Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Nanotechnology in
Aerospace
______________
February 2007
1
Nanotechnology in Aerospace
www.nanoforum.org
February 2007
Authors:
Janusz D. Fidelus, Witold Lojkowski, Laboratory of Nanocrystalline
Materials, Institute of High Pressure Physics, Polish Academy of Science;
Małgorzata Lewandowska, Faculty of Materials Science and Engineering,
Warsaw University of Technology; Dariusz Bielinski, Faculty of Chemistry,
Technical University of Lodz; Ineke Malsch, Malsch TechnoValuation
(chapter 2)
Holger Hoffschulz, VDI-TZ GmbH; Ineke Malsch, Malsch TechnoValuation
(chapter 3)
Aline Charpentier, CEA-LETI – Minatec; Ineke Malsch, Malsch
TechnoValuation (chapter 4)
Kshitij Singh, Mark Morrison, IoN; Ineke Malsch, Malsch TechnoValuation
(chapter 5, 6)
Ana Proykova, MCG, University of Sofia; Ineke Malsch, Malsch
TechnoValuation (chapter 7, 8)
Acknowledgement: Reviewers:
Thierry Jamin, CNES (chapter 4) Christien Enzing, TNO; Paul E.
Rempes, Environmental Assurance, Boeing St. Louis, MO, USA (chapter 7),
Patrick Lin, Nanoethics; Jürgen Altmann, University of Bochum (chapter 8).
2
Nanoforum is a thematic network funded by the European
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this report are the responsibility of the authors.
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About Nanoforum
3
The present report is a publication of Nanoforum, published online at
www.nanoforum.org
4
• “Socio-economic report on Nanotechnology and Smart Materials for
Medical Devices”, December 2003.
• “SME participation in EU research programmes”, October 2004.
5
Chapter 1 Executive summary and introduction
6
materials for application in airplanes to accommodate the expected growth
in passenger numbers of 5% per year for the coming 20 years and taking
into account more stringent legislation including environmental, health
and safety regulations. These trends impose the objective of developing
lighter materials with equal or improved robustness as current materials
used in aerospace (corrosion resistance, damage tolerance, ability to be
repaired). Leading companies including Boeing, Airbus and British
Aerospace are collaborating with universities and research centres on
projects to develop nanotechnology for aerospace. Nanotechnology is
currently not incorporated in aircraft, but is expected to enter the market
in the coming years. The stringent safety requirements, conservative
attitude in the industry and need for industrial scale production processes
contribute to a longer time to market than in other sectors.
Nanomaterials and nanoelectronics can be applied in airframes and
components, coatings, engines, sensors, electrical and electronic
components and hardware and other applications. They are being
investigated for uptake in aircraft on a large scale. Foreseen benefits
include cost reduction, reduced environmental burden and enhanced
passenger comfort. Uptake of nanomaterials and nanoelectronics in
aircraft may be slower than in other sectors, but there is clear interest
from the industry. This chapter may be most interesting to researchers
and policy makers in nanotechnology and in aeronautics research.
7
important for rockets as well as other spacecraft. Nanotechnologies can
improve the existing energy generation and storage technologies,
including propellants, solar cells, fuel cells and hydrogen storage, and
batteries. Life support is becoming more important due to longer manned
missions and space tourism. Keeping the air breathable, maintaining a
clean water supply, controlling temperature, air humidity and the health of
the astronauts can benefit from nanotechnologies applied in gas storage,
waste water treatment and sensors. These technologies are mainly
developed for the electronics and medical sectors and adapted for
application in space.
Satellites can be used for scientific observation of the earth or universe
and for communication. The main trend in research is the quest to build
more integrated and smaller nano/pico satellites. Relevant
nanotechnologies include carbon nanotube based sensors, nanosensors,
nanoparticles for imaging instruments and quantum information. Futuristic
visions include the space elevator based on a long cable spun from carbon
nanotubes and space colonisation. Autonomous systems such as satellite
swarms and nanorobotics may one day be used in exploring other planets.
Nanotechnologies are attractive for the space sector as they enable a
reduction in costs, novel space missions, testing of new technologies in
space and futuristic visions. Applications are foreseen in 0-5, 5-10 and 10-
15 years in space devices, subsystems and systems. This chapter may be
most interesting for researchers and policy makers in nanotechnology and
in the space sector.
8
spacecraft. Visionary applications of nanotechnology in space include
molecular nanotechnology and electronics for space, the space elevator,
nano and pico satellites, the gossamer spacecraft and space solar power.
Choices of priorities in nanotechnology R&D for space must be based on
the technological readiness and applicability. The R&D is expected to take
a decade before being implemented in spacecraft. This chapter may be
most interesting for decision makers on future research priorities in
nanotechnology and in aerospace.
