*@('75*'7:+":+'*7$(%-'A*'8!;+2'B$4+:!##?'!##'($)*!#'(7:4;%( &?*!C$;' 4%(%4B%-' >3%' C7(+' ;7CC7*' 78' +3%(%' $(' +3%' :(%' 78
5$##'3!B%'!'*7$(%'8#774'53$;3'5$##'&7C$*!+%'+3%'#7;/=$*'7:+":+ !*!#7)'"4%8$#+%4(-'>3%'GH.<J'!*&'GH.KJ'3!B%'+:*!6#%2'6!*&=
*7$(%-'D8';7:4(%2'*7$(%'($)*!#('!4%')%*%4!##?'C:;3'*7$($%4'+3!* "!((' 8$#+%4(' !+' +3%$4' $*":+(-' >3%' 8$#+%4(' !4%' &%($)*%&' +7
":4%' ($*%' )%*%4!+74(' !*&' 5$##' 3!B%' C:;3' 3$)3%4' 647!&6!*& !:+7C!+$;!##?'+4!;/'+3%'4%8%4%*;%'84%9:%*;?-'A8'!*'$*+%48%4$*)
*7$(%'8#774(- ($)*!#' $(' !++%*:!+%&' 6?' !' 8$#+%4' 6%874%' $+' 4%!;3%(' +3%' #7;/=$*
$*":+2'+3%'&?*!C$;'4%(%4B%'78'+3%'#7;/=$*'5$##'6%'$*;4%!(%&'6?
A8' +3%' *7$(%' &7%(' *7+' 4%!;3' +3%' 4%(%4B%' #$C$+2' +3%' &$)$+!# +3!+' !C7:*+-' R74' +3%' GH.<J' !*&' GH.KJ2' !' &?*!C$;' 4%(%4B%
#7;/=$*@(' 75*' 7:+":+' *7$(%' C!?' 6%;7C%' &%+%;+!6#%' !+' :#+4!= $*;4%!(%'78':"'+7'[J'&Q';!*'6%'4%!#$1%&':($*)'+3%'$*":+'6!*&
3$)3'4%(%4B%(-'A*'+3$(';!(%2'($C"#?'#75%4'+3%'&?*!C$;'4%(%4B% "!((' 8$#+%4-' D8' ;7:4(%2' (:;3' 8$#+%4(' !&&' +3%$4' 75*' *7$(%' !*&
!*&' +3%' EF' )!$*' 5$##' &%;4%!(%2' !*&' +3%' 7:+":+' *7$(%' 5$## ;7*+4$6:+%' +7' "3!(%' %4474\' (7' +3%?' (37:#&' 7*#?' 6%' :(%&' $8
&%;4%!(%'!#(7-'A*')%*%4!#2'&7'*7+'4:*'5$+3'C74%'4%(%4B%'+3!* *%;%((!4?-
*%;%((!4?-'F%4+!$*#?'&7*@+':(%':#+4!=3$)3'4%(%4B%'53%*'+3%4%'$(
B$4+:!##?'*7'*7$(%'!+'!##- N #7;/=$*';!*'C%!(:4%'($)*!#('!('(C!##'!('!'8%5'*!*7B7#+(-'N
#75=*7$(%'($)*!#'!C"#$8$%4'$('4%9:$4%&'+7'677(+'+3%'($)*!#'+7'!
>3%'84%9:%*;?'&%"%*&%*;%'78'&?*!C$;'4%(%4B%'$('$*3%4%*+'$* #%B%#'53%4%'+3%'NXE';7*B%4+%4';!*'&$)$+$1%'+3%'($)*!#'5$+37:+
+3%' #7;/=$*' &%+%;+$7*' +%;3*$9:%-' >3%' GHI<J2' GHIKJ' !*& &%)4!&$*)'+3%'($)*!#=+7=*7$(%-'>3%'!*!#7)')!$*'$*'+3%'GHI.J
GHI.J2'6?'"47B$&$*)'C74%'#75="!(('8$#+%4'(+!)%(2';!*'$*;4%!(% 4!*)%(' 847C' 47:)3#?' P' +7' <JJJ-' N(' &$(;:((%&' "4%B$7:(#?2
+3%' &?*!C$;' 4%(%4B%' ;#7(%' +7' +3%' 4%8%4%*;%' 84%9:%*;?-' >3% 3$)3%4' )!$*(' &7' *7+' $C"47B%' ($)*!#=+7=*7$(%' !*&' !4%' *7+
("%;$8$%&'4%(%4B%'!""#$%('+7'*7$(%'($)*!#('5$+3$*'+3%'7"%4!+$*) *%;%((!4?-
4!*)%' 78' +3%' #7;/=$*2' $-%-' 84%9:%*;$%(' 6%#75' <JJ' /01-' >3%
4%(%4B%' !+' 3$)3%4' 84%9:%*;$%(' $(' !;+:!##?' )4%!+%4' 6:+' $( >3%'7B%4!##')!$*'LNF'!*&'EFM'$('&%+%4C$*%&'6?'+3%'(%*($+$B$+?-
)%*%4!##?'*7+'+3!+':(%8:#- >3%' &$(+4$6:+$7*' 78' +3%' )!$*' LNF' B%4(:(' EFM' $(' (%+' 6?' +3%
&?*!C$;'4%(%4B%-
Minimum Dynamic Reserve
Input Noise
>3%' GHI<J2' GHIKJ' !*&' GHI.J' !#5!?(' 3!B%' !' C$*$C:C
!C7:*+' 78' &?*!C$;' 4%(%4B%-' >3$(' C$*$C:C' 4%(%4B%' ;3!*)%( >3%' $*":+' *7$(%' 78' +3%' GHI<J2' GHIKJ' 74' GHI.J' ($)*!#
5$+3' +3%' (%*($+$B$+?' L)!$*M' 78' +3%' $*(+4:C%*+-' N+' 3$)3' )!$*( !C"#$8$%4' $(' !67:+' .' *O4C(X01-' >3%' GH.KJ' !*&' GH.<J
L8:##=(;!#%' (%*($+$B$+?' 78' .J O !*&' 6%#75M2' +3%' C$*$C:C #7;/=$*(' 3!B%' P' *O4C(X01' 78' $*":+' *7$(%-' T3!+' &7%(' +3$(
&?*!C$;'4%(%4B%'$*;4%!(%('847C'KP'&Q'!+'+3%'(!C%'4!+%'!('+3% *7$(%'8$):4%'C%!*U']%+@('(%+':"'!*'%S"%4$C%*+-'A8'!*'!C"#$8$%4
