Professional Documents
Culture Documents
AY 2008/2009, SEMESTER 1
NM2101: Theories of Communications and New
Media
Done by:
© 2009 by Azmi Suhaimi, Sarah Lim, Ridza Salim, Jerome Seow & Xuefen
Thiang
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Contents Page
1. Abstract Page 3
2. Introduction Page 3
4. Analysis Page 9
5. Discussion Page 20
5.1 Recommendations
5.2 Summary
7. Appendix Page 28
© 2009 by Azmi Suhaimi, Sarah Lim, Ridza Salim, Jerome Seow & Xuefen
Thiang
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1. Abstract
Singapore. The surge in number of users has been propelled by their needs for social
usage and potential addiction to such sites have led to calls for studies to investigate more
about SNS. This paper will analyze how the usage of Facebook fulfills the individual‟s
A literature review was done on the Uses and Gratifications theory to pick a
framework. This was then used to determine what needs were fulfilled by Facebook.
Further, we explored the needs that were not satiated and put forward recommendations
to improve Facebook.
2. Introduction
Social network sites (SNS) such as Facebook, Friendster and MySpace have
widespread following the world over. Since their inception in 1997, studies have been
conducted to study this phenomenon and the reasons why users participate in them. For
the purpose of our study, we define SNS as online services that allow users to create an
open profile within a system. Direct links to users‟ friends are provided and their
extended networks are readily accessible to fellow users (Boyd and Ellison, 2007).
Amidst the abundance of SNS that have sprung up in recent years, one has
managed to stand tall among its competitors. Facebook is the emerging force in recent
trends of SNS. Garnering a 50% year over year growth in the United States over the past
year, Facebook now commands about 20% of the market share for SNS over there
© 2009 by Azmi Suhaimi, Sarah Lim, Ridza Salim, Jerome Seow & Xuefen
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(“Facebook visits,” 2008). Here in Singapore, a similar trend has caught on. Despite its
relatively later advent, Facebook are now only second to the incumbent Friendster
network, recording more than half a million unique visitors in August 2008 (“Friendster
#1,” 2008).
There is thus a need to study this trend of increasing involvement in SNS. The
effects of SNS involvement could eventually have economic, social and even political
people taken into a new sphere (Magid, 2008) and politicians will have new ground to
spread their ideologies (Sullivan, 2008). These latent potentials of SNS, coupled with
Involvement in SNS can be attributed to the various needs of users that are
gratified by SNS. Our study will focus on the social integrative aspect of needs and why
3. Literature Review
research foci. In our research, several journals that discussed differing communication
mediums were reviewed. Our main focus, however, was directed towards research
For a start, scholars recognize the need for television audience research to shift
away from the hypodermic needle model of the early years. The new approach calls for
the utilization of the U&G approach to provide a more accurate analysis (Abelman,
© 2009 by Azmi Suhaimi, Sarah Lim, Ridza Salim, Jerome Seow & Xuefen
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Atkin, & Rand, 1997; Ivala, 2007; Jamal & Melkote, 2008; Svennevig & Firmstone,
2000). This illustrates the fundamentals of U&G theory, where users are not regarded as
passive and immediately accepting of the content. Instead, they evaluate and respond in
an interactive manner with the medium involved (Shin, 2009). The similar response is
also valid for Radio as a communication medium (Lin, 2006; Towers, 1985). For the
purpose of this paper however, these framework are unsuitable. The loopholes are
apparent given the differing traits between the communication channels of the Television,
The scale of the gratification framework has also been taken into account in the
reviewing the literature. The translation of traditional media motives to the Internet is
studied under the gratification of diversion (Ferguson & Perse, 2000; Ogan & Cagiltay,
2006). The diversion needs cited under the framework are “entertainment” &
“relaxation”. However, this gratification framework used is too focused. When applied to
would limit a comprehensive review of the other possible motivations that might occur
Some U&G literatures covering the Internet medium were also found unsuitable
as a theoretical framework. This is due to the context of the particular research focus.
