Part II

Principle of Hydrostatic Pressure

1. Fluid Pressure, p: the force exerted on a unit area. If F represents
the total force on an area A, and dF is the elemental force on an
elemental area dA, the intensity of pressure is,
dF
p
dA
Note: If the pressure is uniform over the area A, then
F
p
A
Otherwise this formula gives only the average pressure
Units:
lb 2 psf lb 2 psi
English System: ft or in

Metric System: gr S.I. : N

cm 2 m2
2. Pascals Law: states that at any point in a fluid at rest the pressure is
the same in all directions.

3. Variation of Pressure in a Fluid: The pressure at any point in a fluid

at rest is equal to its specific weight, multiplied by the vertical
depth of the point from the surface, or
Liquid surface
p h
Note: This relationship is only
h true for liquids in which the
specific weight varies with small
changes in elevation
p = .h
 3.1 Variation of Pressure of a Fluid

The theory states that a pressure of a fluid are rest or in equilibrium

condition ( or called static fluid) varies directly with the depth (or elevation)
measured from the surface of that fluid.
Consider a vertical homogenous infinitesimal fluid cylindrical element
column having a height of h and a cross-sectional area A with the upper end at the
surface of the fluid as shown below.
Applying equilibrium of vertical
Fatm forces , we obtain:

F = W + Fatm
p x A = (h x A) + patm x A
W p = h + patm
= gh + patm
h A Thus we obtain a relation

p h patm
p gh patm
F
p h patm
p gh patm equation (2)

where: p = pressure at lower end (at depth h) N/m2

= density of fluid kg/m3
= specific weight of the fluid N/m3
g = acceleration due to earth gravity m/s2
W = weight of the fluid cylindrical column N
F = The total fluid force acting on the lower
end area of the column element. N
Fatm = The total atmospheric force acting on
the upper end of the column element.
Patm = atmospheric pressure N/m2
= 1.013 bar (or 14.7 psi)
If the effect of atmospheric pressure is not considered, then equation (2)
is reduced to the following:

p = gh (the pressure exerted by the fluid, which varies

directly with the depth h).
3.2 Equipment for Pressure Measurement

There are various types of instruments for measuring pressure. The

commonly used ones are as follows:

3.2.1 Pressure gauge

Elliptical cross section Metal tube

spring
Pinion gear

joint
Dial scale

Axial

Pressure gauge mechanism

(Bourdon Tube)
3.2.2 Piezometer

p+

Piezometers

This is a very simple instrument used for measuring liquid pressure only. The Piezometer is a
glass tube with an end open to the atmosphere. The lower end of the glass tube is connected to
the liquid source to be measured causing the liquid inside the source of container to move
freely within the tube as shown in Fig. above. The height of the liquid in the tube varies directly
with the magnitude of that liquid pressure by the following relation:

p gh h
where: p = liquid pressure in the container N/m3
= density of the liquid kg/m3
= specific weight of the liquid N/m3
g = acceleration due to the earths gravity m/s2
h = height of liquid in the piezometer tube m
3.2.3 Manometer
(a) A Simple manometer or open-end manometer.

p+

Simple manometer or open-end manometer.

The simple manometer consists of a glass U tube containing a liquid (normally

mercury) with one end open to the atmospheric pressure and the other end
connected to the fluid source to be measured. The pressure in the fluid source or
container will push the liquid in both sides of the U tube with different levels of
liquid as shown in Fig. above. The level difference of liquid in the U tube can be
used to determine the pressure of the fluid in the container.
(b) Differential manometer

Differential manometer

The differential manometer consists of a U-shape glass tube for measuring the
pressure difference of the fluids in two different containers as shown in Fig.
above. The level difference of liquid in the U tube can be used to determine the
pressure difference of the fluids in the two
containers.
(c) An inclined manometer

An inclined manometer

In the case the pressure in the container is very low which causes the level difference in the
liquid in the U tube to be very small. This makes it very difficult to read the value of h. Thus if
the tube on the right hand side is inclined the linear length of the liquid in the right hand
tube will increase resulting in a more accurate reading of the length H as shown in Fig.
above. The ratio of h /H is sin or

h = H.sin
Where: sin can be 1/10, 1/5 or 1/2 or any other fractions.