(%*($+$B$+?'$*;4%!(%(-'R74'%S!C"#%2'+3%'C$*$C:C'4%(%4B%'!+ 3!('.'*O4C(X01'78'$*":+'*7$(%'!*&'!')!$*'78'<JJJ2'+3%*'+3%
.'O (%*($+$B$+?'$('.P'&Q-'A*'C!*?'!*!#7)'#7;/=$*(2'+3%'4%(%4B% 7:+":+'5$##'3!B%'.'O4C(X01'78'*7$(%-'G:""7(%'+3%'!C"#$8$%4
;!*' 6%' #75%4-' T3?' ;!*@+' +3%' &$)$+!#' #7;/=$*(' 4:*' 5$+3' #75%4 7:+":+' $(' #75="!((' 8$#+%4%&' 5$+3' !' ($*)#%' HF' 8$#+%4' L^' &QX7;+
4%(%4B%'!+'+3$('(%*($+$B$+?U' 47##788M'5$+3'!'+$C%';7*(+!*+'78'<JJ'C(-'T3!+'5$##'6%'+3%'*7$(%
!+'+3%'8$#+%4'7:+":+U'
>3%'!*(5%4'+7'+3$('9:%(+$7*'$(: VT3?'57:#&'?7:'5!*+'#75%4
4%(%4B%UW' A*' !*' !*!#7)' #7;/=$*2' #75%4' 4%(%4B%' C%!*(' #%(( NC"#$8$%4' $*":+' *7$(%' !*&' _73*(7*' *7$(%' 78' 4%($(+74(' !4%
7:+":+' %4474' !*&' &4$8+-' A*' +3%' GHIJJ' (%4$%(' #7;/=$*(2' C74% `!:(($!*' $*' *!+:4%-' >3!+' $(2' +3%' !C7:*+' 78' *7$(%' $(
4%(%4B%'&7%('*7+'$*;4%!(%'+3%'7:+":+'%4474'74'&4$8+-'Q:+2'C74% "47"74+$7*!#'+7'+3%'(9:!4%'477+'78'+3%'6!*&5$&+3'$*'53$;3'+3%
4%(%4B%';!*'$*;4%!(%'+3%'7:+":+'*7$(%-'075%B%42'$8'+3%'!*!#7) *7$(%'$('C%!(:4%&-'N ($*)#%'(+!)%'HF'8$#+%4'3!('!*'%9:$B!#%*+
($)*!#')!$*'6%874%'+3%'NXE';7*B%4+%4'$('3$)3'%*7:)32'+3% *7$(%' 6!*&5$&+3' LabQTM' 78' <Xc>2' 53%4%' > $(' +3%' +$C%
.'*OX01'*7$(%'78'+3%'($)*!#'$*":+'5$##'6%'!C"#$8$%&'+7'!'#%B%# ;7*(+!*+'LH' FM-'>3$('C%!*('+3!+'`!:(($!*'*7$(%'!+'+3%'8$#+%4
)4%!+%4'+3!*'+3%'$*":+'*7$(%'78'+3%'NXE';7*B%4+%4-'N+'+3$('"7$*+2 $*":+' $(' 8$#+%4%&' 5$+3' !*' %88%;+$B%' 6!*&5$&+3' %9:!#' +7' +3%
+3%' &%+%;+%&' *7$(%' 5$##' 4%8#%;+' +3%' !;+:!#' *7$(%' !+' +3%' ($)*!# abQT-'A*'+3$('%S!C"#%2'+3%'8$#+%4'(%%('.'O4C(X01'78'*7$(%
$*":+'!*&'*7+'+3%'NXE';7*B%4+%4@('*7$(%-'A*;4%!($*)'+3%'!*!#7) !+'$+('$*":+-'A+'3!('!*'abQT 78'<XLc' <JJ'C(M'74'[-.'01-'>3%
)!$*' L&%;4%!($*)' +3%' 4%(%4B%M' 5$##' *7+' &%;4%!(%' +3%' 7:+":+ B7#+!)%'*7$(%'!+'+3%'8$#+%4'7:+":+'5$##'6%'.'O4C(X01' [-.'012
*7$(%-'>3:(2' +3%4%' $(' *7' 4%!(7*' +7' &%;4%!(%' +3%' 4%(%4B%-'N+' ! 74'P-,'O4C(-'R74'`!:(($!*'*7$(%2'+3%'"%!/=+7="%!/'*7$(%'$(
(%*($+$B$+?'78'.'O2'+3%'!*!#7)')!$*'$('(:88$;$%*+#?'3$)3'(7'+3!+ !67:+'.'+$C%('+3%'4C('*7$(%-'>3:(2'+3%'7:+":+'5$##'3!B%'!67:+
NXE';7*B%4+%4'*7$(%'$('*7+'!'"476#%C-'G%*($+$B$+$%('6%#75 cJ'O""'78'*7$(%-
.' O &7'*7+'4%9:$4%'!*?'C74%')!$*'($*;%'+3%'($)*!#=+7=*7$(%
4!+$7' 5$##' *7+' 6%' $C"47B%&' L+3%' 847*+=%*&' *7$(%' &7C$*!+%(M- A*":+'*7$(%'874'!'#7;/=$*'574/('+3%'(!C%'5!?-'R74'(%*($+$B$+$%(
>3%'GHIJJ'(%4$%('#7;/=$*('&7'*7+'$*;4%!(%'+3%$4')!$*'6%#75'+3% 6%#75'!67:+'.'O 8:##'(;!#%2'+3%'$*":+'*7$(%'5$##'&%+%4C$*%'+3%
.'O (%*($+$B$+?-'A*(+%!&2'+3%'C$*$C:C'4%(%4B%'$*;4%!(%(-'D8 7:+":+'*7$(%'L!+'C$*$C:C'4%(%4B%M-'>3%'!C7:*+'78'*7$(%'!+'+3%
;7:4(%2' +3%' $*":+' )!$*' ;!*' 6%' &%;4%!(%&' !*&' +3%' 4%(%4B% 7:+":+'$('&%+%4C$*%&'6?'+3%'abQT 78'+3%'#75'"!(('8$#+%4-'>3%
$*;4%!(%&Y' $*' 53$;3' ;!(%2' +3%'NXE' ;7*B%4+%4' *7$(%' C$)3+' 6% abQT &%"%*&(':"7*'+3%'+$C%';7*(+!*+'!*&'8$#+%4'47##788-'R74
&%+%;+%&'$*'+3%'!6(%*;%'78'!*?'($)*!#'$*":+- %S!C"#%2'(:""7(%'+3%'#7;/=$*'$('(%+'+7'.'O 8:##'(;!#%2'5$+3'!
<JJ'C('+$C%';7*(+!*+2'!*&'^'&QX7;+'78'8$#+%4'47##788-'>3%'#7;/=$*