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Chapter 7 analyses the environment, health and safety aspects of
nanotechnology for aerospace. The debate on these aspects of engineered
nanomaterials specific for applications in the aerospace sector is only just
emerging. General toxicology of engineered nanomaterials and
occupational nanosafety issues are also applicable to the aerospace
sector. These “nanorisk” research projects which are starting now must be
complemented with specific life-cycle analyses and exposure scenarios for
applications in aircraft and spacecraft. Potential benefits of
nanotechnology in aerospace for the environment, health and safety are
also being discussed. To enhance the likelihood of positive impacts, better
implementation strategies must be developed. This chapter may be most
interesting for risk assessment specialists and policymakers on
nanoregulation.
10
Table 1.1 summarising trends in the whole report.
11
chip/biochip (ch4)
Battery using
nanoelements,
quantum dot solar
cells, drug delivery,
CNT based imaging
instruments (ch4)
Material / 2009: apply metallic Industrial scale 2020: over 163
component materials in mass Severe Plastic million kg
markets (ch2, Lux Deformation process nanomaterials in
2006) for metallic composites, value
nanomaterials? $2 billion (ch2,
(ch2) Freedonia, 2006)
2006: 62 patented Need for lighter, 2020: 40% of
inventions of stronger materials nanoclay/CNT
nanotech for for aeronautics polymer composites
aerospace (ch6) (ch3) will be applied in
aerospace (ch2,
Freedonia, 2006)
Clay-polymer CNT filled polymer Smart materials, bio
nanocomposites for composites (ch2,4) memory (ch4)
flame retardant CNT reinforcing
panels and high coatings, CNT in
performance transistors, CNT
components in based memory,
aerospace (ch2) MRAM (ch4)
Nanoparticles High performance
reinforcing polymers polymer
and composites, nanocomposite
nanoparticles in resins (ch2)
propellants (ch 4)
Smart textiles (ch4)
12
Table of contents:
13
4.5.2. Medical systems .............................................................. 60
4.5.3. Textile ............................................................................ 63
4.5.4 Life support conclusion ...................................................... 63
4.6. Satellites / Science payloads ................................................... 64
4.6.1. Satellite subsystems......................................................... 67
4.6.2. Science payloads ............................................................. 68
4.6.3 Satellites / Payloads conclusion: ......................................... 72
4.7. Futuristic visions ................................................................... 72
4.7.1. Space elevator................................................................. 73
4.7.2. Space colonisation ........................................................... 74
4.7.3. Autonomous systems ....................................................... 75
4.7.4 Futuristic visions conclusion ............................................... 77
4.8 Conclusion ............................................................................. 77
Chapter 5: Summary of Needs in Aerospace Research ......................... 80
5.1 Aeronautics ........................................................................... 80
5.1.2 Airframes ......................................................................... 81
5.1.3 Propulsion ........................................................................ 81
5.1.4 Aircraft avionics, systems and equipment............................. 82
5.1.5 Environment..................................................................... 83
5.1.6 Safety and Security........................................................... 84
5.1.7 Quality and affordability..................................................... 85
5.1.8 European Air Transport System .......................................... 86
5.1.9 Future concepts for Guidance & Control ............................... 86
5.1.10 Current Research ............................................................ 86
5.1.11 Aeronautics application in other industries.......................... 88
5.1.12 Funding and investment................................................... 89
5.1.13 Policy............................................................................. 89
5.1.14 Education and Training .................................................... 89
5.1.15 SME .............................................................................. 90
5.1.16 Conclusion ..................................................................... 90
5.2 Statement of needs for Research and Development in Space ....... 90
5.2.1 Introduction ..................................................................... 90
5.2.2 Nanomaterials for space craft structure ............................... 92
5.2.3 Energy Production and Storage........................................... 94
5.2.4 Data Storage, Processing and Transmission.......................... 95
5.2.5 Sensors ........................................................................... 98
5.2.6 Life support systems ......................................................... 99
5.2.7 Nanomaterials and thin films for spacecraft ........................ 100
5.2.8 Visionary Applications...................................................... 101
5.2.9 Conclusion ..................................................................... 103
Chapter 6: Economic Aspects ......................................................... 105
6.1 Introduction......................................................................... 105
6.2 Aviation............................................................................... 105
6.2.1 Global markets in the aviation industry.............................. 107
6.3 Space ................................................................................. 111
6.4 How can Nanotechnology Impact on these Strategies? .............. 114
6.4.1 Patenting of Nanotechnology Advances that have Applications in
the Aerospace Industry ............................................................ 114
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6.5 Role of SMEs........................................................................ 118
6.6 Conclusions ......................................................................... 118
Chapter 7: Environment, Health and Safety Aspects.......................... 120
7.1 Introduction......................................................................... 120
7.2 EHS risks............................................................................. 121
7.2.1 Health risks.................................................................... 123
7.2.2 Safety risks .................................................................... 123
7.3 Environmental benefits.......................................................... 123
7.4 Health benefits..................................................................... 125
7.5 Safety benefits ..................................................................... 125
7.6 EHS Regulation .................................................................... 125
7.7 Conclusion ........................................................................... 127
Chapter 8: Ethical, Legal and Social Aspects .................................... 129
8.1 Introduction......................................................................... 129
8.2 Regulations.......................................................................... 130
8.3 Ethical, Legal and Social Aspects ............................................ 133
8.4 Conclusion ........................................................................... 135
References................................................................................... 137
15
Chapter 2 – Nanomaterials in Aerospace
2.1 Introduction
This chapter identifies some of the technical challenges and the key
research efforts in the field of nanomaterials for aerospace applications.
