27/9/2017 Anaerobic Digestion (Small-scale)

Anaerobic Digestion (Small-scale)

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Anaerobic Digestion (Small-scale)

Compiled by: Eawag (Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic
Science and Technology), Dorothee
Spuhler (seecon international gmbh)

A [no-ecompendium]small-scale [/no-ecompendium]biogas reactor or

anaerobic digester is an anaerobic treatment technology that produces (a) a
digested slurry (digestate) that can be used as a fertilizer and (b) biogas
that can be used for energy. Biogas is a mix of methane, carbon dioxide and
other trace gases which can be converted to heat, electricity or light.[no-
ecompendium] Small-scale biogas reactors are typically designed to produce
biogas at the household or community level in rural areas. The airtight
reactors are filled with animal manure from the farm. Kitchen and garden wastes can also be added and toilets can
directly be linked to the reactor for co-treatment of excreta.[/no-ecompendium]

In Out

Blackwater, Faecal Sludge, Brownwater, Faeces, Excreta, Organic Solid Waste Biogas, Sludge, Compost/Biosolids

[no-ecompendium]Introduction[/no-ecompendium]

[no-ecompendium]

Schematic of a biogas reactor. Source: TILLEY et al. (2014)[/no-ecompendium]

A biogas reactor is an airtight chamber that facilitates the anaerobic degradation of blackwater, sludge, and/or
biodegradable waste[no-ecompendium] (e.g. animal manure, kitchen and garden wastes)[/no-ecompendium]. It also
facilitates the collection of the biogas[no-ecompendium], a mixture of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2)
[/no-ecompendium] produced in the fermentation processes in the reactor. The gas forms in the slurry and collects
at the top of the chamber, mixing the slurry as it rises.[no-ecompendium]The pressure exerted by the rising gas can
be used to transport the gas to the collection vessel or directly to where it is going to be used.[/no-ecompendium]
The digestate is rich in organics and nutrients, almost odourless and pathogens are partly inactivated.

[no-ecompendium]

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The benefits of agricultural small-scale biogas plants. Source: PBPO (2006)

Biogas reactors are often installed at household or community level in rural areas for the co-digestion of animal
manure and toilet products.

The produced gas can be recovered and used either directly for cooking and lighting or it can be transformed into
heat in a gas heater system or into combined heat and power (CHP) in a cogeneration unit (MES et al. 2003;
JENSSEN et al. 2004; WRAPAI 2009). Find more information on the use of biogas in the factsheets about direct use of
biogas and small-scale conversion of biogas to electricity. The digestate (nutrient-rich sludge) can be used as
fertilising soil amendment in agriculture.

Animal manure and kitchen waste contain a lot of organic matter and generally, the process produces enough biogas
for the family to cover at least cooking requirements. Humans produce less excreta, which contains less material
that can be converted to biogas than animal dung (e.g. cows). However, toilets, if available can directly be linked to
the biogas plant where human faeces are digested together with the other wastes. This option provides a safe
treatment of human excreta and thus improves the hygienic situation of the family. The availability of a renewable
green energy source reduces the use of firewood for cooking and indoor air pollution. Thus biogas digesters have the
potential to minimize health risks and environmental pollution by using human excreta as a resource for producing
energy and fertiliser (GTZ 2007).

Suitable digesting temperature 20 to 35 C

Retention time 40 to 100 days

Biogas energy 6kWh/m3 = 0.61 L diesel fuel

Biogas generation 0.3 0.5 m3 gas/m3 digester volume per day

Human yields 0.02 m3/person per day

Cow yields 0.4 m3/Kg dung

Gas requirement for cooking 0.3 to 0.9 m3/person per day

Gas requirement for one lamp 0.1 to 0.15m3/h

Biogas guideline data. Adapted from WERNER et al. (1989); ISAT/GTZ (1999), Vol. I; MANG (2005)[/no-ecompendium]

Design Considerations
Biogas reactors can be brick-constructed domes or prefabricated tanks, installed above or below ground, depending
on space, soil characteristics, available resources and the volume of waste generated. They can be built as fixed
dome or floating dome digesters. In the fixed dome, the volume of the reactor is constant. As gas is generated it