!!!"#$%&'()("*+,

111
Appendix
!"##$%&'()*&$+,&$"-.)+$-/"(&$!"+,$'-$0123 /4$567$896$:,"( Shot Noise

+*'-(#'+&($ +/$ ;6<$ -=*%($ '+$ +,&$ "-.)+6$ >+$ +,&$ /)+.)+?$ +,"(
*&.*&(&-+($'@/)+$A6BC$D$/4$4)##$(E'#&$F;6<$-=G7$=H6$:,& 0#&E+*"E$E)**&-+$,'($-/"(&$M)&$+/$+,&$4"-"+&$-'+)*&$/4$+,&$E,'*L&
.&'IJ+/J.&'I$-/"(&$!"##$@&$'@/)+$A6K$D$/4$4)##$(E'#&6 E'**"&*(6$:,&*&$"($'#!']($(/%&$-/-J)-"4/*%"+]$"-$+,&$&#&E+*/-
4#/!$!,"E,$L&-&*'+&($-/"(&$"-$+,&$E)**&-+6$:,"($-/"(&$"($E'##&M
>##$/4$+,"($'(()%&($+,'+$+,&$("L-'#$"-.)+$"($@&"-L$M*"N&-$4*/% !(,/+$-/"(&!6$:,"($E'-$'..&'*$'($N/#+'L&$-/"(&$!,&-$E)**&-+$"(
'$ #/!$ "%.&M'-E&$ (/)*E&6$ O&%&%@&*$ *&("(+/*($ ,'N&$ P/,-(/- .'((&M$ +,*/)L,$ '$ *&("(+/*?$ /*$ '($ -/"(&$ "-$ '$ E)**&-+
-/"(&$&Q)'#$+/$A6BR$ O$-=*%(G896$0N&-$'$7A$ *&("(+/*$,'( %&'()*&%&-+6$:,&$(,/+$-/"(&?$/*$E)**&-+$-/"(&?$"($L"N&-$@]^
'#%/(+$ B$ -=*%(G89$ /4$ -/"(&S$> ("L-'#$ (/)*E&$ "%.&M'-E&
Inoise (rms) = (2qI f)
1/ 2
/4$ 5$ I !"##$,'N&$'$P/,-(/-$-/"(&$L*&'+&*$+,'-$+,&$#/EIJ"-T(
"-.)+$-/"(&6$:/$M&+&*%"-&$+,&$/N&*'##$-/"(&$/4$%)#+".#&$-/"(&
(/)*E&(?$+'I&$+,&$(Q)'*&$*//+$/4$+,&$()%$/4$+,&$(Q)'*&($/4$+,& !,&*&$Q$"($+,&$&#&E+*/-$E,'*L&$FB6C$ BAB< c/)#/%@H?$_$"($+,&
"-M"N"M)'#$ -/"(&$ 4"L)*&(6$ U/*$ &V'%.#&?$ "4$ '$ 5$ I (/)*E& *%($>c$E)**&-+$/*$dc$E)**&-+$M&.&-M"-L$)./-$+,&$E"*E)"+?$'-M
"%.&M'-E&$"($)(&M?$+,&$P/,-(/-$-/"(&$!"##$@&$76K$-=*%(G896 4$"($+,&$@'-M!"M+,6
:,&$/N&*'##$-/"(&$'+$+,&$#/EIJ"-W($"-.)+$!"##$@&$X75 Y$76K5Z[?$/*
;6;$-=*%(G896 3,&-$+,&$E)**&-+$"-.)+$/4$'$#/EIJ"-$"($)(&M$+/$%&'()*&$'-$>c
("L-'#$ E)**&-+?$ +,&$ @'-M!"M+,$ "($ +]."E'##]$ (/$ (%'##$ +,'+$ (,/+
Noise Sources -/"(&$"($-/+$"%./*+'-+6
3,'+$"($+,&$/*"L"-$/4$+,&$-/"(&$!&WN&$@&&-$M"(E)(("-L\$:,&*& 1/f Noise