Thereby the value of H obtained from the length reading of the inclined tube can then be
used to determine the fluid pressure in the container.
3.2.4 Pressure sensor and indicator (optional)

The digital pressure indicator consists of sensor head capable of transmitting a

pressure value and convert it into electrical ( i.e., mA or V) signals. The signal is then further
transmitted and converted into digital numbers on the monitor screen.

3.2.5 Mercury Barometer (optional)

patm
h

Barometer
This type of pressure measuring equipment is essentially a manometer for measuring
atmospheric pressure. It consists of a glass tube closed at one end and open at the other end.
The tube is initially filled with a liquid (normally mercury). It is then turned over into an upside
down position with the open end submerged in a small container of the same liquid as show in
Fig. above.
The height of the liquid column h rising above the surface of the liquid in the container can be
used to determine the atmospheric pressure.
3.2.6 Aneroid Barometer (optional)

Aneroid barometer is a device for measuring atmospheric pressure. The

aneroid is an exhausted chamber with corrugated diaphragm walls, the collapsing of
which is resisted by a spring. The deflections of the diaphragms against the spring are
indicated or recorded by a lever mechanism. The aneroid barometer is also made in
the more accurate null type in which the diaphragm is brought back to an initial
position by changing the tension of the loading spring. This same motion rotates the
scale to give the new reading.
In case of the atmospheric pressure, the variation is given by,

a) If is assumed a constant,
p h
po
dp dh
0
b) If is considered to vary,
n
p n 1 gh n 1
1 Where; n = 1.2 for wet adiabatic process
po n RTo n = 1.4 for dry adiabatic process
c) For isothermal process, n = 1
g h
p RTo
e
po
d) Temperature decreasing linearly with elevation
To
p To po K

po To K h

po = absolute pressure at sea level

p = absolute pressure at h above sea level
R = gas constant
To = absolute temperature at sea level
K = -0.00356 R/ft = -0.00650 K/m
Case c

Case d
Atmospheric, Gage and Absolute Pressure
4.1 Atmospheric or Barometric Pressure, Patm : The pressure exerted
by the atmosphere on every surface with which it comes in
contact. This is measured by means of Mercury Barometer which
was discovered by Torricelli in 1643. Under normal conditions
at sea level the atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psi or 2116 psf or
1.01325 bar or 101.325 kPa or 30 in. (760 mm)of mercury
column in the barometer.
4.2 Gage Pressure, pg : The pressure measured by means of gages
above or below the atmospheric level. At sea level, gage
pressure is zero.
4.3 Absolute Pressure, pabs : The pressure measured above
absolute zero. At sea level, under normal conditions,
absolute pressure is 14.7 psi or 2116 psf. Obviously, a
negative absolute pressure is impossible.
The relationship between these pressures is
pabs patm pg
See illustration below

A y gage pressure at point A (+)
y z gage pressure at point B (-)
Atmospheric Level
x absolute pressure at point A
v absolute pressure at point B
x z
B
Atmospheric Pressure
Note: The term vacuum means a
v negative gage pressure and the
term atmosphere is used for
absolute pressure.
Absolute Zero Level
1 atmosphere = 14.7 psi absolute
= zero gage
5. Pressure Head, h: The height of a column of a homogeneous fluid of
specific weight, that will produce an intensity of pressure p at its
bottom, or
p
h

6. Transmission of Pressure: At any point, 1, h units below point 2, the
pressure is,
p1 p2 h
This principle is attributed also to Pascal and was applied to the
concept of hydraulic jack F2 F W1 F W2
p 1
1 p 2 2
F1 W2
A1 A2
2
h
W1 1 where: W and W - weights of the plungers
A and A - areas of the plungers
F - applied force to raise up the
Liquid,
weight W and F
7. Solution of an Open Manometer Problem
i. Make an appropriate sketch of the given manometer
ii. Number in order the levels of contact of fluids of different
specific gravities starting at the atmospheric level.
iii. Starting with the atmospheric pressure head, proceed from
level to level, adding pressure heads as the elevation decreases
and subtracting pressure heads as the elevation increases,
multiplying the increase or the decrease in the elevation by the
corresponding specific gravities of the fluids.
This method gives all the pressure heads in head of water.

