GEOSPATIAL INFORMATION

SCIENCES (GISCI)*

Geographic Information Systems

Remote Sensing/Photogrammetry
Global Positioning Systems/surveying
Cartography
Spatial Statistics

* Mapping Sciences, Geographic Information

Sciences, GeoInformatics, Geospatial Sciences?
REMOTE SENSING & GIS
REMOTE SENSING (RS)
Collection of information without direct contact

Remote sensing is a primary source of data for a

GIS
maintains a historical record of the Earths
surface
provides current information
allows for change detection and predictive
models
RS INFORMATION EXTRACTION
PROCEDURES
Visual/human/interpretation from hard or soft
copy product
Computer/automated from digital data

Many hybrid or combination techniques

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
(GIS OR GISYS)
Multiple definitions
System to input, store, manage, analyze and
output spatial data
Includes hardware, software, data,
infrastructure, staff
Raster and/or vector

Error - accuracy
GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS (GIS)
ABSTRACT

Ever Evolving concept, and continue to grow in complexity and utility

thanks in large part to the proceeding and continual development of
Remote Sensing.
Remote Sensing plays a large role in the enhancement of any GIS, and in
most cases, allows data to become much more relatable and useful for
anyone.
GIS receives much of the data for its built-in layers from Remote Sensing
platforms such as satellites, radars and airplanes.
Passive sensors contribute to imagery and data for land cover mapping,
change detection, snow monitoring, thermal changes and terrain
modeling.
GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS (GIS)
ABSTRACT

Active sensors contribute heavily to data for extremely accurate terrain

models known as Digital Elevation Models (DEMs).
Large quantities of data can be geo-referenced and integrated into one
large GIS, allowing a user to access a powerful amount of information at
one time with relative ease.
As remote sensing technology continues to increase in resolution and
power, the data base will enlarge and increase the potential power of
users of a Geographic Information System.
 GIS BASICS
Geographic Information
System

Allows the viewing and

analysis of multiple layers of
spatially related information
associated with a geographic
region/location

Both spatial and attribute

(tabular) data are integrated

The widespread collection and

integration of imagery into GIS
has been made possible
through remote sensing

With the increasing

technological development of
REMOTE SENSING ROLES FOR GIS
Base maps
photogrammetric considerations
generally air photo based (perhaps hyper-spatial
space borne)
great spatial detail
contours, transportation, buildings,
infrastructure, utilities
REMOTE SENSING ROLES FOR GIS
Thematic information
single or multiple classes
often generalized
space-borne platforms
Air Photo
George Mason
University
Air Photo
Derived
Base
Map
Color Infrared Film

VG B
VR G
NIR R
TWO DIRECTIONAL INTERACTION OF
REMOTE SENSING AND GIS
Remote sensing creates data layers for a GIS
GIS data layers assist in remote sensing analysis
and classification
Remote sensing image/photos may be a backdrop
layer in a GIS
MAJOR ISSUES RS INTEGRATION TO GIS
Geometric rectification to coordinate system
Cartographic generalization - scale compatibility

Data structure (raster - vector)

Error - accuracy
RESOLUTION IN REMOTE SENSING
Spatial, degree of spatial detail, often in meters,
pixel size
Spectral, number and types of energy
bands/wavelengths
Temporal, frequency of data acquisition, days or
hours
Radiometric, level of discrimination in energy
recorded

Concept of resolutions useful for

remote sensing data evaluation
data specifications for informational needs
Spatial
Resolution
REMOTE SENSING CLASSIFICATION
PARAMETERS
Platform
Energy type (Electromagnetic Spectrum- EMS)
REMOTE SENSING PLATFORM
Height above surface
Airborne or spaceborne

Historically tradeoff between footprint and

spatial resolution
low altitude, small footprint and high spatial
detail
high altitude, synoptic view and low spatial
resolution
Exceptions in national assets data and recent
high spatial resolution
spaceborne platforms
Remote Sensing
Platform Tradeoff;
Spatial Resolution
vs
Footprint/Synoptic
Coverage
EARLY PLATFORMS 1903
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Classified by wavelength and/or frequency
Inverse relationship between wavelength and
frequency
Units in micrometers (one one-millionth of a
meter)
Reflected or emitted energy

04 .4 .5 .6 .7 1.5 4.5 300

1m
ultraviolet visible infrared
microwave (radar)
B G R near mid thermal
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
ENERGY FLOW PROFILE
Energy source
Source to surface

Interaction at surface

Surface to sensor

Sensor to user

All wavelength dependent and site/time specific

Bi-directional Reflectance Distribution Function
(BRDF)
Atmospheric corrections necessary or possible?