'*&$+!/$+].&($/4$-/"(&$!&$,'N&$+/$!/**]$'@/)+$"-$#'@/*'+/*]
("+)'+"/-(^$ "-+*"-("E$ -/"(&$ '-M$ &V+&*-'#$ -/"(&6$ _-+*"-("E$ -/"(& 0N&*]$BA$ *&("(+/*?$-/$%'++&*$!,'+$"+$"($%'M&$/4?$,'($+,&$('%&
(/)*E&(?$#"I&$P/,-(/-$-/"(&$'-M$(,/+$-/"(&?$'*&$"-,&*&-+$+/$'## P/,-(/-$-/"(&6$8/!&N&*?$+,&*&$"($&VE&(($-/"(&$"-$'MM"+"/-$+/
.,]("E'#$ .*/E&((&(6$ :,/)L,$ !&$ E'--/+$ L&+$ *"M$ /4$ "-+*"-("E P/,-(/-$-/"(&$!,"E,$'*"(&($4*/%$4#)E+)'+"/-($"-$*&("(+'-E&$M)&
-/"(&$(/)*E&(?$@]$@&"-L$'!'*&$/4$+,&"*$-'+)*&$!&$E'-$%"-"%"9& +/$ +,&$ E)**&-+$ 4#/!"-L$ +,*/)L,$ +,&$ *&("(+/*6$ U/*$ E'*@/-
+,&"*$ &44&E+(6$ 0V+&*-'#$ -/"(&$ (/)*E&($ '*&$ 4/)-M$ "-$ +,& E/%./("+"/-$*&("(+/*(?$+,"($"($+]."E'##]$A6B$= +/$R$= /4$*%(
&-N"*/-%&-+()E,$ '($ ./!&*$ #"-&$ -/"(&$ '-M$ @*/'ME'(+ -/"(&$.&*$N/#+$'..#"&M$'E*/(($+,&$*&("(+/*6$e&+'#$4"#%$'-M$!"*&J
(+'+"/-(6$:,&$&44&E+$/4$+,&(&$-/"(&($(/)*E&($E'-$@&$%"-"%"9&M !/)-M$*&("(+/*($,'N&$'@/)+$BA$+"%&($#&(($-/"(&6$:,"($-/"(&$,'(
@]$E'*&4)#$'++&-+"/-$+/$L*/)-M"-L?$(,"&#M"-L?$'-M$/+,&*$'(.&E+( '$ BG4$ (.&E+*)%$ '-M$ %'I&($ %&'()*&%&-+($ '+$ #/!$ 4*&Q)&-E"&(
/4$ &V.&*"%&-+'#$ M&("L-6$ 3&$ !"##$ 4"*(+$ M"(E)(($ (/%&$ /4$ +,& %/*&$M"44"E)#+6$f+,&*$(/)*E&($/4$BG4$-/"(&$"-E#)M&$-/"(&$4/)-M
(/)*E&($/4$"-+*"-("E$-/"(&6 "-$N'E))%$+)@&($'-M$(&%"E/-M)E+/*(6
Johnson Noise Total Noise
0N&*]$ *&("(+/*$ L&-&*'+&($ '$ -/"(&$ N/#+'L&$ 'E*/(($ "+($ +&*%"-'#( >##$ /4$ +,&(&$ -/"(&$ (/)*E&($ '*&$ "-E/,&*&-+6$ :,&$ +/+'#$ *'-M/%
M)&$+/$+,&*%'#$4#)E+)'+"/-($"-$+,&$&#&E+*/-$M&-("+]$!"+,"-$+,& -/"(&$ "($ +,&$ (Q)'*&$ *//+$ /4$ +,&$ ()%$ /4$ +,&$ (Q)'*&($ /4$ '##$ +,&
*&("(+/*$"+(&#46$:,&(&$4#)E+)'+"/-($L"N&$*"(&$+/$'-$/.&-JE"*E)"+ "-E/,&*&-+$-/"(&$(/)*E&(6
-/"(&$N/#+'L&^
External Noise Sources
Vnoise (rms) = (4k TR f)
1/ 2
_-$'MM"+"/-$+/$+,&$"-+*"-("E$-/"(&$(/)*E&($M"(E)((&M$.*&N"/)(#]?
+,&*&$ '*&$ '$ N'*"&+]$ /4$ &V+&*-'#$ -/"(&$ (/)*E&($ !"+,"-$ +,&
5R
!,&*&$ I`2/#+9%'--T($ E/-(+'-+$ FB6RK$ BA PGaH?$ : "($ +,& #'@/*'+/*]6$ e/(+$ /4$ +,&(&$ -/"(&$ (/)*E&($ '*&$ '(]-E,*/-/)(?
+&%.&*'+)*&$"-$a&#N"-$F+]."E'##]$RAA$aH?$O$"($+,&$*&("(+'-E& "6&6$+,&]$'*&$-/+$*&#'+&M$+/$+,&$*&4&*&-E&?$'-M$M/$-/+$/EE)*$'+
"-$/,%(?$'-M$4$"($+,&$@'-M!"M+,$/4$+,&$%&'()*&%&-+$"-$896$ +,&$ *&4&*&-E&$ 4*&Q)&-E]$ /*$ "+($ ,'*%/-"E(6$ 0V'%.#&($ "-E#)M&
#"L,+"-L$ 4"V+)*&(?$ %/+/*(?$ E//#"-L$ )-"+(?$ *'M"/(?$ E/%.)+&*
b"-E&$ +,&$ "-.)+$ ("L-'#$ '%.#"4"&*$ "-$ '$ #/EIJ"-$ +]."E'##]$ ,'($ ' (E*&&-(?$ &+E6$:,&(&$ -/"(&$ (/)*E&($ '44&E+$ +,&$ %&'()*&%&-+$ @]
@'-M!"M+,$ /4$ '..*/V"%'+&#]$ RAA$ I89?$ +,&$ &44&E+"N&$ -/"(&$ '+ "-E*&'("-L$ +,&$ *&Q)"*&M$ M]-'%"E$ *&(&*N&$ /*$ #&-L+,&-"-L$ +,&
+,&$ '%.#"4"&*$ "-.)+$ "($ =-/"(&`;AO$ -=*%(?$ /*$ R7AO$ -=..6 +"%&$E/-(+'-+6$
:,"($-/"(&$"($@*/'M@'-M6$b/$"4$+,&$(/)*E&$"%.&M'-E&$"($#'*L&?
"+$E'-$M&+&*%"-&$+,&$'%/)-+$/4$M]-'%"E$*&(&*N&$*&Q)"*&M6 b/%&$-/"(&$(/)*E&(?$,/!&N&*?$'*&$*&#'+&M$+/$+,&$*&4&*&-E&?$'-M
"4$."EI&M$).$"-$+,&$("L-'#?$!"##$'MM$/*$()@+*'E+$4*/%$+,&$'E+)'#
:,&$'%/)-+$/4$-/"(&$%&'()*&M$@]$+,&$#/EIJ"-$"($M&+&*%"-&M$@] ("L-'#$'-M$E')(&$&**/*($"-$+,&$%&'()*&%&-+6$:]."E'#$(/)*E&($/4
+,&$%&'()*&%&-+$@'-M!"M+,6$O&%&%@&*?$+,&$#/EIJ"-$M/&($-/+ (]-E,*/-/)($-/"(&$'*&$L*/)-M$#//.($@&+!&&-$+,&$&V.&*"%&-+?
-'**/!$"+($M&+&E+"/-$@'-M!"M+,$)-+"#$'4+&*$+,&$.,'(&$(&-("+"N& M&+&E+/*$'-M$#/EIJ"-g$'-M$&#&E+*/-"E$."EI$).$4*/%$+,&$*&4&*&-E&
M&+&E+/*(6$ _-$ '$ #/EIJ"-?$ +,&$ &Q)"N'#&-+$ -/"(&$ @'-M!"M+, /(E"##'+/*$/*$&V.&*"%&-+'#$'..'*'+)(6$
F0123H$ /4$ +,&$ #/!$ .'(($ 4"#+&*$ F+"%&$ E/-(+'-+H$ (&+($ +,&
M&+&E+"/-$ @'-M!"M+,6$ _-$ +,"($ E'(&?$ +,&$ %&'()*&M$ -/"(&$ /4$ ' e'-]$ /4$ +,&(&$ -/"(&$ (/)*E&($ E'-$ @&$ %"-"%"9&M$ !"+,$ L//M
*&("(+/*$'+$+,&$#/EIJ"-$"-.)+?$+]."E'##]$+,&$(/)*E&$"%.&M'-E&$/4 #'@/*'+/*]$.*'E+"E&$'-M$&V.&*"%&-+$M&("L-6$:,&*&$'*&$(&N&*'#
+,&$("L-'#?$"($("%.#]^ !']($"-$!,"E,$-/"(&$(/)*E&($'*&$E/).#&M$"-+/$+,&$("L-'#$.'+,6
Vnoise (rms) = 0.13 R ENBW nV