Note: For the differential manometer problems, the method given

above can be used except that there is no atmospheric leg and
the addition and subtraction of pressure heads may be started
from any of the two points of unknown pressures.
8. Variation in Atmospheric Pressure
ALTITUDE ABOVE SEA LEVEL PRESSURE
FEET METER
0 0 14.69 psi = 101.26 kPa
1000 305 14.17 psi = 97.67 kPa
2000 610 13.66 psi = 94.16 kPa
3000 915 13.16 psi = 90.71 kPa
4000 1220 12.68 psi = 87.40 kPa
5000 1525 12.21 psi = 84.16 kPa
5280 1610 12.08 psi = 83.26 kPa
6000 1829 11.76 psi = 81.06 kPa
7000 2134 11.32 psi = 78.03 kPa
8000 2439 10.89 psi = 75.06 kPa
9000 2744 10.48 psi = 72.24 kPa
10000 3049 10.09 psi = 69.55 kPa
69.55

3049
9. Vapor Pressure Heads of Water ( Feet of Water)
Pv Pv Pv
F F F
0 0.05 80 1.16 160 10.9
20 0.13 100 2.17 180 17.28
40 0.28 120 3.87 200 26.52
50 0.41 140 6.63 212 33.84

10. Vapor Pressure Heads of Water ( Meters of Water)

Temperature Vapor Pressure Head Temperature Vapor Pressure Head

C Pv/ (m) C Pv/ (m)
0 0.06 60 2.03
10 0.12 70 3.20
20 0.25 80 4.96
30 0.44 90 7.18
40 0.76 100 10.33
50 1.26
Example 1. What height of a column of special gage liquid ( s = 2.95)
would exert the same pressure as a column of oil 4.57 m high
( s = 0.84) ?

ps po or s hs o ho
where:

s ss w 2.95 9810 m3 28,939.5 m3

N N

o so w 0.84 9810 m3 8,240.4 m3

N N

28,939.5 3 hs 8,240.4 3 4.57m

N N
m m
hs 1.3m September 28,2017
Thursday
Example 2. What height of a column of water ( s = 1.0 ) would exert the
same pressure as a column of liquid with specific gravity s ?
L
Solution.

pw pL or w hw L hL
w hw sL w hL

hw sL hL
Example 3. A water barometer reads 10 m. If the temperature is 20
C, what is the pressure of the atmosphere in kPa?

Solution:
From table, the pressure head of water at 20 C is
pv
0.25m
w
The height of water in the barometer is expressed by the
difference of atmospheric pressure head and the vapor pressure
head.
p a pv
pa 9810 3 10.25m
N
h
w w m
N
10
pa
0.25 pa 100,553 2 or pa 100.553kPa
m
w

pa
10 0.25
w
Example 4. If the pressure in a tank of oil (s = 0.80) is 414 kPa, what is the
head in:

(a) m of oil; (b) m of water (c) mm of mercury ( s=13.6)

Assuming the specific weight of water is 9810 N/m3.

Solution:
3 N
414 x10 2
p p m 52.752m
(a) ho
o so w 0.80 9810 N
3
m
3 N
p 414 x10 2
(b) hw m 42.202m
w N
9810 3
m
N
414 x103 2
p p m
( c) hm 3.103m 3103mm
m sm w 13.6 9810 N
3
m
Example 5. The pressure in a gas tank is 2.75 atmosphere. Compute
the absolute pressure in psi , the gage pressure in psi and the pressure
head in ft. of water assuming the specific weight of water is 62.4 lb/ft3.

Solution:
The absolute pressure in psi is,
14.7 psi
pabs 2.75atm 40.425 psi , absolute
atm
The gage pressure in psi is,
p g pabs patm 40.425 14.7 25.725 psi
The pressure head in ft of water is,
lb lb 144in 2
25.725 2 25.725 2 x
p in in ft 2
hw 59.365 ft
w 62.4 3
lb lb
62.4
ft ft 3
Example 6. A gage on the suction side of a pump shows a vacuum of
250 mm of mercury. Compute (a) the pressure head in m of water;
(b) The pressure in kPa; ( c) absolute pressure in kPa if the barometer
reads 737 mm of mercury. The specific weight of water is 9810 N/m3.