Signature extension problem (over space and

time)
 Various Paths of
S atellite Received Radiance

Remote
sensor
detector
Total radiance
LS
at the sensor

Solar E
irradiance 0

90 Lp LT
Components
Of EFP;
T
0
T
Wavelength,
2 v
Diffuse sky
Time and
irradiance Ed 1
4 1,3,5 Atmosphere Location
v Dependent
3
0
LI

Reflectance from Reflectance from

neighboring area, study area,
r r
n
SPACEBORNE REMOTE SENSING
Experimental and research
Operational*

National assets (dual purpose)

OPERATIONAL SPACEBORNE REMOTE
SENSING
Medium spatial resolution multispectral (10 to
100 m)
Radar

High spatial resolution (<10 m)

Low spatial resolution multispectral (>100m)

includes meteorological
Hyperspectral
MULTISPECTRAL SENSORS
Match feature to a spectral signature
Cameras

Scanners or wisk broom

Linear array or push broom

Expanding to hyper and ultraspectral sensors

MEDIUM SPATIAL RESOLUTION MSS (10-
100 M)
Landsat*
SPOT*

IRS

JERS
LANDSAT
US system
Seven platforms since 1972 (six successful)

Primary sensors MSS, TM, ETM

LANDSAT ORBIT PARAMETERS
570 mile or 920 km height
16 to 18 day repeat coverage

Near polar NE to SW orbit

81 north to 81 south

Sun synchronous ~ 9:30 am

Archived by global path/row location

LANDSAT MULTISPECTRAL SCANNER MSS
On first five platforms
Four band scanner - VG, VR, NIR, NIR

79 by 56 m pixel, 1.1 acre, 0.4 hectare

Standard frame, 185 by 185 kms, 115 by 115

miles
7.5 million pixels per frame

18.5 cm print at scale of 1:1,000,000, enlarge to

1:70,000
Digital data, varied radiometric resolutions
LANDSAT THEMATIC MAPPER TM

Since 1982, Landsats 4 and 5

Seven spectral bands
VB,VG,VR,NIR, MIR, TIR,MIR
30 meter pixel, 120 m TIR
256, 8 bit radiometric resolution

Enhanced Thematic Mapper ETM+

Landsat 7 1999
Seven bands
Panchromatic band at 15m
About $600 digital data
Serious data problems since May, 2003
Landsat
TM 30 m
Atlanta
SPOT
French
Five platforms since 1986
Linear array or push broom system
SPOTs 1 to 3
10 m panchromatic, 20 m three band multispectral
60 by 60 km format
Pointable sensor, stereo and greater temporal resolution

SPOT 4 1998
Added fourth MSS band (Mid IR 1.5 to 1.75)

SPOT 5, 2002
2.5 and 5 m panchromatic at 60 km swath
Vegetation mapper on 4 and 5 at 1km, daily coverage
SPOT
20 m
MSS
ATTRIBUTES OF SPACEBORNE DATA
Synoptic view
Global

Repetitive

Uniform over time

Uniform over space

Often multispectral

Digital

Planimetric

Available, open sky

Inexpensive?
VISUAL INTERPRETATION OF SPACEBORNE
DATA
Do not expect perfect understanding
Use ancillary information

Minimize joy of recognition

Spatial extendibility

Convergence of evidence

All changes in tone/texture are real

Importance of seasonality

Field work

Accuracy assessment
RADAR
ERS
JERS

RADARSAT*

Shuttle Imaging Radar SIR

Almaz
ADVANTAGES OF RADAR
Day and night
Weather independent /cloud penetration

Vegetation and surface penetration

Determine distance
RADAR BACKSCATTER
Aspect/geometry
Composition/dielectric constant