"""#$%&'()*)#+,-

112
Appendix
Capacitive Coupling 2"643+5#)"#+.,#>6VWX6(@#2"#(8+#'&&1#3&""+3(2"*#(8+#6+(+3(&-#(&

(8+#+<1+-2.+"(7#=825#25#'2;+#)#(-)"5,&-.+-#:2(8#(8+#+<1+-2.+"(O
!"#!$#%&'()*+#,-&.#)#"+)-/0#12+3+#&,#)11)-)(45#3)"#3&41'+#(& 6+(+3(&-#'&&1#)5#(8+#5+3&"6)-0#:2"62"*7
)#6+(+3(&-#%2)#5(-)0#3)1)32()"3+7#!'(8&4*8#$5(-)0 .)0#/+#%+-0
5.)''9# (8+# 3&41'+6# "&25+# .)0# 5(2''# /+# ')-*+-# (8)"# )# :+);
+<1+-2.+"()'# 52*")'7# =825# 25# +51+32)''0# 6).)*2"*# 2,# (8+ B(t)
3&41'+6#"&25+#25#50"38-&"&45#>)(#(8+#-+,+-+"3+#,-+?4+"30@7 Experiment
Stray Capacitance
Detector Noise
Experiment Noise Source
Source
$4-+5#,&-#2"643(2%+'0#3&41'+6#"&25+#2"3'46+B
Detector
K@ R+.&%2"*#&-#(4-"2"*#&,,#(8+#2"(+-,+-2"*#"&25+#5&4-3+7
A+# 3)"# +5(2.)(+# (8+# "&25+# 34--+"(# 3)45+6# /0# )# 5(-)0 C@ R+643+#(8+#)-+)#&,#(8+#123;O41#'&&1#/0#452"*#(:25(+6
3)1)32()"3+#/0B 1)2-5# &-# 3&)<2)'# 3)/'+59# &-# +%+"# (:25(2"*# (8+# (:&
3&)<2)'#3)/'+5#45+6#2"#62,,+-+"(2)'#3&""+3(2&"57
dV
i = Cstray = Cstray Vnoise U@ Y52"*# .)*"+(23# 582+'62"*# (&# 1-+%+"(# (8+# .)*"+(23
dt
,2+'6#,-&.#3-&552"*#(8+#)-+)#&,#(8+#+<1+-2.+"(7
:8+-+# 25# C (2.+5# (8+# "&25+# ,-+?4+"309# D"&25+ 25# (8+# "&25+
).1'2(46+9#)"6#$5(-)0 25#(8+#5(-)0#3)1)32()"3+7 N@ Z+)54-2"*# 34--+"(5# >"&(# %&'()*+5@# ,-&.# 82*8O
2.1+6)"3+#6+(+3(&-57
E&-#+<).1'+9#2,#(8+#"&25+#5&4-3+#25#)#1&:+-#32-342(9#(8+"
,#F#GH#IJ#)"6#D"&25+ F#KCH#D7#$5(-)0 3)"#/+#+5(2.)(+6#452"*#) Resistive Coupling or Ground Loops
1)-)''+'# 1')(+# +?42%)'+"(# 3)1)32(&-7# L,# (8+# 3)1)32()"3+# 25
-&4*8'0# )"# )-+)# &,# K# 3.C 5+1)-)(+6# /0# KH# 3.9# (8+"# $5(-)0 25 $4--+"(5#,'&:2"*#(8-&4*8#(8+#*-&4"6#3&""+3(2&"5#3)"#*2%+#-25+
H7HHM#1E7#=8+#-+54'(2"*#"&25+#34--+"(#:2''#/+#NHH#1! >)( (&#"&25+#%&'()*+57#=825#25#+51+32)''0#)#1-&/'+.#:2(8#-+,+-+"3+
GH# IJ@7# =825# 5.)''# "&25+# 34--+"(# 3)"# /+# (8&45)"65# &,# (2.+5 ,-+?4+"30#*-&4"6#34--+"(57
')-*+-#(8)"#(8+#52*")'#34--+"(7#L,#(8+#"&25+#5&4-3+#25#)(#)#82*8+-
,-+?4+"309#(8+#3&41'+6#"&25+#:2''#/+#+%+"#*-+)(+-7
Experiment
Detector
L,#(8+#"&25+#5&4-3+#25#)(#(8+#-+,+-+"3+#,-+?4+"309#(8+#1-&/'+.
25#.438#:&-5+7#=8+#'&3;O2"#-+P+3(5#"&25+#)(#&(8+-#,-+?4+"32+59
/4(#123;O41#)(#(8+#-+,+-+"3+#,-+?4+"30#)11+)-5#)5#52*")'Q
$4-+5#,&-#3)1)32(2%+#"&25+#3&41'2"*#2"3'46+B
I(t)
K@ R+.&%2"*#&-#(4-"2"*#&,,#(8+#"&25+#5&4-3+7
C@ S++12"*# (8+# "&25+# 5&4-3+# ,)-# ,-&.# (8+# +<1+-2.+"(

>-+6432"*#$5(-)0@7#T&#"&(#/-2"*#(8+#52*")'#3)/'+5#3'&5+ Noise Source
(&#(8+#"&25+#5&4-3+7
L"#(825#2''45(-)(2&"9#(8+#6+(+3(&-#25#.+)54-2"*#(8+#52*")'#-+')(2%+
U@ T+52*"2"*# (8+# +<1+-2.+"(# (&# .+)54-+# %&'()*+5# :2(8 (&# )# *-&4"6# ,)-# ,-&.# (8+# -+5(# &,# (8+# +<1+-2.+"(7# =8+
'&:# 2.1+6)"3+# >"&25+# 34--+"(# *+"+-)(+5# %+-0# '2(('+ +<1+-2.+"(# 5+"5+5# (8+# 6+(+3(&-# 52*")'# )5# :+''# )5# (8+# %&'()*+
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(8-&4*8# (8+# ,2"2(+# -+525()"3+# &,# (8+# *-&4"6# /+(:++"# (8+
N@ L"5()''2"*# 3)1)32(2%+# 582+'62"*# /0# 1')32"*# /&(8# (8+ +<1+-2.+"(#)"6#(8+#6+(+3(&-7#=8+#6+(+3(&-#)"6#(8+#+<1+-2.+"(
+<1+-2.+"(#)"6#6+(+3(&-#2"#)#.+()'#/&<7 )-+# *-&4"6+6# )(# 62,,+-+"(# 1')3+5# :82389# 2"# (825# 3)5+9# )-+# )(
62,,+-+"(#1&(+"(2)'57
Inductive Coupling
$4-+5#,&-#*-&4"6#'&&1#1-&/'+.5#2"3'46+B
!"#!$#34--+"(#2"#)#"+)-/0#12+3+#&,#)11)-)(45#3)"#3&41'+#(&#(8+
+<1+-2.+"(# %2)# )# .)*"+(23# ,2+'67# ! 38)"*2"*# 34--+"(# 2"# ) K@ \-&4"62"*#+%+-0(82"*#(&#(8+#5).+#180523)'#1&2"(7
"+)-/0#32-342(#*2%+5#-25+#(&#)#38)"*2"*#.)*"+(23#,2+'6#:8238