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exerts a pressure and displaces the slurry upward into an expansion chamber. When the gas is removed, the slurry
flows back into the reactor. The pressure can be used to transport the biogas through pipes. In a floating dome
reactor, the dome rises and falls with the production and withdrawal of gas. Alternatively, it can expand (like a
balloon).[no-ecompendium] Rubber-balloon biogas plants, are the most simple and cheapest ones to construct.[/no-
ecompendium] To minimize distribution losses, the reactors should be installed close to where the gas can be used.
[no-ecompendium] For more information on the different types of biogas reactors read the section Types of Biogas
Reactors.[/no-ecompendium]

[no-ecompendium]Anaerobic digestion is a biological process, which is carried out by a special mix of bacteria (see
also the factsheet on anaerobic treatment of waste and wastewaters). When the reactors first are installed, it may
take some time until the specific biogas producing bacterial community has installed. It can help to seed the
reactor with anaerobic sludge form a septic tank or another anaerobic digester.[/no-ecompendium]

The hydraulic retention time (HRT) in the reactor should be at least 15 days in hot climates and 25 days in
temperate climates. For highly pathogenic inputs, a HRT of 60 days should be considered. Normally, biogas reactors
are operated in the mesophilic temperature range of 30 to 38C. A thermophilic temperature of 50 to 57C would
ensure the pathogens destruction, but can only be achieved by heating the reactor (although in practice, this is only
found in industrialized countries).[no-ecompendium]If the temperature of the biomass is below 15C, gas
production will be so low that the biogas plant is no longer interesting from an economic point of view (ISAT/GTZ
1999, Vol. I). At higher temperature, not only methane production can be increased but also free ammonia, which
can have an inhibitory effect on the digestion performance (ISAT/GTZ 1999, Vol. I).

Digestion Minimum Optimum Maximum Retention time

Psychrophilic 4 to 10 C 15 to 18 C 25 to 30 C >100 days
Mesophilic 10 to 20 C 28 to 33 C 35 to 45 C 30 to 60 days
Thermophilic 25 to 45 C 40 to 60 C 75 to 80 C 10 to 16 days
Temperature ranges for anaerobic fermentation and respective required retention times. Source: WERNER et al. (1989) and MANG (2005)

Small-scale biogas digesters receiving animal waste show higher biogas production rates then bioreactors using only human wastewater as
substrate. Source: WELL (n.y.)[/no-ecompendium]

Often, biogas reactors are directly connected to private or public toilets with an additional access point for organic
materials. At the household level, reactors can be made out of plastic containers or bricks. Sizes can vary from
1,000 L for a single family up to 100,000 L for institutional or public toilet applications. Because the digestate
production is continuous, there must be provisions made for its storage, use and/or transport away from the site.
[no-ecompendium] For more information on different small-scale biogas reactors see the section below.[/no-
ecompendium]

[no-ecompendium]The design size of the reactor depends on the HRT (depending on the temperature) and the
volume of fermentation slurry (i.e. the feed material). The required volume is calculated by multiplying the daily
amount of fermentation slurry by the HRT.

Species Daily manure, % of life-weight Life-weight

Dung TS
Cattle 5 16 135-900
Buffalo 5 14 340-420
Pigs 2 16 30-75

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Sheep/goats 3 30 30-100
Chickens 4.5 25 1.5-2
Human 1 20 50-80
Standard life-weight values of animal husbandry and average manure yields (dung and urine) as percentages of life-weight (adapted from
WERNER et al. 1989)