Specifically, it focuses on carbon nanotube-reinforced polymers and
materials produced by severe plastic deformation (SPD). Selected
European projects and world conferences related to aerospace are
included. The state of the art of polymer nanocomposite research is also
reviewed.
In the aerospace industry, there is a great need for new materials which
exhibit improved mechanical properties. Materials possessing high
strength at a reduced mass and size make lighter aircraft with lower fuel
consumption. The development of new materials with tailored properties is
a primary goal of today’s materials science and engineering.
The extraordinary stiffness, higher than that of diamond (ten times higher
than that of any other available material), high toughness, changeable
conductivity and the specific tensile strength of carbon nanotubes (CNTs)
makes them eminently suited as reinforcing elements in macroscopic
composites.
16
option for the aviation industry. Their use can enhance a material’s ability
to resist vibration and fire (Nano letters, 2006, Nature Materials, 2005).
Despite these efforts, much additional R&D is still needed to realize the
full potential and implementation of these advanced composites (Taczak,
2006).
Nanostructured metals can provide very hard coatings that are resistant to
corrosion, useful for applications including aerospace components, such as
landing gear and construction equipment such as drill bits and bulldozer
blades.
17
Low volume, high margin applications for the aerospace and defence
industries, and high-end sporting goods are largely driving the
development of nanostructured materials. However, for real success there
is a need to start establishing customers in other areas by 2009 (Lux,
2006).
18
There is clearly a great potential for bulk nanostructured materials,
particularly in the aerospace industry. However, there are some
limitations to their wider use which result from the current restrictions on
the cost and size of SPD processed elements. One of the routes to ease
these restrictions is offered by a modification of existing SPD techniques.
Another route aims at the development of new methods. Finally, it must
be stated that to introduce products having a nanometal structure into the
market, will need a major research and development effort in order to
fully explore and understand the specific properties of SPD materials and
to optimize the processing route for particular applications.
19
new concepts in design and to apply self-healing mechanisms in the
context of intermetallic alloys and intermetallic-based composite
materials.
The INTAS project “Nanocomposite sliding bearings for air bleed valves”
(NANOBLEBUS, 2005-2007) aims to develop new nanocomposite materials
for the production of sliding bearing sleeves used in the (A380) AIRBUS
aircraft air conditioning system.
CNT-NET and NANOCOMP are two networks funded by the European Union
that address the subject of nanotube and nanofibre polymer composites
from different perspectives, though both aim to stimulate the
understanding and application of such systems (Shaffer & Kinloch, 2004).
In 2003, the 1st annual Nano Materials for Aerospace Symposium was
held in Corpus Christi, Texas. This conference series has since been
renamed Nanomaterials for Defence Applications and the latest meeting
was in Virginia Beach, Virginia, in May 2006. The next meeting will occur
in May 2007 in San Diego, CA.
20
2.7.1 Introduction
2.7.2 Definitions
21
These effects however, are driven not only by the small size but unusual
shapes and aspect ratios (L/h > 300) of the additives and include
extraordinarily high interfacial areas or highly aligned phases of the
additive. Due to their efficiency, nanofillers can be used in small quantities
(less than 5% by weight). The constituent inorganic additives can be
applied in a form of particles, tubes and wires, two-dimensional platelets
and porous materials. Their application brings improvements in
mechanical strength and aging resistance, reduction of wear and
flammability, barrier to diffusion, optical transparency, and unprecedented
morphologies such as interpenetrating networks. However, from both a
commercial and military perspective, the value of PNCs technology is not
based solely on mechanical enhancements of the neat resin. Rather, it
comes from providing value-added properties not present in the neat
resin, without sacrificing the inherent processability and mechanical
properties of the resin. Traditionally, blend or composite attempts at
multifunctional materials require a trade-off between desired
performance, mechanical properties, cost, and processability.