Texture/roughness

Radar is good for shape/form

Optical is good for composition
CHANGE RADAR RETURN
Wavelength (X,L,C, K)
Polarization (quad-pole, HH,VV, HV,VH)

Look angle

Look direction

Strategies with single band radar

Multidate
Multi incidence angle
Derived measures such as texture
Fuse with optical
RADARSAT
Canadian sensor
4 November 1995 launch

C-band, 5.6 cm, HH polarization

Programmable incident angle, spatial resolution,

and swath/footprint
Spatial resolution from 8 to 100 m

Footprint from 50 x 50 km to 500 x 500 km

Radarsat
Kathmandu
Nepal
RADAR APPLICATIONS
Areas of cloud cover
Geology/geomorphology/structure

Ice and snow cover - iceberg monitoring

Oceanography - oil spills

Cultural features

Deforestation

Land use/land cover

Agriculture
LARGE SPATIAL RESOLUTION MSS (> 100
M)

Meteorological Sensors (AVHRR)

NOAA Platform
5 spectral bands (visible to thermal)
1.1 km spatial resolution at nadir
2800 km swath
6 hour temporal resolution with two
platforms
SPOT Vegetation Mapper

Global daily coverage

Four bands
1 km pixel, 2200 km swath
NON-METEOROLOGICAL APPLICATIONS OF
MET SATELLITES
Oceanographic temperature and color
Oil spills

Geologic; thermal inertia, volcanoes

Forest and grassland burning

Monitor dust storms (volcanic)

Vegetation assessment (NGVI), desertification

Crop Monitoring
 AVHRR Nile Delta
Temperature Difference
FINE SPATIAL RESOLUTION
(< 10 M) HYPERSPATIAL

Space Imaging IKONOS, 1999

1 m panchromatic, 4 m three band MSS
11 x 11 km footprint
3-5 day temporal resolution
ImageSat EROS 1-A, 2000
1.8 m pan, 13.5 x 13.5 km footprint
FINE SPATIAL RESOLUTION
(< 10 M) HYPERSPATIAL

Digital Globe QuickBird, 2001

0.6 m pan and 2.6 m MSS,1-3.5 days, 16.5
km swath
SPOT 5, 2002
2.5 and 5 m panchromatic, 60 km swath
Orbital Imaging OrbView-3, 2003
1.0 pan, 4 m four band MSS, 8 x 8 km
footprint
IKONOS
August 5, 2002
1 and 4 m merged
QuickBird
Washington DC
.6 m
HYPERSPECTRAL
Various definitions, > 10 wavelengths, often
hundreds
Developed for geologic/earth materials scientists

Several airborne systems exist AVIRIS

Spaceborne

MODIS
Hyperion
HYPERSPECTRAL IMAGE CUBE
MODIS
NASA, November 1999
36 bands visible green to thermal

Varied spatial resolutions

bands 1 and 2 250m

bands 3 - 7 500m
bands 8 - 36 1000m
Swath of 2330 km

One to two day temporal repeat

Many applications and derived information

NASA HYPERION
November 2000
30 m

220 bands

7.5 km swath

Orbits with Landsat 7

HOW DATA IS EXTRACTED:

Layers such as roads (yellow) and rivers (blue) can be easily seen
from air/satellite photos
This information is digitized (see next slide), separated into
layers, and integrated into a GIS
 DIGITIZING DATA
MANUAL
Map is fixed to digitizer table
Control Points are digitized
Feature Boundaries are digitized in stream or point mode
The layer is proofed and edited
The layer is transformed/registered to a known system

AUTOMATED SCANNERS
Digitizing done automatically by a scanner
There is a range of scanner qualities
Most utilize the reflection/transmission of light to record data
Thresholding allows for the determination of both line and point features from a
hardcopy map
Editing still required