To predict how much biogas will be produced with the wastes added to the reactor, one needs to know the chemical
oxygen demand (COD) of the sludge or the biodegradability constant (total methane produced during a retention
time of at least 50 days MES et al. 2003). Biogas, in general, can be obtained from any organic material (SASSE
1988), but the COD or biodegradability constant depends on the type of substrate. Animal dung has much higher
methane producing potential than human excreta for example. The digestion of human faecal matter alone would
not be economically interesting as the produced organic waste from a typical average family would not produced
sufficient biogas to cover its needs. Considering a production of 0.12 Kg to 0.6 Kg faeces per day and person
(JOENNSSEN 2004; YONGFU 1992) and 20 to 150 L Biogas per Kg (FAO 1996; SASSE 1996; GTZ 2009), the production
of biogas would range from some few L to maximal 90 L (as a rule of thumb, 20 to 30 L Biogas per person per day is
realistic). This is far less than the amount of biogas required to prepare the meal of one person, which is about 300
to 900 L biogas per day (ISAT/GTZ 1999, Vol. II).

Besides kitchen waste, garden wastes and plants can be added to the reactor to increase the biogas generation.
Green plants are well suited for anaerobic digestion and their gas yields are high, usually above that of manure
(WERNER et al. 1989). Feed material containing lignin, such as straw or wood resist anaerobic fermentation and
should therefore not be used in biogas plants (WERNER et al. 1989) or at least be pre-composted and preferably
chopped before digestion (SASSE 1988).

CattleBuffaloPig Chickens Human Source

L Biogas / Kg manure 40 30 60 70 60 MANG (2005)
40- UN (1984) in FAO
L Biogas / Kg manure 23-40 20-28
59 (1996):
L Biogas / Kg manure 40L SASSE (1998)
L Biogas / Kg TS contained in faeces (30% of 430 L (at 35C). 300 L
GTZ (2009)
manure) (at 25C)
Biogas production per category of animal and human faeces.

Small-scale biogas digesters generally follow a wet anaerobic digestion process with an optimal total solid (TS)
content of 5 to 10% (SASSE 1988; NIJAGUNA 2002). The fluid properties of the slurry are important for the
operation, as it is easier for the methane bacteria to come into contact with feed material accelerating the
digestion process. Animals dung has generally higher TS content then required. To obtain an optimum TS content,
substrates can be diluted (with greywater or toilet wastes for instance). Cow dung, for instance, which contains 18%
of TS, is diluted with water in the ration of 1:1 (by weight) to obtain the optimum concentration of 9% TS
(MAZUMDAR 1982; NIJAGUNA 2002).[/no-ecompendium]

[no-ecompendium]Types of Biogas Reactors

The main design elements of small-scale biogas reactors are: an inlet, an airtight reactor chamber, a vessel for
biogas collection (e.g. upper part of the reactor, floating drum, plastic balloons, see below), and an expansions
chamber. Optionally, there are connections from the toilet(s) and a grinder for the kitchen and garden wastes.
There are three general types of biogas reactors designs: rubber-balloon biogas plants, floating-drum plants and
fixed-dome plants.

Rubber-balloon biogas plants

(adapted from ISAT/GTZ 1999, Vol. I)

A typical plastic bag / rubber balloon biogas plant (left) and balloon plant under construction (right). Source: FAO (1996) and unknown

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Rubber-balloon biogas plants are the most simple and cheapest ones to construct. The balloon plant consists of a
huge common plastic bag (e.g. PVC) in which the sludge settles on the bottom (there is no expansion chamber) and
the gas is collected in the upper part from where it is withdrawn. The inlet and outlet are attached directly to the
plastic skin of the balloon and there is now expansion chamber. To transport the gas from the balloon to where it
will be used, the needed pressure is achieved through the elasticity of the balloon and can be enhanced by weights
placed on the balloon. Besides its extremely low-cost and simplicity, this type of small-scale biogas digester has also
the advantage of higher temperatures under sunny sky and its ease for cleaning and emptying. However, its life span
can be relatively short as it is susceptible to damage and construction is so easy, that the creation of local
employment is minimal. Another option, which is also easy and cheap to build is the construction of a fixed-dome
reactor (see below), but to replace the fixed dome by plastic.