Researchers developed two main PNCs fabrication methodologies: in-situ
routes and exfoliation. Currently, researchers in industry, government,
and academia worldwide are heavily investigating exfoliation of layered
silicates, carbon nanofibres/nanotube-polymer nanocomposites, and high-
performance PNCs resins (AFRL Horizons).
2.7.3 Classification
22
polyesters. Other PNCs are also based on thermosets, including epoxies,
unsaturated polyesters and polyurethanes.
23
the polymer matrix. These factors should be taken into account when
reporting, interpreting, and comparing results from nanotube / polymer
composites.
Functionalisation of nanotubes provides a convenient route to improve
dispersion and modify interfacial properties that may in turn improve the
properties of nanocomposites, especially mechanical properties. The
significant progress in nanotube functionalisation chemistry in recent
years ensures that this approach will become more prevalent.
Quantifying nanotube dispersion in polymers (and solvents) is an
inherently challenging problem because it involves a range of length
scales, and thereby multiple experimental methods are required.
Fortunately, new experimental methods are applied to the problem, such
as a fluorescence method to non-destructively detect isolated SWNT in a
polymer matrix.
Nanotubes have clearly demonstrated their capability as conductive
fillers in polymer nanocomposites. Further advances with respect to
electrical conductivity in nanotube / polymer composites are likely if only
(or predominantly) metallic nanotubes could be used in the
nanocomposites. Two approaches are actively being pursued in SWNT
materials: modify the synthetic route to preferentially produce metallic
nanotubes and sort the existing nanotubes.
The physical properties of nanotube /polymer composites can be
interpreted in terms of nanotube networks, which are readily detected by
electrical and rheological property measurements. The nanotube network
provides electrical conduction pathways above the percolation threshold,
where the percolation threshold depends on both concentration and
nanotube alignment. The nanotube network also significantly increases
the viscosity of the polymer and slows thermal degradation. In contrast,
it remains a challenge to reduce the interfacial thermal resistance of
these nanotube networks, so as to take advantage of the high thermal
conductivity of individual nanotubes in a polymer composite system.
The shielding effectiveness and electrical conductivity of carbon fibre-
reinforced epoxy composites were investigated both theoretically and
experimentally. The effects of fibre orientation and total composite
thickness on shielding effectiveness were examined by electrical
measurements and theoretical modelling and the dominant mechanism of
electromagnetic interference shielding identified as absorption (Abdalla et
al, 2006). Unidirectional carbon fibre reinforced epoxy straps were also
proposed as fatigue crack growth retarders for aircraft construction
(Colavita et al, 2006).
Nickel nanostrands were mixed or infused into Hysol 9396 aerospace
epoxy resin and the mechanical and electrical properties of the nickel-
containing epoxy resin investigated. The influence of nickel nanostrand
loading level, mode of their incorporation into the epoxy resin and
magnetic orientation on mechanical and electrical properties of the
composite were examined (Burghardt et al, 2006).
New panel material for use in bulkhead and structural flooring in aircraft,
using glass reinforced polymer faced sheets with a foam core and a Kevlar
24
ballistic resistant backing has been described. Panels infiltrated with a fire
retardant resin, were evaluated for their fire resistance, toxicity in fires,
mechanical strength and ballistic resistance according to National Institute
of Justice and ASTM standards (Cohen et al, 2005).
In orbit, satellites are exposed to significant thermal variations. To ensure
reliable operation of their on-board systems and equipment, a thermal
control of the spacecraft is necessary using cold, neutral or warm
coatings. The Materials and Coatings Laboratory of the Thermal Control
Services at CNES (Toulouse, France) has elaborated a cold coating version
by using a polysiloxane deposit on a metal substrate (such as polished
aluminium or vacuum deposited silver). In geostationary orbit,
polysiloxane, which has a high electrical resistivity, can accumulate
implanted charges that can give rise to electrostatic discharges and
damage the neighbouring electronic systems. To prevent any electrostatic
discharge problems in geostationary orbit, the resistivity of coatings
should be reduced without altering their thermo-optical properties, in
particular the low solar absorptivity and the high emissivity for cold
coatings. Several methods have been studied, such as the incorporation of
carbon nanotubes (CNT) and indium tin oxide (ITO) nanoparticles in the
polysiloxane matrix, with the objective of attaining a high transparency, a
high emissive, and an antistatic resin (Hidden et al, 2006).
The effects of processing parameters (compression moulding) on the
mechanical properties of carbon/polyetherketoneketone (PEKK)
thermoplastic composite laminates have also been studied. SEM was used
to observe the different microstructures arising from various processing
conditions. Optimum properties for the laminates have been established.
The range of parameters can serve as a guide to consolidate carbon/PEKK
laminates for high performance aerospace applications (Salek et al, 2005).