DIRECT DATA ENTRY

Coordinate Geometry is used, with GPS playing a vital role
This involves directly entering in coordinates measured in the field
These coordinates can then be tagged with attribute data
This data this then downloaded to a computer and incorporated into a GIS
 AIR PHOTOS: DOS
An orthophotograph is an aerial photograph that has been corrected to remove
distortions caused by:
Camera optics
Tilt
Elevation differences

Digital Conversion (Registration)

Must be converted to digital format before integration into a GIS
Photograph is split into many pixels
Distortion at each point must be calculated
A photograph is considered registered when each pixel has its exact position (geographically) placed
with the above distortions having been taken into account

These registered air photos can then be used to extract data or as a base map for a GIS (or
both)
 RADAR DATA: DEMS
Active sensors provide the
most thorough, accurate and
intricate model of topography
Radar can reach places nearly
impossible to survey manually
Interferometric Synthetic
Aperture Radar
Two passes of a radar
satellite are used
Any phase difference of
returned echoes yields
information about the angle
from which the echo was
returned
h is pixel height and phi is
Allows for topographic
information to be derived phase difference:
2
[ Bx sin By cos ]

h H (cos )
 Source:
http://www.sco.wisc.edu/maps/digitalelevation.php#GIS

This image was created by overlaying a 1m resolution DO on

a DEM of the same area (both utilize the same projection)
GEOMETRIC RECTIFICATION
Image to image (registration) or image to grid
(rectification)
Coordinate system (UTM, Lat/Long, State Plane)

Ground Control Points GCPs

from image/map or field GPS

Transformation level (first, second)

Error (RMS in pixels, under 1 pixel optimal)

Resampling (nearest neighbor, bilinear, cubic

convolution)
CARTOGRAPHIC GENERALIZATION
All maps are generalizations of the real world
(RF > 1:1)
Maps should indicate smallest feature (minimum
mapping unit - mmu)
GIS only valid at smallest scale or largest mmu
of any single data layer
Often remote sensing digital data are too detailed

Spatial filtering, clumping or spatial aggregation

necessary
DATA STRUCTURE
Raster
traditional remote sensing
ease for modeling
Vector

traditional cartographic
Vector and raster conversions

Issues

display
storage
ACCURACY ASSESSMENT

Extremely important, data without accuracy of

questionable value
Accuracy should be a component of metadata

Very difficult and often avoided, embarrassing

Expensive

Several types of accuracy, locational and

thematic
ACCURACY ASSESSMENT

Thematic the most difficult to evaluate

Primary difficulty is identification of truth,
temporal differences
Extensive literature on statistics of accuracy

Accuracy often summarized in error or confusion

matrix
Overall accuracy, users and producers per class
EXAMPLE GIS DATA FROM REMOTE
SENSING
Biophysical variables
DEM, biomass, temperature, soil moisture, snow
and ice
Point and Line features: buildings, transportation,
hydrology
(high spatial resolution may be required)
Thematic features
single layers; wetlands, urban, water, forest,
agriculture
multiple classes land use/land cover
Change detection
Remote sensing images may be a GIS backdrop layer
REMOTE SENSING AS THEMATIC INPUT TO
A GIS

Visual mapping from photos/images and input to

GIS
by digitizing or scanning (may be hard or soft
copy)
Use digital RS data to visually update existing
GIS layers
Automated classification of digital RS data to a
GIS layer
VISUAL IMAGE INTERPRETATION
Geometric rectificatoin
before or after interpretation
creation of mosaics/image maps
Classification system (single or multiple land
use/cover)
USGS Anderson, Hardy, Roach and Witmer
Class definitions
Minimum mapping unit
Hardcopy or softcopy data sources
Conversion to GIS
direct softcopy, digitizing, scanning
Accuracy assessment
Land Use/Cover Map
LU-LC AFGHANISTAN

Source
Image
Landsat
TM at
1:250,000
LULC KABUL PROVINCE
Land Use/Land Cover;
Kathmandu, Nepal
DIGITALLY UPDATE EXISTING
GISLAYER
Geometric registration
Appropriate dates of sources