One such aspect is the uses and gratification of individuals in their search for political
information on the Internet (Kaye & Johnson, 2002; Yan, 2006). It is not a suitable
framework due to the act of finding political information online having, comparatively, a
dependency echoes a similar limitation (Sun, Rubin, & Haridakis, 2008). The framework
focus is essentially geared towards motivations, which may lead to online dependency. In
addition, Media Involvement and Media Dependency frameworks were combined in the
analysis in determining causes of such dependency. Thus, the needs frameworks are more
focused towards finding causes of dependency, which is unsuitable as it does not match
discussion of the uses and gratifications of wireless portable Internet in Korea focuses on
a particular framework of Latent Gratification (Shin, 2009). The argument is that such a
framework is unique to wireless broadband use. The basis is that the user has a
psychological need and readiness to access Internet resources at any point in time. The
determinism of the needs. This is due to its stance on the psychological aspect directed
towards the wireless factor of the broadband medium, and not the content of the medium.
Five key motivations for Internet use are explored and used to provide distinctions
between purposeful and ritualized Internet use (Papacharissi & Rubin, 2000). The
although the needs were found to be suitable, a more recent study provided an added
© 2009 by Azmi Suhaimi, Sarah Lim, Ridza Salim, Jerome Seow & Xuefen
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3.2 Chosen Framework and Justifications
The selected study builds upon previous research by describing three key
frameworks of consumer use of the Internet (Stafford, Stafford, & Schkade, 2004). It
asserts that earlier researches are not as comprehensive due to the missing factor of
prominent Internet Service Provider (ISP) to achieve the results. The study yielded 45
motivations (or needs) for Internet use, which were categorized into the three frameworks
mentioned above. The terminology of the needs followed that of LISREL 8.12, a
The table (see Fig. 1 below) provides an analysis of the different needs,
higher coefficient would indicate a better match, with items having higher or equal to 0.5
coefficient highlighted in bold. Such needs were then compartmentalized into the 3
frameworks:
Process (termed as “to Pass Time” in Papacharissi & Rubin) describes the
experience of the media use, to search for something just to pass time. The main needs in
actual purposeful use of the content carried by the medium. Here, the main needs are the
Social is a new framework proposed by the study. This describes the act by users
in turning the Internet into a virtual environment, and not simply a medium. The main
needs described in this framework are chatting, making friends and interaction.
© 2009 by Azmi Suhaimi, Sarah Lim, Ridza Salim, Jerome Seow & Xuefen
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Figure 1: Following the LISREL 8.12, a management model (Joreskog & Sorbom, 1993),
the terminology of the needs yielded 45 motivations (or needs) for Internet use, which
were categorized into the three frameworks mentioned above.
© 2009 by Azmi Suhaimi, Sarah Lim, Ridza Salim, Jerome Seow & Xuefen
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All three frameworks are user-centric, exploring the needs that users want to
gratify when they use the Internet. The Social framework is proposed for our study
because previous U&G studies have been based on the Process-Content frameworks.
Internet use. A study of the Social gratification framework therefore allows for a better
understanding the realm of new communications medium and also interactivity amongst
users. This is useful for evaluating possible avenues in improving e-commerce and online
applications, affording users a better online experience once their needs are gratified
Social gratification was chosen as our framework because of its relevance to the
Additionally, the framework provides ample scope for analysis. The needs under the
4. Analysis
As mentioned in the introduction, Facebook usage has been on the rise on a global
level. Thus, we have decided to focus on Facebook, applying the social gratification
Since Facebook opened to the public in September 2006, more than 10 million
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A study by comScore showed that Facebook received only half the number of
unique visitors in Singapore when compared to Friendster for August 2008. However, it
is worthy to note that the relatively younger Facebook is rapidly gaining popularity in
OgilvyOne conducted a Google Insights analysis to find out the popularity of SNS. This
was done by finding out how often Facebook and Friendster is searched using the Google
search engine, in Singapore. Results proved that Facebook was being searched more
times than Friendster. The researcher highlighted the rising popularity of Facebook in
Singapore, with frequent mentions in the news media and even the Prime Minister‟s
Facebook is able to meet the social integrative needs of users, enabling users to
communicate, interact and keep in contact with family and friends. On another spectrum,
Facebook can also aid a user's character and identity development. This occurs as users
react and adjust to the people in the virtual environment of the online community.
Facebook combines various functions and services that are available on other
sharing websites on a single, easy to navigate interface. Within Facebook, users are
afforded a combination of features from the best websites, in order to meet their needs.