Conductive multifunctional polymer nanocomposite “NanoSphalt” is a
carbon nanofibre and fibreglass composite material
(www.ohionanosummit.net). The nanofibres bring an entirely new
property to fibreglass and other polymer composites – the ability to
conduct electricity – which opens the door for new applications for
lightweight but strong materials that are inherently not conductive (a
deflective “skin” could be applied to aircraft to prevent damage from a
lightning strike). The material was demonstrated at the Society for the
Advancement of Material and Process Engineering’s annual conference in
May, 2004, when researches lit a 75-watt bulb by running current through
the model bridge. Other potential applications are: electrically conductive
adhesives, energy harvesting, structural components with improved
electrical / thermal conductivity (such as aircraft engines that can burn
hotter and thus more efficiently).
Fabrication, processing, chemical and physical treatment of various forms
of carbon may have direct-end uses or may be further continued in order
to produce polymer nanocomposites for: low-wear resistance aircraft
brakes, protective coatings for satellites, superior insulating materials
capable of heat-storage and transfer, novel batteries etc. Researchers
working for aircraft industry try to find a way to replace copper wiring with
25
polymer wiring made with electrically conductive carbon nanofibres.
According to information from a wiring company, a Boeing 747 has
approximately 225 km of wire weighing approximately 1600 kg.
Theoretically, replacing that wire with conductive polymer will bring the
wiring weight alone down to well below approximately 454 kg, which will
positively impact the range and fuel efficiency of the aircraft.
Scientists from University of Dayton Research Institute (OH, USA) and Air
Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) have developed plastic that after being
deformed, can spring back into shape when heated. Mixing carbon
nanotubes with polymers creates “shape-memory” polymers that respond
to heat, electricity and infrared light (published in the February 2004 issue
of Nature Materials). It is believed that shape-memory polymers will be
used in practical applications within 5 years, e.g. in large structures that
need to be packed for launch and unfurled later.
26
which forms chemical bonds with the conversion coat and a conventional
aircraft topcoat, has been demonstrated. This CFPP coating system
exhibits higher abrasion resistance against plastic media blasting than the
topcoat. It permits selective stripping of the topcoat without removal of
the primer or conversion coating. The topcoat may be selectively stripped
off when required and a fresh topcoat reapplied, making the aircraft ready
to fly again (Kovar et al, 2006).
Attempts were made to modify polybenzimidazole (PBI) by high-energy
radiation and low-pressure plasma treatment to permit the preparation of
composites with the same polymer. The PBI composites were prepared by
using an ultra-high-temperature-resistant epoxy adhesive to join the two
polymer sheets. The adhesive had a service temperature range of -260 to
+370 ºC and was highly resistant to acids, alkalis, solvents, corrosives,
radiation, and fire. Before preparing the composite, the surface of the PBI
was ultrasonically cleaned in acetone and modified by high-energy
radiation for 6 hrs in the pool of a nuclear reactor that produced a mixed
field of thermal and epithermal neutrons, energetic electrons, and
protons, and gamma-rays at a dose rate of 37 kGy/h. Alternatively, the
polymer was subjected to low-pressure plasma treatment with a 13.56-
MHz radio-frequency glow discharge for 120 s at 100 W power with
nitrogen as the process gas. A considerable increase in the joint strength
was observed when the polymer surface was modified by either process. A
further significant increase in joint strength occurred when the polymer
surface was initially modified by exposure to low-pressure plasma followed
by exposure to high-energy radiation. To simulate conditions in space, the
joints were exposed to cryogenic (-196 °C) and high temperatures (+300
°C) for 100 hrs. Joints exposed to these conditions retained about 95 % of
their strength. Microscopic examination of fractured surfaces of the joints
showed that the surface-modified polymer essentially failed cohesively
within the adhesive (Bhowmik et al, 2006).
Vibra-Tite from ND Industries (Loctite Corp.) is a unique threadlocking and
sealing product. All threaded fasteners tend to loosen under vibration.
Vibra-Tite is a solvent solution of acrylic polymers that is brushed onto the
threads and dries within a few minutes. Because of its soft, pliable nature,
it seems likely that Vibra-Tite is able to cold-flow to fill all the void spaces
in a threaded assembly, and then be hard enough and have enough
friction to prevent the slide slippage of the threads that causes loosening.
Vibra-Tite does not adhere strongly to the fasteners, allowing adjustment
of fasteners and reuse after disassembly. Vibra-Tite has been used on
assembly screws on the treadmill on the International Space Station and
other applications (Dunn, 2006).
27
Chapter 3: Review of state of the art of
technology and future trends in Aeronautics
The global passenger traffic is expected to increase steadily over the next
20 years by an average growth rate of about 5%. Main reasons are GDP
growth, increased globalisation, and population growth (see chapter 6). To
satisfy these expectations aircraft companies are looking for new
technologies.