Fixed-dome reactors

(adapted from ISAT/GTZ 1999, Vol. I)

Three types of fixed-dome biogas reactor. Each biogas plant consists of a digester and a gasholder. Source: SASSE (1988) and TUTORVISTA

The fixed-dome plants consist of a digester with a fixed, non-movable gasholder, which sits on top of the digester.
When gas production starts, the slurry is displaced into the compensation tank. Gas pressure increases with the
volume of gas stored and the height difference between the slurry level in the digester and the slurry level in the
compensation tank. Fixed-dome biogas plants have relatively low construction costs and do not contain rusting steel
(as the floating-drum reactors). Thus, if they are well constructed, they have a long life span. The underground
construction saves space and protects the digester from temperature changes. However, temperatures are generally
relatively low. The construction provides opportunities for skilled local employment. However, problems of gas-
tightness of the brickwork gasholder (or cracks) can cause heavy losses of biogas. Fixed-dome plants are, therefore,
recommended only where experienced biogas technicians can supervise construction. The gas pressure fluctuates
substantially depending on the volume of the stored gas.

Floating-drum reactors

(adapted from ISAT/GTZ 1999, Vol. I)

Floating-drum plants consist of an underground digester and a moving gasholder. The gasholder floats either directly
on the fermentation slurry or in a water jacket of its own. The gas is collected in the gas drum, which rises or
moves down, according to the amount of gas stored. The gas drum is prevented from tilting by a guiding frame. If
the drum floats in a water jacket, it cannot get stuck, even in substrate with high solid content. Floating dome
reactors have the advantage that the gas pressure remains constant as it depends on the weight of the gasholder.
The construction is relatively easy and construction mistakes do not lead to major problems in functioning and gas
yield. However, the material costs of the steel drum are very high and all the steel parts are susceptible to
corrosion. Because of this, floating drum plants have a shorter life span than fixed-dome plants, and regular
maintenance costs for the painting of the drum arise.[/no-ecompendium]

[ecomp-appropriateness]

Health Aspects/Acceptance

The digestate is partially sanitized but still carries a risk of infection. [no-ecompendium]However, the state of
hygienisation of the effluent slurry of biogas digesters strongly depends on the influent concentration in pathogenic
microorganism, the retention time and the temperature. High temperatures and long retention times are more
hygienic (SASSE 1988). If more than 55C are achieved for one to a few days, inactivation can be considered as

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efficient (SCHOENNING & STENSTROEM 2004). [/no-ecompendium]Depending on its end-use, further treatment
might be required. There are also dangers associated with the flammable gases that, if mismanaged, could be
harmful to human health.

[no-ecompendium]Anaerobic digestion only removes organics, and the main mineral material and almost all
nutrients remain in the bottom sludge. Almost 100 % of the phosphorus and about 50 to 70 % of the nitrogen as
ammonium is still found in the digested sludge (JOENSSEN et al 2004). Therefore, the secondary product compost
from biogas reactors is a valuable resource for food production. Generally, in a well-functioning and designed biogas
digester, the pathogen removal in the slurry is sufficient so the treated sludge can be reused for soil fertilisation. To
increase the safety, it may be aerobically composted (or processed in a sludge drying or humification bed) before
reuse.

Costs Considerations
Investment costs of anaerobic digesters are moderate and the potential of self-help is relatively high (even though
planning requires skilled labour and expert design). Both biogas and fertilising sludge create value added, thus
making biogas digesters interesting from an economic point of view.[/no-ecompendium]

Operation & Maintenance

If the reactor is properly designed and built, repairs should be minimal. To start the reactor, it should be inoculated
with anaerobic bacteria, e.g., by adding cow dung or septic tank sludge. [no-ecompendium]Biogas reactors need a
start-up phase during which the microorganism responsible for anaerobic digestion instal and stabilise. [/no-
ecompendium]Organic waste used as substrate should be shredded and mixed with water or digestate prior to
feeding.