Solution:

(a) The pressure head in m of water is,

3 N
101.325 x10 2
250mmHg m
760mmHg

p 250mmHg 3.4m
hw
w 9810 N 9810 3
N
m3 m
(b) The pressure in kPa
101.325kPa
p 250mmHg 33.33kPa
760mmHg
(c) The absolute pressure in kPa is,

pabs p g patm
101.325kPa
pabs 33.33kPa 737 mmHg
760mmHg
pabs 64.928kPa
Example 7. Assuming the specific weight of air is constant at 12
N
3
, what is the approximate decrease in pressure in Pascal
m
corresponding to a rise in elevation of 305 m?

Solution.
p h p 305m

dp dh N
p dp 12 m3 dh
po 0 o 0

p po p 12 3 305m 0
N
m
N
p 3,660Pa 3,660 2
m
Example 8. On a certain day the barometric pressure at sea level is
765 mm Hg and the temperature is 20 C. The pressure gage on an
airplane flying overhead indicates that the atmospheric pressure at
kN
that point is 73 2 , abs and that the air temperature is 8 C. Calculate
m
as accurately the height of the airplane above sea level. Assume linear
decrease of temperature with elevation.
Solution.
o To
p To po K

po To K h
N To 293K
p 73x1032
, abs
m
K 0.00649 K / m
hm 765mmHg
N
po m hm sm w hm o 12.01 3
m
N 1m

N
13.66 9810 3 765mm 102,514 2
m 1000 mm m
continuation
o To
p To po K

po To K h
12.01 293
73x10 3
293 102, 514 0.00649

102,514 293 0.00649 h

73x103 12.01293 293

ln ln
102,514 102,514 0.00649 293 0.00649h
102,514 0.00649 73x103 293
ln ln
12.01293 102,514 293 0.00649h
102, 514 0.00649 73x103
293 12.01 293
ln
e 102, 514

293 0.00649h
continuation
102, 514 0.00649 73x103
293 12.01 293
ln
e 102, 514

293 0.00649h

293
293 0.00649 h 102, 514 0.00649 73x103
ln
12.01 293
102, 514
e
293
0.00649 h 293 102, 514 0.00649 73x103
ln
12.01 293
102, 514
e

1 293
h 293
0.00649 102, 514 0.00649 73x103
ln
12.01 293 102, 514
e

h 2807.15m
 Example 9. Given the figure below, determine the pressure at m if
x = 760 mm and y = 760 mm.

1
Air
y
0

CaCl4 ( s = 1.60)
m

Oil ( s = 0.856) x
2

Solution:
Using addition and subtraction of pressure heads, expressed
in head of water. The addition and subtraction maybe started at
atmospheric level (level 0) and proceeding from level to level up to
to obtain the algebraic sum of the pressure heads at the level in
consideration ( In this case, it is point m).
 1
Air
y = 760 mm
0

CaCl4 ( s = 1.60)
m
Oil ( s = 0.856) x = 760 mm Note: In meters of oil, the head is
2

Starting from level 0, then to level 1, then to level 2 and lastly to level m
0 y 1.6 x0.856
pm N
pm 18,311 2
w m
kN
0 0.760m 1.6 0.760m 0.856
pm 18.311 2
N or m
9810 3
m pm 18.311kPa
Example 10. Given the figure below, determine (a) Pm if x = 0.30 m
and y = 0.50 m; (b) how many millimeters in the 12 mm tube will the
fluid rises if the pressure at m is increased by 7 kPa.

0 12 mm dia. tube

s = 2.95
x

1 125 mm dia.

4 mm dia. tube

y s = 0.915

Solution:
(a) Starting at the 0 level and proceeding up to the level m.
0 x2.95 y 0.915
pm
w
 0 12 mm dia. tube

X = 0.30 m s = 2.95

1 125 mm dia.