The main driving force towards lighter materials is the fact that transport
costs decrease by a factor of $300 per pound of reduced weight in
commercial aircraft transport. This value is 100 times as high as it is in
the automotive sector. Reduced weight leads to lower costs and better
ecological compatibility due to reduced fuel consumption.
On the other hand, the need for lighter materials is even stronger in space
applications, so that the development of new materials is mainly driven by
the space industry. (Plano, 2002)
28
Revolutionary new nanocomposites have the promise to be 100 times
stronger than steel at only 1/6 of the weight, making aircraft more
efficient and able to fly faster.
Current R&D is looking at improved macroscopic materials using
nanomaterial additives which show the same promising properties on the
macroscale as on the nanoscale. In futuristic scenarios aircraft could
weigh as little as half of a conventional aircraft manufactured with today's
materials. Such novel materials would be extremely flexible allowing the
wings to reshape instantly and remaining extremely resistant to damage
at the same time. In addition, these materials would have “self-healing”
functionality. The high strength-to-weight ratio of these nano-materials
could enable new vehicle designs that can withstand crashes and protect
the passengers against injury. (NASA, 2001)
These are the reasons why the aeronautics industry is actively researching
the exploitation possibilities of micro and nanotech. For example, the
Boeing Company has formed an alliance with Ford and Northwestern
University to conduct nanotechnology research on projects of mutual
interest and potential benefit to the companies' current and future
products. (Boeing, 2005)
The main reason for this is the need for mature and robust solutions in
aerospace applications. The aeronautics business remains extremely
conservative and risk averse, making it difficult for nanotech applications
to be integrated into new products. This is even more prominent for civil
aircraft makers. Carrying passengers puts extreme demands on the
29
qualification process of new technologies. The material has not only to
prove its supremacy, but also its durability, whereby the physical
properties are maintained under extreme conditions and on a long-term
basis. In addition, a production process suitable for an industrial scale and
a reasonable price/performance ratio is mandatory. (Oger, 2006;
NanoroadSME)
Although the requirements of the aerospace sector are a driving force for
improvements in nanomaterials, the sector will stay a niche market for
nanotechnology applications because of the small numbers of aircraft and
the associated cost intensive development.
The drivers are for lighter, stronger and safer aircraft. According to a
study of Lockheed (cited in Bader & Stumpp, 2006) it is not sufficient to
reduce the density of a material. When reducing the weight of an element
by 10% it is necessary to reduce its density by 10%, but simultaneously
to enhance its strength by 35%, its stiffness by 50% and its damage
tolerance by 100%
30
A further improvement can be expected by substituting micrometre fibres
in these composites by fibres in the nanometre range. Estimations are
made that aluminium, reinforced with carbon nanotubes, can lead to a
weight reduction of 60-70% compared with current fibre-reinforced
polymers.
Fibre-reinforced polymers
The major hurdles preventing a broader use of CNTs (not only in the
aerospace sector) are the 10,000-fold increase in price compared to
standard fibres and the lack of an appropriate industrial-scale production
method. Technical problems include a lack of methods to achieve spatial
alignment of CNTs, good adhesion to the polymer matrix and achieving a
high loading rate.
31
• The addition of nanoparticles (e.g. clay-like mineral montmorillonite) to
synthetic resin is being studied to improve material strength. (EADS,
2007)
• Carbon-fibre reinforced polymers have a greater potential as a
lightweight design than aluminium alloys, but suffer from delamination
under load. The use of SiO2 nanoparticles leads to an improvement of
64% in tensile modulus, 25% more strength and 90% more impact
resistance. (Bader, 2006)
Metals
Ceramics
Composites
Applications
32
Applications where nanomaterials can contribute to aircraft construction
are mainly in the airframe structure but also in the interior to a minor
degree:
• The airframe is the main target for the use of nanomaterials, aiming at
a weight reduction and therefore decreased fuel consumption and
costs because of the strength of nanomaterials as described above.
• Aircraft safety and security is also being increased through the use of
new materials in the interior. One example is the development of bullet
proof materials for sensitive parts, e. g. the cockpit door. High strength
and lightweight composite laminates (incorporating carbon nanotubes
in a variety of resins) are being investigated for use in ballistic
protection and novel damping materials.