Compatible classification system

Viable minimum mapping units

Accuracy assessment/quality control

Example; use RS to update USGS DLGs

UPDATE DLG FROM AIR PHOTO
DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING
Preprocessing
Analysis
PREPROCESSING
Data selection, subset, merge
Radiometric

missing data
striping
atmospheric correction
Geometric

registration to grid or image

scale, resampling
ANALYSIS
Image enhancement
Automated classification
IMAGE ENHANCEMENT
Provide improved image for visual information
extraction
Spatial

texture
filters
edge detection
Spectral

band selection
ratio
principle components
green vegetation index
AUTOMATED CLASSIFICATION
Signature matching process
Classification system selection and definition
Difficulties
Signature not unique or too unique
EFP atmospheric considerations
Mixed pixels
Signature extension issue (over space and time)
Signature extraction (most important, GIGO)
calibration-training sites or supervised (from GIS layers possible)
clustering or unsupervised
Signature evaluation (visual or statistical)
multiple signatures per class
Application of a decision rule
Accuracy assessment
Spatial filtering for GIS compatibility, product delivery
Automated and Filtered Classification
Kathmandu, Nepal
CLASSIFICATION IMPROVEMENT
STRATEGIES
Data
Multisensor
Multitemporal
Ancillary data/GIS
Texture/context
Nested sampling/varied spatial resolution
Procedure
Decision rules
Processing strategy
Hierarchical
Image segmentation
RADAR AND OPTICAL
CLASSIFICATION; KERICHO, KENYA

Forest-Red
Tea-Yellow
Bare Soil-Green
Urban-purple
GIS ASSISTS REMOTE SENSING
Pre-classification image segmentation
Calibration-training site selection

Direct integration of GIS and RS data

Post classification sorting

PRE-CLASSIFICATION IMAGE
SEGMENTATION
Advantages exist to segmenting study area/data
prior to analysis
GIS layers may provide segmentation not
possible via remote sensing
Examples; elevation, slope, soil type, historical
land use/cover
Each segment examined independently and then
combined
CALIBRATION-TRAINING SITE SELECTION
Signature extraction for automated classification
Existing GIS layers may be source or helpful

Elevation, land use, vegetation, soil layers for

example
DIRECT INTEGRATION OF GIS DATA WITH
REMOTE SENSING DATA
Ancillary information intrinsic in RS information
extraction
DEM, historic land use/cover, vegetation maps
Add GIS layers as bands of data in traditional
classification
Logical channel addition
Continuous and not categorical GIS data

GIS layers in other procedures

Classification and Regression Tree Analysis (CART)
Neural networks
Hierarchical strategies
Can use categorical data
POST CLASSIFICATION SORTING
Use GIS to finalize classes
Forest class above 350 m is forest 13, below 350
m is forest 16
APPLICATIONS

Change Detection
Disaster Assessment
Hurricane Katrina & Rita
2004 Tsunami
Atmospheric Modeling
aerosols
air pollution
climate change
Ocean
topography
currents
WORLDVIEW I

Altitude: 496 km
Orbit Type: Sun-
Synchronous
Swath width at nadir:
17.6 km
Orbit Time: 94.6 minutes
Panchromatic Imagery
Launched in September 2007
Provides m resolution images (Houston, TX above)
Images such as the one above will become increasingly common and will
provide more accurate data for a GIS
ISSUES OF REMOTE SENSING & GIS
IN THE FUTURE

User interfaces continue to become more standardized

An increased number of RS platforms is leading to more accurate
and more easily acquirable data
Geospatial Law & Privacy Issues
becoming more of an issue as resolution increases
who has a right to be looking at pictures of ones home in m
resolution?
GIS is becoming more globally accepted
Increasing resolutions of RS platforms has lead to increasing
amounts of data
can the large amount of data be handled and stored efficiently?
can this data be incorporated into a GIS that is not overwhelmingly
large?
The current era (and times to come, most likely) continues to
emphasize visualization of information
Remote Sensing images are key to this aspect
CONCLUSIONS
Integration of RS and GIS extremely useful
RS and GIS integration is two directional

Multiple existing uses and also multiple research

topics
Multiple new RS platforms and sensors in near
future