4 mm dia. tube

y = 0.50 m
s = 0.915

0 x2.95 y0.915
pm
w
0 0.30m 2.95 0.50m 0.915
pm
N
N 9810 3
pm 13,170 2 or 13.170kPa m
m
 ( b ) Let d = drop in the 125 mm dia. Tube.
r = rise in the 12 mm dia. Tube
Note:
Volume that drops = volume that rises

1252 d 122 r
4 4 2
12
2
125
r d or d r
Note when the pressure at m is 12 125
increased, the fluid inside tends
New level
to push outward. r
0 Original level
12 mm dia. tube
X = 0.30 m s = 2.95
125 mm dia.
1 d New level

4 mm dia. tube

y = 0.50 m Consider the new levels

0 r x d 2.95 y d 0.915
pm
s = 0.915
w
0 r 0.30 d 2.95 0.50 d 0.915
m pm
w
 New level
r
0 Original level
12 mm dia. tube
X = 0.30 m s = 2.95
125 mm dia.
1 d New level

4 mm dia. tube

y = 0.50 m
s = 0.915

13.17 7
0 r 0.30 d 2.95 0.50 d 0.915
9.81
2
12 12
2

0 r 0.30
r 2 . 95

0 . 50 r 0 . 915
20.17
125 125 9.81

r 0.24m
Example 11. In figure, fluid A is water while fluid B is oil (s = 0.85).
If x = 1500 mm and y = 750 mm, find (pm pn).
Fluid B
Level 1

y = 0.75 m
z
Level n n

Level 2

Fluid A Fluid A
x = 1.50 m
w Note : x + z = y + w
or x y = w z
Level m m 1.50 0.75 = w z

w z = 0.75
Solution: Using addition and subtraction of pressures
Starting from the end pressure pm and proceeding to pn.
p m w w o y w z pn

p m 9810 w 0.859810 0.75 9810 z pn

 Fluid B
Level 1

y = 0.75 m
z
Level n n
Level 2

Fluid A Fluid A
x = 1.50 m
w
Note: w z = 0.75
Level m m

p m 9810 w 0.8598100.75 9810 z pn

p m pn 0.859810 0.75 9810w z

p m pn 0.859810 0.75 98100.75
N
p m pn 13,611 2 or p m pn 13.611kPa
m
Exercise Problems:
1. If the pressure 4 m below the free surface is 150 kPa, calculate
its specific weight and specific gravity.
2. If the pressure at a point in the ocean is 1500 kPa, what is the
pressure 20 m below this point? The specific gravity of salt
water is 1.03.
3. An open vessel contains carbon tetrachloride ( s = 1.50 ) to a
depth of 2.5 m and water above this liquid to a depth of 1.5 m.
What is the pressure at the bottom?
4. How many meters of water are equivalent to a pressure of
120 kPa? How many cm of mercury?
5. What is the equivalent pressure in kPa corresponding to one
meter of air at 15 C under standard atmospheric conditions?
6. At sea level a mercury barometer reads 750 mm and at the
same time on the top of the mountain another mercury
barometer reads 745 mm. The temperature of the air is
assumed constant at 15 C and its specific weight assumed
uniform at 12 N/m3. Determine the height of the mountain.
7. At ground level the atmospheric pressure is 101.325 kPa at 15 C.
Calculate the pressure at a point 6500 m above the ground,
assuming (a) no density variation, (b) an isothermal variation of
density with pressure.
8. If the barometer reads 750 mm of mercury, what absolute
pressure corresponds to a gage pressure of 130 kPa?
9. Determine the absolute pressure corresponding to a vacuum of
20 cm of mercury when the barometer reads 745 mm of mercury.
10. If the pressure in a gas tank is 2.50 atmosphers, find the pressure
in kPa and the pressure head in meter of water.
11. The gage pressure at the suction side of a pump shows a vacuum
of 25 cm of mercury. Compute (a) pressure head in meter of
water, (b) pressure in kPa, (c) absolute pressure in kPa if the
barometer reads 750 mm of mercury.
12. The pressure of the air inside a tank containing air and water is
20 kPa absolute. Determine the gage pressure at a point 1.5 m
below the water surface. Assume standard atmospheric pressure.