33
• An important aspect for the interior of an aircraft is the need for fire
retardant materials. The aim is to meet the stringent specifications
demanded of materials used in aircraft interiors more cheaply and
effectively than with the costly specialised polymers currently used. It
has been shown that the introduction of nanoparticle additives to 5 %
can lead to a huge reduction in fire risk. On the other hand
nanoparticles can also act as fire accelerant, so a detailed analysis of
nanoparticles used in aircraft is necessary. (FhG-IFAM, 2004)
• The Boeing 787 concept not only includes a higher cabin pressure but
special filters to maintain a higher air quality. Filtration systems are
on the market, which use nanoscale silver particles to eliminate
undesirable odours and kill airborne health threats. It has been shown
that such nanofilters kill 99.7% of influenza viruses. Up to 98% of
odours were eliminated and another nano-filter eliminated all noxious
volatile organic compounds. (AzoNano, 2004)
3.2. Coatings
34
Other anticorrosive materials used in aviation, are nanoscale boron
oxide (Shuihu, 2003) and nano-crystalline cobalt-phosphorous
coatings. (TPC, 2005)
• For repairing corrosion damage, carbon nanotube filled resins are under
development. (Nanovic)
• Hard compound nano ceramic films are being investigated for the
protection of propeller-blade surfaces.
• Nano paint (nano graphite, nano Teflon, nano talc powder) has also
been patented for reducing friction of ship and aircraft surfaces
(allowing faster speeds to be achieved). The advantages should be a
very high lubricating and self-lubricating performance. (Qinghai, 2002)
35
3.3. Engines
Because of the high surface area, nanoparticles can act as very efficient
catalysts, even for liquid and solid aerospace engine fuels. Fuels used at
present can be improved by the addition of nano-sized energetic particles,
which allow a higher combustion temperature, faster energy release rates,
a shortened ignition delay, shortened burn times resulting in more
complete combustion, a greater flexibility in designing new energetic
fuel/propellants, replacing inert or low-energy gellants, and a rapid energy
release.
• Aluminium nanoparticles are used with liquid jet and rocket fuel to
increase the propulsion energy.
36
• Nano-sized energetic metals and boron particles possess desirable
combustion properties such as a high combustion temperature and fast
energy release rates. (Kuo, 2003)
Aircraft turbine engines are very flexible in the kind of fuel that they can
burn (Valentine, 2006). Cleaner and alternative fuels may help in reducing
harmful emissions. Examples under discussion are hydrogen or cryogenic
fuels. Problems are a suitable industrial production technique of hydrogen
and suitable storage technologies. Nanomaterials are being widely
investigated for their ability to store hydrogen and other gases and liquids
because of their high surface-to-volume ratio.
3.4. Sensors
37
• The enhanced use of composite materials leads to the need for a
structural health monitoring system, because traditional methods for
testing metallic structures, like eddy current testing, cannot be used for
insulating materials. For identifying damage within advanced composite
materials, a network of carbon nanotubes or other nanowires can be
used, which detects damages by a reduction of the network
conductivity. Airbus for example is exploring piezoelectric paint made of
a lead-zirconate-titanate nanopowder; however this is still at a
laboratory stage. This paint could work as a very precise sensor for
information about vibrations, defects or impacts on an aircraft surface.
38
such as air conditioning and lighting on its aircraft by 2015. The
application of fuel cells has the potential to save up to 1% of jet fuel,
which is a large value considering that one Boeing 777 uses about half a
million kilograms of fuel every year.
3.6. Others
• For hydraulic uses, better lubricants and safer nano-fluids are being
developed.
• In the longer term, active noise control techniques may benefit from
new knowledge on micro and nanotechnologies and could allow aircraft
noise to be reduced further. (ACARE, 2004)
• The windows in the Boeing 787 will not have blinds, but are made from
electro chromic glass, which dims at the touch of a button.
3.7. Conclusion
39
Chapter 4 Review of state of the art of technology and
future trends in Spacecraft
4.1 Introduction
The space sector deals with all the technologies associated with travel
outside the earth atmosphere. Different types of spacecrafts exist to
achieve specific goals in space exploration. Spacecrafts are also developed
for both military and civilian applications. This section will cover civilian
applications.
Non-orbital spacecrafts called ‘probes’ are used for deep exploration of the
universe.
40
78 launched in 2005. Of the 6376 launches, 56.8% were military
spacecrafts and 43.2% were civilian. 245 manned missions have been
launched in this period. 1674 communication or weather satellites were
also launched1. The remaining spacecrafts launches have been exploration
missions.
The space sector has been a strategic field for all the industrial nations.
Space exploration is the oldest human dream and the present national
space programs are very ambitious (e.g. Mars manned flights, extra solar
system exploration2). As spaceflights become common, commercial
applications are expected to present colossal potential opportunity for
communication, GPS and space tourism companies.
1
The spacecraft encyclopedia, http://www.sciencepresse.qc.ca/clafleur/spacecrafts-index.html
2
NASA strategic plan, http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/142303main_2006_NASA_Strategic_Plan_sm.pdf
41
spacecraft applications makes sense in order to understand tomorrow’s
spacecraft. Nanotechnology is the development at the atomic, molecular
or macromolecular levels, in the length scale of approximately 1 - 100
nanometre range, to provide a fundamental understanding of phenomena
and materials at the nanoscale and to create and use structures, devices
and systems that have novel properties and functions because of their
small and/or intermediate size3.