!!!"#$%&'()("*+,

113
Appendix
!" #$%&'()(*+),-('./0&1(20$(3/(.+104+(3*+(.+$%$3)&4+(/5 4).+( 90$3( 2+( 3)B+&( 3/( 9%&%9%O+( 3*+( ,).%/0$( &/%$+( $/0.4+$
'./0&1(4/&&+43%/&$6 M*%4*( 4)&( 2+( 5/0&1( %&( 3*+( :)2/.)3/.-6( U%3*( %&3.%&$%4( &/%$+
@V/*&$/&( &/%$+E( PN5( &/%$+( /.( %&=03( &/%$+"E( 3*+( +?=+.%9+&3( /.
7" 8+9/,%&'($/0.4+$(/5(:).'+('./0&1(40..+&3$(5./9(3*+ 1+3+43/.(90$3(2+(1+$%'&+1(M%3*(3*+$+(&/%$+($/0.4+$(%&(9%&16
'./0&1(20$(0$+1(5/.($9)::($%'&):$6 F*+$+( &/%$+( $/0.4+$( ).+( =.+$+&3( .+').1:+$$( /5( 3*+( %&=03
4/&&+43%/&$6( F*+( +55+43( /5( &/%$+( $/0.4+$( %&( 3*+( :)2/.)3/.-
Microphonics @$04*()$(9/3/.$E($%'&):('+&+.)3/.$E(+346"E()&1(3*+(=./2:+9(/5
1%55+.+&3%):('./0&1$(2+3M++&(3*+(1+3+43/.()&1(3*+(:/4BC%&E(4)&
;/3( )::( $/0.4+$( /5( &/%$+( ).+( +:+43.%4):( %&( /.%'%&6( <+4*)&%4): 2+(9%&%9%O+1(2-(4).+50:(%&=03(4/&&+43%/&$6
&/%$+( 4)&( 2+( 3.)&$:)3+1( %&3/( +:+43.%4):( &/%$+( 2-( 9%4./=*/&%4
+55+43$6(>*-$%4):(4*)&'+$(%&(3*+(+?=+.%9+&3(/.(4)2:+$(@10+(3/ F*+.+().+(3M/(2)$%4(9+3*/1$(5/.(4/&&+43%&'()(,/:3)'+($%'&):
,%2.)3%/&$(5/.(+?)9=:+"(4)&(.+$0:3(%&(+:+43.%4):(&/%$+(/,+.(3*+ 3/(3*+(:/4BC%&()9=:%5%+.; 3*+($%&':+C+&1+1(4/&&+43%/&(%$(9/.+
+&3%.+(5.+A0+&4-(.)&'+(/5(3*+(:/4BC%&6 4/&,+&%+&3( M*%:+( 3*+( 1%55+.+&3%):( 4/&&+43%/&( +:%9%&)3+$
$=0.%/0$(=%4BC0=(9/.+(+55+43%,+:-6
D/.(+?)9=:+E(4/&$%1+.()(4/)?%):(4)2:+(4/&&+43%&'()(1+3+43/.(3/
)( :/4BC%&6( F*+( 4)=)4%3)&4+( /5( 3*+( 4)2:+( %$( )( 50&43%/&( /5( %3$ Single-Ended Voltage Connection (A)
'+/9+3.-6(<+4*)&%4):(,%2.)3%/&$(%&(3*+(4)2:+(3.)&$:)3+(%&3/()
4)=)4%3)&4+( 3*)3( ,).%+$( %&( 3%9+3-=%4)::-( )3( 3*+( ,%2.)3%/& T&( 3*+( 5%.$3( 9+3*/1E( 3*+( :/4BC%&( 0$+$( 3*+(W %&=03( %&( )( $%&':+C
5.+A0+&4-6(G%&4+(3*+(4)2:+(%$('/,+.&+1(2-(HIJKE(3)B%&'(3*+ +&1+1( 9/1+6( F*+( :/4BC%&( 1+3+43$( 3*+( $%'&):( )$( 3*+( ,/:3)'+
1+.%,)3%,+(-%+:1$L 2+3M++&(3*+(4+&3+.()&1(/03+.(4/&1043/.$(/5(3*+(W %&=03(/&:-6
F*+(:/4BC%&(1/+$(&/3(5/.4+(3*+($*%+:1(/5(3*+(W 4)2:+(3/('./0&16
dV dC dQ 8)3*+.E(%3(%$(%&3+.&)::-(4/&&+43+1(3/(3*+(:/4BC%&X$('./0&1(,%)()
C +V = =i
dt dt dt .+$%$3/.6(F*+(,):0+(/5(3*%$(.+$%$3/.(%$(3-=%4)::-(2+3M++&(PY(
)&1(P(B6(F*+(G8ZPYE(G8Z7Y()&1(G8Z[Y(:+3(-/0(4*//$+(3*+
<+4*)&%4):(,%2.)3%/&$(%&(3*+(4)2:+(M*%4*(4)0$+()(1JN13(M%:: ,):0+( /5( 3*%$( .+$%$3/.6( F*%$( ),/%1$( './0&1( ://=( =./2:+9$
'%,+( .%$+( 3/( )( 40..+&3( %&( 3*+( 4)2:+6( F*%$( 40..+&3( )55+43$( 3*+ 2+3M++&( 3*+( +?=+.%9+&3( )&1( 3*+( :/4BC%&( 10+( 3/( 1%55+.%&'
1+3+43/.()&1(3*+(9+)$0.+1($%'&):6 './0&1( =/3+&3%):$6( F*+( :/4BC%&( :+3$( 3*+( $*%+:1( -A0)$%C5:/)3- %&
/.1+.(3/($+&$+(3*+(+?=+.%9+&3('./0&16(S/M+,+.E(&/%$+(=%4B0=
G/9+(M)-$(3/(9%&%9%O+(9%4./=*/&%4($%'&):$().+L /&(3*+($*%+:1(M%::()==+).()$(&/%$+(3/(3*+(:/4BC%&6(F*%$(%$(2)1
$%&4+( 3*+( :/4BC%&( 4)&&/3( .+R+43( 3*%$( &/%$+6( J/99/&( 9/1+
P" Q:%9%&)3+(9+4*)&%4):(,%2.)3%/&$(&+).(3*+(+?=+.%9+&36 &/%$+E(M*%4*()==+).$(/&(2/3*(3*+(4+&3+.()&1($*%+:1E(%$(.+R+43+1
2-(3*+(PYY(1\(J<88(/5(3*+(:/4BC%&(%&=03E(203(&/%$+(/&(/&:-
!" F%+(1/M&(4)2:+$(4)..-%&'($+&$%3%,+($%'&):$($/(3*+-(1/ 3*+($*%+:1(%$(&/3(.+R+43+1()3()::6
&/3(9/,+6
7" #$+( )( :/M( &/%$+( 4)2:+( 3*)3( %$( 1+$%'&+1( 3/( .+104+ Experiment SR850 Lock-In
9%4./=*/&%4(+55+43$6 Signal A
Source +
Thermocouple Effects -
F*+( +95( 4.+)3+1( 2-( R0&43%/&$( 2+3M++&( 1%$$%9%:).( 9+3):$( 4)& R
'%,+( .%$+( 3/( 9)&-( 9%4./,/:3$( /5( $:/M:-( ,).-%&'( =/3+&3%):$6
F*%$($/0.4+(/5(&/%$+(%$(3-=%4)::-()3(,+.-(:/M(5.+A0+&4-($%&4+
3*+( 3+9=+.)30.+( /5( 3*+( 1+3+43/.( )&1( +?=+.%9+&3( '+&+.)::-
4*)&'+$( $:/M:-6( F*%$( +55+43( %$( :).'+( /&( 3*+( $4):+( /5( 9)&-
1+3+43/.( /03=03$E( )&1( 4)&( 2+( )( =./2:+9( 5/.( :/M( 5.+A0+&4- Grounds may be at different potentials
9+)$0.+9+&3$L( +$=+4%)::-( %&( 3*+( 9SO( .)&'+6( G/9+( M)-$( 3/
9%&%9%O+(3*+.9/4/0=:+(+55+43$().+L
Differential Voltage Connection (AB)
P" S/:1( 3*+( 3+9=+.)30.+( /5( 3*+( +?=+.%9+&3( /.( 1+3+43/.
4/&$3)&36 F*+( $+4/&1( 9+3*/1( /5( 4/&&+43%/&( %$( 3*+( 1%55+.+&3%):( 9/1+6
F*+( :/4BC%&( 9+)$0.+$( 3*+( ,/:3)'+( 1%55+.+&4+( 2+3M++&( 3*+
!" #$+()(4/9=+&$)3%/&(R0&43%/&E(%6+6()($+4/&1(R0&43%/&(%& 4+&3+.( 4/&1043/.$( /5( 3*+(W )&1( \( %&=03$6( \/3*( /5( 3*+( $%'&):
.+,+.$+(=/:).%3-(M*%4*('+&+.)3+$()&(+95(3/(4)&4+:(3*+ 4/&&+43%/&$().+($*%+:1+1(5./9($=0.%/0$(=%4BC0=6(;/%$+(=%4B0=
3*+.9):( =/3+&3%):( /5( 3*+( 5%.$3( R0&43%/&6( F*%$( $+4/&1 /&( 3*+( $*%+:1$( 1/+$( &/3( 3.)&$:)3+( %&3/( $%'&):( &/%$+( $%&4+( 3*+
R0&43%/&($*/0:1(2+(*+:1()3(3*+($)9+(3+9=+.)30.+()$(3*+ $*%+:1$().+(%'&/.+16
5%.$3(R0&43%/&6
U*+&(0$%&'(3M/(4)2:+$E(%3(%$(%9=/.3)&3(3*)3(2/3*(4)2:+$(3.),+:
Input Connections 3*+( $)9+( =)3*( 2+3M++&( 3*+( +?=+.%9+&3( )&1( 3*+( :/4BC%&6
G=+4%5%4)::-E(3*+.+($*/0:1(&/3(2+()(:).'+(://=().+)(+&4:/$+1(2-
T&(/.1+.(3/()4*%+,+(3*+(2+$3()440.)4-(5/.()('%,+&(9+)$0.+9+&3E