Gas equipment should be carefully and regularly cleaned so that corrosion and leaks are prevented. Grit and sand
that have settled to the bottom should be removed. Depending on the design and the inputs, the reactor should be
emptied once every 5 to 10 years.[no-ecompendium] The reactors should also regularly be checked for foaming,
scum formation or gas tightness (and rusting in the case of floating drum reactors using a steel drum). No skilled
operator is required, but households should be trained to understand the system. [/no-ecompendium]

[no-ecompendium]At a Glance

Animal manure is mixed with human wastes and crop residues in an airtight reactor, where it
is decomposed in absence of oxygen and with a relatively high moisture content. Organic
Working Principle wastes are transformed into biogas, which can be reused for cooking, lightening or as
another energy source. Nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) remain in the digested slurry
which ca be used as a fertiliser in agriculture.

This type of reactor is generally constructed in rural areas where animal dung and space is
Capacity/Adequacy available and the demand for biogas (as alternative energy) and fertiliser is high. But they
can also be adapted to urban areas in the case of a high demand for biogas.

80 to 85 % BOD; Relatively high pathogen removal; N and P remain in the sludge; HRT from
Performance
one week up to several month depending on T

Costs Low capital and low operating costs

Design needs to be done by expert and construction should be supervised; operation staff
Self-help
needs to receive training to understand the functioning. Can be constructed with locally
Compatibility
available material.

De-sludging should not really be required but cleaning (removal of stones and other
O&M indigestible material) may be useful; Checking for gas-tightness should be done regularly as
well.

Reliability Resistant to shock loading. Reliable if operated and maintained well.

High removal of organic pollutants without any requirement for energy; Generation of
Main strength
biogas and fertiliser (compost).

Expert design and supervision of construction is required; The organic and solid content in
Main weakness
the influent needs to be monitored.[/no-ecompendium]

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Applicability
This technology can be applied at the household level, in small neighbourhoods or for the stabilization of sludge at
large wastewater treatment plants.[no-ecompendium] Biogas reactors provide energy for cooking, lighting and
heating as well as fertilising sludge for soil improvement. In rural areas, they are often used for the digestion of
animal manure, kitchen waste (and only optionally toilet wastes).[/no-ecompendium] The reactors are best used
where regular feeding is possible[no-ecompendium] see also [1021-anaerobic digestion in general][/no-
ecompendium].

Often, a biogas reactor is used as an alternative to a [879-septic tank], since it offers a similar level of treatment,
but with the added benefit of biogas. However, significant gas production cannot be achieved if blackwater is the
only input. The highest levels of biogas production are obtained with concentrated substrates, which are rich in
organic material, such as animal manure and organic market or household waste. It can be efficient to co-digest
blackwater from a single household with manure if the latter is the main source of feedstock. Greywater should not
be added as it substantially reduces the HRT. Wood material and straw are difficult to degrade and should be
avoided in the substrate.

Biogas reactors are less appropriate for colder climates as the rate of organic matter conversion into biogas is very
low below 15C[no-ecompendium](WERNER et al. 1989)[/no-ecompendium]. Consequently, the HRT needs to be
longer and the design volume substantially increased.

Advantages
Generation of renewable energy
Small land area required (most of the structure can be built underground)
Can be built and repaired with locally available materials
No electrical energy required
Combined treatment of animal, human and solid organic waste
Conservation of nutrients
Long service life
Low to moderate capital costs; low operating costs

Disadvantages
Requires expert design and skilled construction
Substrates need to contain high amounts of organic matter for biogas production
Incomplete pathogen removal, the digestate might require further treatment
Limited gas production below 15C
Requires seeding (start-up can be long due to the low growth yield of anaerobic bacteria)