Messenger, allowing users to have online chats with contacts. Online storage and sharing
of photographs and videos are reminiscent of Flickr and YouTube. Users‟ status updates
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4.2 Needs Satisfied
Facebook satisfies a user‟s need to communicate and interact with friends and
family. Users value online communities because it caters for easy communication at
relatively low prices (Etzioni & Etziono 1997). Facebook users are able to utilize the
staggering abundance of features available that helps and facilitates communication and
interaction.
“Wall” function allows for public messages between friends. Messages can be composed
and sent to a person or a group of friends. Users can also update their status via “status
updates” and even extend event invites through the “Events” application.
The recipient of the message has the choice to reply. As such, communication on
Facebook can be one-way or two-way. This is linked to the idea of freedom of choice and
speech over the Internet, because recipients of messages may choose not to respond.
Instant Messaging. The function allows a user to chat with friends who are online.
Although the interface is relatively simple, the chat function still fulfils the basic need for
Facebook.
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On the whole, the communication that Facebook affords comes in a dual nature.
Be it synchronous or asynchronous, the bottom line is that users are able to communicate
with friends and family at minimal costs, improving communication and enhancing
interaction simultaneously.
Homophily
which states that people select friends who have values similar to them (Lane, 1978),
develop a sense of belonging to certain groups or community. Groups reflect the values
of the user.
Facebook users may choose to be a member of certain groups that are associated
with one's personality, character, beliefs and cultural values. Users are also able to create
a new group and invite their friends to join the group. Additionally, there is a function
showing the groups recently joined by a user‟s friends, which increases the visibility of
shared beliefs.
Users join groups because of the association and sense of belonging that they are
able to feel and gain. One's school and employer, groups for political or social causes,
and groups for hobbies and interests are examples of groups on Facebook.
At an individual level, Facebook users are able to reinforce certain group, social
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Facebook users may endeavour to adhere to norms or standards set by the culture they
Facebook gives users the choice of revealing and editing the information to be
shown on their profile. This would include basic information such as birthday,
relationship status, political and religious views. At a deeper level, personal information
such as interests, favourite books, contact information and work details. Users may
choose to disclose information about them, which they think is regarded as socially
cultural norms.
Identity formation
Virtual communities are platforms for individuals to shape and form identities
through online interaction (Wilson and Peterson, 2002). As Facebook requires one's self-
disclosure, this might help a person to develop his character or personality. This is crucial
for social integration into the society or dominant culture he believes in. For example,
one may indicate one's status as single and this might be a signal to other Facebook users
that the former may be looking for a potential partner for a relationship.
Also, the applications that people choose to display on their profiles, is a way of
asserting identity. The “My Room” application allows users to furnish their “rooms” on
Facebook. Depending on the design of the walls selected, one can be seen as fun, boring
or unconventional by his/her friends. In choosing the wall design, these thoughts process
through the user‟s mind, helping them satisfy their need for managing their own identity.
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Association of self
Users are able to associate themselves with prestige groups, reinforcing offline
associations in the process. This may also lead to aspiration creation, where the need to
This is made possible through various applications that enable users to express the
brands that they would like to be associated with. "HotLists" allows users to add insignias
or logos of brands that they support. Features such as the “send Louis Vuitton Gifts"
experience the material things that may not be within one‟s financial reach in reality.
Consequently, it may also help to satisfy one's desire to own such products.
The numerous interactive features on Facebook might satisfy the need for a user
to relax, have fun and be entertained. A myriad of interactive features such as games,
notes, photographs, videos, enable users to take pleasure by engaging in the numerous
activities available.
Facebook users are able to install applications and play a wide selection of games.
Users are also able to upload and view personal videos and photographs, which are
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shared easily with friends and family within one's circle. Users are able to comment on
the videos and photographs. The interactive and engaging features satisfy a user‟s need to
Indeed, some social integration aspects of user needs are satisfied through the use
of Facebook. Nevertheless, it is noteworthy that there are limitations to the use of this
social networking site as well. The specific aspects of user needs identified as not
Wall posts, Super wall and even albums posted online serve as a constant
reminder of the past. The human brain is innately structured to remember more happy
memories than bad ones. However, bad experiences we may have had online in Facebook
will be preserved in perpetuity (Boyd and Allison, 2007). Thus, free speech is not really
free speech, as it often bounds users to things that they have said in perhaps, a heat of the
moment.