!!!"#$%&'()("*+,

114
Appendix
!"#$!%&$'()*#+,$-(./#$*&&0$(.#(+$(.#$+1+'#0!2)*#$!&$3(/4#!2' Noise Estimation

02'510,
E"#$ ()&B#$ !#'"4281#?$ %"2*#$ 3(!"#3(!2'(**9$ +&147?$ '(4$ 4&!
0.&B27#$($.#(*T!23#$&1!01!$&.$(4$(4(*&/$&1!01!$0.&0&.!2&4(*$!&
Experiment SR850 Lock-In
!"#$ 3#(+1.#7$ 4&2+#,$ -&'5T24+$ :+1'"$ (+$ !"#$ \HLJK?$ \HL]K?
Signal A \H^JK?$ \H^]K$ (47$ \H^LK<$ 7&$ 0.&B27#$ !"#+#$ D#(!1.#+?
Source + "&%#B#.,$E"#$81(4!2!9$X4&2+# 2+$'&301!#7$D.&3$!"#$3#(+1.#7
- B(*1#+$ &D$ X$ 1+24/$ !"#$ D&**&%24/$ (*/&.2!"3,$ E"#$ 3&B24/
B (B#.(/#$&D$X$2+$'&301!#7,$E"2+$2+$!"#$3#(4$B(*1#$&D$X$&B#.
Loop
R +&3#$0(+!$"2+!&.9,$E"#$0.#+#4!$3#(4$B(*1#$&D$X$2+$+1)!.('!#7
Area D.&3$!"#$0.#+#4!$B(*1#$&D$X$!&$D247$!"#$7#B2(!2&4$&D$X$D.&3$!"#
3#(4,$I24(**9?$!"#$3&B24/$(B#.(/#$&D$!"#$()+&*1!#$B(*1#$&D$!"#
7#B2(!2&4+$ 2+$ '(*'1*(!#7,$ E"2+$ '(*'1*(!2&4$ 2+$ '(**#7$ !"#$ 3#(4
Grounds may be at different potentials (B#.(/#$ 7#B2(!2&4?$ &.$ G;W,$E"2+$ 2+$ 4&!$ !"#$ +(3#$ (+$ (4$ .3+
'(*'1*(!2&4,$ S&%#B#.?$ 2D$ !"#$ 4&2+#$ 2+$ [(1++2(4$ 24$ 4(!1.#?$ !"#
.3+$4&2+#$(47$!"#$G;W$4&2+#$(.#$.#*(!#7$)9$($'&4+!(4!$D('!&.,
Common Mode Signals
\H\$*&'5T24$(30*2D2#.+$1+#$!"#$G;W$3#!"&7$!&$#+!23(!#$!"#
6&33&4$3&7#$+2/4(*+$(.#$!"&+#$+2/4(*+$%"2'"$(00#(.$#81(**9 .3+$ 4&2+#$ 81(4!2!2#+$ X4?$ Y4$ (47$ H4,$ E"#$ (7B(4!(/#$ &D$ !"2+
&4$ )&!"$ '#4!#.$ (47$ +"2#*7$ :;<$ &.$ )&!"$; (47$ =$ :;=<,$>2!" !#'"4281#$ 2+$ 2!+$ 413#.2'(*$ +230*2'2!9$ (47$ +0##7,$ I&.$ 3&+!
#2!"#.$'&44#'!2&4$+'"#3#?$2!$2+$230&.!(4!$!&$324232@#$)&!"$!"# (00*2'(!2&4+?$ 4&2+#$ #+!23(!2&4$ (47$ +!(47(.7$ 7#B2(!2&4
'&33&4$ 3&7#$ 4&2+#$ (47$ !"#$ '&33&4$ 3&7#$ +2/4(*,$ A&!2'# '(*'1*(!2&4+$ 92#*7$ !"#$ +(3#$ (4+%#.,$ >"2'"$ 3#!"&7$ 9&1$ 1+#
!"(!$ !"#$ +2/4(*$ +&1.'#$ 2+$ "#*7$ 4#(.$ /.&147$ 0&!#4!2(*$ 24$ )&!" 7#0#47+$10&4$!"#$.#812.#3#4!+$&D$!"#$#Z0#.23#4!,
2**1+!.(!2&4+$ ()&B#,$ CD$ !"#$ +2/4(*$ +&1.'#$ D*&(!+$ (!$ ($ 4&4@#.&
0&!#4!2(*?$!"#$+2/4(*$%"2'"$(00#(.+$&4$)&!"$!"#$; (47$=$2401!+
%2**$4&!$)#$0#.D#'!*9$'(4'#**#7,$E"#$'&33&4$3&7#$.#F#'!2&4
.(!2&$ :6GHH<$ +0#'2D2#+$ !"#$ 7#/.##$ &D$ '(4'#**(!2&4,$ I&.$ *&%
D.#81#4'2#+?$!"#$6GHH$&D$JKK$7=$2472'(!#+$!"(!$!"#$'&33&4
3&7#$+2/4(*$2+$'(4'#*#7$!&$J$0(.!$24$JKL,$MB#4$%2!"$($6GHH
&D$JKK 7=?$($JKK$3N '&33&4$3&7#$+2/4(*$)#"(B#+$*25#$(
J$N 72DD#.#4!2(*$+2/4(*O$E"2+$2+$#+0#'2(**9$)(7$2D$!"#$'&33&4
3&7#$+2/4(*$2+$(!$!"#$.#D#.#4'#$D.#81#4'9$:!"2+$"(00#4+$($*&!
71#$!&$/.&147$*&&0+<,$E"#$6GHH$7#'.#(+#+$)9$()&1!$P$7=Q&'!
:RK$7=Q7#'(7#<$+!(.!24/$(!$(.&147$J$5S@,$
The Lock-In as a Noise Measurement Device
-&'5T24$ (30*2D2#.+$ '(4$ )#$ 1+#7$ !&$ 3#(+1.#$ 4&2+#,$ A&2+#