References
FAO (Editor) (1996): Biogas Technology - A Training Manual for Extension. Support for Development of National Biogas Programme
(FAO/TCP/NEP/4451-T) . Consolidated Management Services Nepal (P) Ltd. and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).
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GTZ (Editor) (2007): MDG monitoring for urban water supply and sanitation. Catching up with reality in Sub-Saharan Africa. German Technical
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GUTTERER, B.; SASSE, L.; PANZERBIETER, T.; RECKERZGEL, T.; ULRICH, A. (Editor); REUTER, S. (Editor); GUTTERER, B. (Editor) (2009):
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ISAT (Editor); GTZ (Editor) (1999): Biogas Basics. (= Biogas Digest, 1). Information and Advisory Services on Appropriate Technology (ISAT) and
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ISAT (Editor); GTZ (Editor) (1999): Biogas - Application and Product Development. (= Biogas Digest, 2). Information and Advisory Services on
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ISAT (Editor); GTZ (Editor) (1999): Biogas - Costs and Benefits and Biogas Programme Implementation. (= Biogas Digest, 3). Information and
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JOENSSON, H.; RICHERT, A.; VINNERAAS, B.; SALOMON, E. (2004): Guidelines on the Use of Urine and Faeces in Crop Production. (= EcoSanRes
Publications Series, 2004). Stockholm: EcoSanRes. URL [Accessed: 17.04.2012].

JENSSEN, P.D.; GREATOREX, J.M.; WARNER, W. S. (Editor) (2004): Sustainable Wastewater Management in Urban Areas. (= Kapitel 4. Kurs WH33,
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MANG, H. P. (2005): Biogas Sanitation Systems. (= Ecological sanitation course). Beijing: Chinese Academy of Agricultural Engineering.

MANG, H.-P.; LI, Z. (2010): Technology Review of Biogas Sanitation. (= Technology Review ). Eschborn: Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Internationale
Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH. URL [Accessed: 17.06.2013].

MAZUMDAR, A. (1982): Biogas Handbook. Consolidation of Information. Paris: United Nation Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
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MES, T.Z.D. de; STAMS, A.J.M. ; ZEEMAN, G. (2003): Chapter 4. Methane production by anaerobic digestion of wastewater and solid wastes. In:
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methane and hydrogen production. , 58-94.

NIJAGUNA, B. T. (2002): Biogas Technology. New Delhi: New Age International (P) Ltd..

PBPO (Editor) (2006): Support Project to the Biogas Programme for the Animal Husbandry Sector in some Provinces of Vietnam. (= BP I Final
Report). Hanoi: Provincial Biogas Project Office Hanoi . URL [Accessed: 13.04.2010].

SASSE, L. (1988): Biogas Plants. German Appropriate Technology Exchange (GATE) and German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ) GmbH.
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SASSE, L. ; BORDA (Editor) (1998): DEWATS. Decentralised Wastewater Treatment in Developing Countries. Bremen: Bremen Overseas Research
and Development Association (BORDA).

SCHOENNING, C.; STENSTROEM, T.A. (2004): Guidelines on the Safe Use of Urine and Faeces in Ecological Sanitation Systems. (= EcoSanRes
Publication Series). Stockholm: Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI).

TILLEY, E.; ULRICH, L.; LUETHI, C.; REYMOND, P.; ZURBRUEGG, C. (2014): Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies. 2nd Revised
Edition. Duebendorf, Switzerland: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag). URL [Accessed: 28.07.2014]. PDF

TUTORVISTA (Editor) (2010): Biogas Plants.. tutorvista.com. URL [Accessed: 01.11.2011].

VOEGELI, Y.; LOHRI, C.R.; GALLARDO, A.; DIENER, S.; ZURBRUEGG, C.; EAWAG (Editor) (2014): Anaerobic Digestion of Biowaste in Developing
Countries. Practical Information and Case Studies. Duebendorf: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag). URL
[Accessed: 03.03.2013].

WELL (Editor) (n.y.): Using Human Waste. (= WELL Technical Briefs, 63). Loughborough: Water and Environmental health at London and
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WERNER, U. ; STOEHR, U.; HEES., N. (1989): Biogas Plants in Animal Husbandry. German Appropriate Technology Exchange (GATE) and German
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Association Incorporated (WRAPAI).

YONGFU, A.; TAIMING, Z.; YIBO, Q.; YUNXUAN, G.; ZHANG, H.; YUANSHENG, X.; CHENGYONG, X.; GUOYUAN, F.; JIEQUAND, X. (1992): The Biogas
Technology in China. Agricultural Publishing House.

For further readings, case studies, awareness raising material, training material, important weblinks or the
related powerpoint presentation, see www.sswm.info/taxonomy/term/

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