One of the limitations of Facebook is that it renders users liable for things they
have said. Whilst it remains a good informal medium for communication, users have to
think through what they have to say before posting. In this process, the spontaneity that
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The album function presents an added complexity to this issue. Whilst it may be
easy for albums to be deleted, it is harder for users to delete photos that they have been
tagged in. The reason being albums are created by the user, whereas tagged photos of
them need not necessarily belong to them. Taking the event of a break-up for example,
photos of a couple together on Facebook would be available online for as long as it is left
there.
Interaction
This depends on whether the users involved are online at the same time. While
in a bid to satisfy a certain need at that particular moment in time, a user may end up
doing something worthy of regret. Though Facebook makes it possible to retrace the
action, the same cannot be said of its “blabbermouth” newsfeed service. Instantaneous
updates are often provided when someone does something. This service goes further in
providing users with the additional option of viewing activity in terms of status and
photos uploaded as well. This keeps users in the loop of things while affording them the
honour of being headline subjects too, reducing the need for privacy.
Homophily
The extended networks and actions performed by users are made known to friends
in their network via the newsfeed function. With this increased visibility beckons a threat
to users, especially those who possess very distinct multiple identities. Some users carry
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out public conversations with their friends using wall posts, which can be viewed by
everyone. This allows for different groups of friends to witness a side of the user that was
previously unknown to them. A conflicting view of their friends is the result of this wall
function. In turn, homophily is reduced, leading to users feeling more distant from each
This leads to the issue of privacy often surfacing as a result of this openness of
information. Allowing other users access to one's profile may be seen as an invitation to
voyeurs and perhaps, even stalkers. Thus, this notion of public versus private sphere
information (that "only friends" can have access to) becomes a difficult issue for users.
the midst of doing so. Users may struggle with the permission settings, in the process,
becoming over-protective of their own data, and being unable to utilize potential
An example where a user failed to practice self-censorship and as a result lost his
job is Kyle Doyle, who boasted about “chucking a sickie” on his Facebook status
(Cazzulino & Saurine, 2008). This is a perfect example of how adhering to an online
group norm of rampant information disclosure has led to repercussions for a user in the
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offline setting, reducing the gratifications of using Facebook. This demonstrates how a
lack of censorship and the ease of information access on Facebook can limit group
membership.
Identity formation
online. Users are able to select facets of themselves to display online, much to the
satisfaction of their egos. However, this also means that this personification is often
biased and untruthful. This will in turn fail to satisfy other users' need to know the
Furthermore, posting and tagging photos reduces an individual's control over what
is done with photos that contain themselves. In some instances where the photos are very
private in nature, uploading them leads to embarrassment on the part of the user. In the
same way, unfavourable or inaccurate facets of a person might be portrayed online. When
person's reputation.
Consumerism
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On Facebook, real life consumer products are being made virtually available.
Users can now “purchase” gifts that they would otherwise not be able to afford.
Increasingly, luxury products are being associated with the masses because everyone on
Facebook already has them. In the process, the sense of worth consumers get when they
buy the real gift is diminishing. Therefore, product placement and advertising on
Facebook might cause less satisfaction for a Facebook user who purchases the real thing.
Enjoying game applications allows users to fulfill their need for healthy
competition with their friends in the name of fun. However, in adding the application,
users often find themselves having to grant the creators of the application access to their
information. Enticed by the need to have fun with their friends, users are oftentimes
compelled to comply without thinking twice. Advertisers‟ defense is that individuals are
presented with a choice of whether or not to grant access. However, the true situation is
that, more often than not, out of convenience, users would permit access to their personal
information. However, this may increase dissatisfaction about Facebook as the privacy of
invited. This „blackmail‟ results in users spamming their friends, which might not be the
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intention of the user. Rather, it is a consequence of the workings of the application‟s
"catch".
This is due to the fact that newsfeeds provide a channel for quick information attainment
and entertainment, satisfying the some users‟ need for timely “gossip” or updates about
5. Discussion
5.1 Recommendations
Privacy
Although Facebook enables its users to maintain their privacy by deciding who
can view their profile, there are certain drawbacks. Complains of Facebook‟s failure to
protect its users have been reported in the news (“Canadians Investigate,” 2008).
Moreover, the newsfeed function reveals all user online activities on Facebook to
other members of the group. This function renders intimate details of users as being only
a click away for others (Dickson, 2006). Facebook can improve by providing it users with
tools to control their information in both the news and RSS feeds. Users‟ privacy would
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very much be kept in check with a function that enables them to control the viewing of
Friend requests from strangers are commonly accepted to prevent embarrassment. This in
turn may lead to a barrage of requests from the stranger who has now gained connectivity
via being accepted as a friend (Perez, 2008). All these arise from the hyperpersonal
nature of online communication, and users‟ needs of wanting to portray an amiable public
image.