3#(+1.#3#4!+$(.#$/#4#.(**9$1+#7$!&$'"(.('!#.2@#$'&30&4#4!+
(47$7#!#'!&.+,$H#3#3)#.$!"(!$!"#$*&'5T24$7#!#'!+$+2/4(*+$'*&+#
!&$ !"#$ .#D#.#4'#$ D.#81#4'9,$ S&%$ '*&+#U$ C401!$ +2/4(*+$ %2!"24
!"#$ 7#!#'!2&4$ )(47%27!"$ +#!$ )9$ !"#$ *&%T0(++TD2*!#.$ !23#
'&4+!(4!$(47$.&**&DD$(00#(.$(!$!"#$&1!01!$(!$($D.#81#4'9
D$V$D +2/ D.#D,$C401!$4&2+#$4#(.$D.#D (00#(.+$(+$4&2+#$(!$!"#$&1!01!
%2!"$($)(47%27!"$&D$W6$!&$!"#$7#!#'!2&4$)(47%27!",
E"#$4&2+#$2+$+230*9$!"#$+!(47(.7$7#B2(!2&4$:.&&!$&D$!"#$3#(4
&D$!"#$+81(.#7$7#B2(!2&4+<$&D$!"#$3#(+1.#7$X?$Y &.$H,$Y&1$'(4
3#(+1.#$!"2+$4&2+#$#Z('!*9$)9$.#'&.724/$($+#81#4'#$&D$&1!01!
B(*1#+$ (47$ !"#4$ '(*'1*(!24/$ !"#$ +!(47(.7$ 7#B2(!2&4$ 72.#'!*9,
E"#$ 4&2+#?$ 24$ B&*!+QS@?$ 2+$ +230*9$ !"#$ +!(47(.7$ 7#B2(!2&4
72B27#7$)9$!"#$+81(.#$.&&!$&D$!"#$#812B(*#4!$4&2+#$)(47%27!"
&D$!"#$!23#$'&4+!(4!,
I&.$[(1++2(4$4&2+#?$!"#$#812B(*#4!$4&2+#$)(47%27!"$:MA=><
&D$($*&%$0(++$D2*!#.$2+$!"#$)(47%27!"$&D$!"#$0#.D#'!$.#'!(4/1*(.
D2*!#.$%"2'"$0(++#+$!"#$+(3#$(3&14!$&D$4&2+#$(+$!"#$.#(*$D2*!#.,$

!!!"#$%&'()("*+,

115
Appendix
III. Sample Midterm
1. What is the difference between Precision and Accuracy
2. How do you calculate the error for a final result A that in-
cludes different measurements of quantities x,y,z and is calculate
through A=f(x,y, z).
3. Describe the basic principle of a Lock-In Amplifier. What sig-

nal would you measure for an input that is 90 degree out of
phase in regards to the reference signal ?
4. Describe the autocollimation technique to measure the focal

length of a lens ? What are its limit ?

116
Appendix
IV. Datasheets

117
Appendix
D ATA SHEETS FOR FIBER LASER AND AMPLIFIER

1480nm laser

118
Appendix
Isolators:

119
Appendix

120
Appendix

121

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P HYS 2 6 2 :

ADVAN CE D P HYS I CS LAB

Lab Manual Phy.s 262

Lab Manual Phy.s 262

Lab Manual Phy.s 262

This is not a course that you can do just on the side

Lab Manual Phy.s 262

I. Expectations and Grades

30% Performance in the Lab including the Lab Boo

Work in the Lab

II. Lab Reports and Papers

Lab Manual Phy.s 262

Introduction to the topic of the experiments

Simple statement of purpose and the basic method

Apparatus - Pictures are good but are usually not sufficient.

Experimental Results and their discussion (including error analysis)

Show your data in formatted tables and gures

Point out the important results and their significance.

Lab Manual Phy.s 262

Overall we meet 28 times

Phase 1 (all together)

Principle of Lock-in amplier

Phase 2 (in 4 groups): Meeting 3 to 14

Task 1: Machine Shop

Task 2: Labview Programming

Task 3: Geometric Optics

Phase 3 ( in 4 new groups): Meeting 16 to 27

Lab Manual Phy.s 262

Task 6: Solid State Laser (and Nonlinear Optics)

Task 8: Fiber-Optical Amplier

Task 9: Fiber Laser

Lab Manual Phy.s 262

Writing lab reports and scientic articles using LaTeX

Lab Manual Phy.s 262

other programs available at the time for mathematical composition were:

often limited to specific hardware,

Lab Manual Phy.s 262

What does TeX need to work?

Where can you get help ?

I. http://www.tug.org/, the TeX Users Group Web Site.

Where can you get LaTeX ?

For the MAC

Lab Manual Phy.s 262

Can I do WYSIWYG with LaTeX ?

Lab Manual Phy.s 262

This is still a preprint

Example for a LaTeX document written with LaTeX

PACS numbers: Valid PACS appear here

I. INTRODUCTION more text here. We need of course more text here. We

II. EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES In this section we may have some formula

IV. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

Lab Manual Phy.s 262

TABLE I: This is a narrow table which fits into a narrow col-

which means that their final position is determined by

Lab Manual Phy.s 262

[1] R. P. Feynman, Phys. Rev. 94, 262 (1954).

Lab Manual Phy.s 262

Basic Geometric Optics: Microscope and Telescope

4. Several microscope objectives

5. Objective for Telescope

9. Micrometer adjustments stages

Lab Manual Phy.s 262

Introduction and some history