In addition, Facebook should provide its users with tools that enable them to keep
All these additions to heighten the level of privacy on Facebook would ensure that users‟
Realness
through Instant Messaging. The function allows for users to chat with a friend who is
online. However, there are no provisions for group chats or the use of a webcam.
Availability of webcam functions will enhance the realness element of online interaction,
much like how Skype operates. Video posts attempt to plug this gap by allowing
members from users‟ networks to view the videos. The realness factor, however, has to
be inculcated into online interactions with friends. Another drawback, which is inherent
in all online chat functions, is that there is a need for users to be online to enable
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synchronous conversation. A novel development would be for Facebook to invent a tool
that improves this in offline contexts as well. This would serve to further enhance the
Multiple profiles
Users are able to comply with their group, social, or cultural norm through the
nature of information they want to reveal on their profile. Facebook users may desire to
join different groups and in doing so, need to conceal some personal information. The
facility to create multiple profiles will enable users to fulfill their social integrative need.
Currently, users have to create a separate account in order to create another profile.
These days, social networking is centred on the individual. Personal information revealed
in users‟ profiles influences the acceptance of the user by their cultural group. Whilst
there remains a presence of websites catered to communal interests, the focus of SNS is
on people, rather than interests (Boyd and Ellison, 2007). Adhering to cultural norms is
an important part of social integration. Facebook can further enhance its help to users to
join these different groups by facilitating multiple profiles within a single account.
System clutter
The functions on any social network site should be simple to cater to the digital
immigrants. Digital natives are proficient with technology and are able to operate the
various functions provided by Facebook with ease. Facebook should simplify this process
for digital immigrants as well, in order to provide optimum usability. This will ensure
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that, irrespective of technological competency, users will enjoy the full gratifications of
Facebook. Also, it would very much aid the digital immigrants in social integration, as
SNS are generally evolving very quickly, with new features being made available
frequently. Users may actually be inundated with the sheer amount of new functions that
may clutter the simplicity and impair the pleasure of surfing SNS. Thus, abundance in
simplicity is what designers should aim for in order to gratify user needs without adding
inconveniences.
5.2 Summary
The meteoric rise in Facebook membership can be credited to the fact that it
fulfills many needs of users. As seen in our study, Facebook caters in particular to the
social integration needs of users. With its various functions, Facebook allows users to
obtain much gratification. There is room for improvement though, as witnessed in the
will continue to grow. This is due to the value of gratification being greater than the
In spite of the extensive literature on the U&G of SNS, the full understanding of
the phenomenon is not yet achieved. The prime reason would be the relative youth of
SNS and the fact that it has only rose to prominence in recent times. Thus, the effect that
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studies may be discovering now could only be a novelty effect. In order to explore the
true effects of SNS, long-term studies have to be conducted in the years ahead.
Existing literature tend to investigate the impact of the Internet on a selected group of
people or country. This points to a lack in transnational understanding of the issue. The
the impact of the Internet and SNS on different groups of people beyond national borders.
This study can be further expanded to include other SNS in Singapore and
beyond, perhaps providing a fuller picture of the uses and gratifications of SNS in
general.
frameworks of process, content and social on the uses and gratifications of SNS. A
scenario would be when a user uses SNS to pass time (process framework), by checking
on updates of his friend (content framework), but the user ends up sending a message to a
friend via SNS instead (social framework). Extensive studies can be conducted to explore
The use of SNS is likely to continue to grow, in accordance with today‟s trend.
With this growth, the importance of studying them increases accordingly. Therefore, it is
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There is an increasing global awareness that SNS plays a pivotal role in establishing and
maintaining relationships in both the offline and online contexts. Hence, the study of
social gratification through SNS must be expanded and covered in greater breadth and
depth. A clearer picture of the phenomenon of SNS will have profound effects in the
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© 2009 by Azmi Suhaimi, Sarah Lim, Ridza Salim, Jerome Seow & Xuefen
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7. Appendix
© 2009 by Azmi Suhaimi, Sarah Lim, Ridza Salim, Jerome Seow & Xuefen
Thiang
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