- The three first parts will describe innovation that could find applications
in all the spacecraft such as nanotechnologies for materials, electronics
and energy.
- The fourth part outlines manned flights and the potential applications of
nanotechnologies for on-board life support management.
- The fifth part describes satellites and science payloads and the potential
of nanotechnologies in making them more efficient.
- And final part is a review of the potential of nanotechnologies for
futuristic visions like the space elevator.
4.2 Materials
3
NSF definition, http://www.nsf.gov/crssprgm/nano/reports/omb_nifty50.jsp
42
• New thermal properties can solve the problem of extreme
temperature variation, not only for the structure but also for
components, because at that level the wall of temperature is a very
stringent factor.
• New electronic properties can allow building materials with
integrated sensors (e.g. to detect materials cracks) or materials for
electronic components. Several new sensors such as infrared
sensors, gas and pollutants sensors can also be created.
• Finally materials nano structured can allow the construction of
lighter structure and the development of nanocomposites.
4.2.1. Nanoelements
Nanoparticles
Nanoparticles were the first discovered nanoelement
and so their engineered processes are the most
controlled. They can be used in several devices (as
bulk or surface) for materials or electronics. They
bring new properties to existing materials e.g.
creation of specific optical properties with the addition
of TiO2 nanoparticles. According to the control of their
engineering, nanoparticles are already used in mass production materials
like in automotive industry. Indeed, the tire industry has been using SiO2
nanoparticles in order to improve mechanical and thermal properties for a
few years.
Due to their high mechanical strength and resistance against heat and
radiation, nanoparticle reinforced polymers, have potential applications in
various components in space as lightweight structural materials, housings
of solid-propellant rockets, as heat protection material, electrical isolations
or fire protection applications. The early applications are already emerging
43
in the space sector. In a SBIR project of NASA, nano-crystalline aluminium
alloys were developed for space applications by the company DWA
Aluminium Composites in co-operation with different US-American
aerospace companies. This development aims to facilitate formability of
materials through super plasticity generated by reducing the melting
points and sintering temperatures to 30% (VDI Technology centre, 2003).
Carbon nanotubes
4
Aerospace Corporation is an independent US research centre for United States Air Force
and the National Reconnaissance Office. It also has links with NASA, Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, Air Force laboratories and California State
44
average price is about $500 per gram and the average quantity
production is about 100g per day).
4.2.1.1.1. Polymers
4.2.1.1.2. Composites
45
thermal conductivity, directional anisotropy, radiation absorption, and
structural reinforcement capabilities. Major reductions in the overall
system mass are possible with the use of nanostructured thermal
protection and radiation structure materials.
5
Texas Institute for Intelligent Bio-Nano Materials and Structures for Aerospace Vehicles:
http://tiims.tamu.edu/research/nanomat.html
46
Aerospace Corporation shows that cyanate ester trimers interact strongly
with the surface of the single walled carbon nanotubes. Experiments have
shown that when carbon nanotubes are fully dispersed in cyanate-ester
resin, at concentrations of only 0.5 percent by weight, the modulus of the
cured polycyanurate matrix is approximately doubled. This nanoreinforced
resin can improve the resin-dominated properties such as shear strength
of carbon fibre polycyanurate composites used in space hardware for stiff,
lightweight structures.
Carbon nanotubes thermal characteristics have also been tested to create
new polymer properties. Experiences show that the insertion of nanotubes
into the polymer matrices increases the thermal expansion coefficient of
the material by 40 to 60 percent above glass transition temperature. This
also enhances the thermal diffusion coefficient by about 30 percent
(CANEUS, 2002). These characteristics of the composite, as opposed to
the bare polymer matrices, are expected to be useful during the
processing steps above glass transition temperature. The mechanical
strength and stiffness characteristics of the polymer matrices are also
found to increase by about 30 to 50 percent on mixing of 5 to 10 percent
of nanotubes at room temperature. Enhancing thermal properties can be
useful to protect structure of space extreme temperatures.
4.2.1.1.3 Coatings
47
Coatings are used in spacecraft as structure protector or to enhance some
properties of the material structure. Nanotechnologies allow the building
of a lot of new coatings like smart coatings or with attractive new
properties like hardwearing, thermal electrics isolating, optical properties.
Most of the research on coatings is currently focused on the enhancement
of electrical and thermal properties of existing structures.
48
4.2.2 Materials conclusion
Notice: research on carbon nanotubes integration seems the most promising but carbon
nanotubes manufacturing and integration into an existing structure is still not totally
controlled. This research will find applications in the longer term than nanoparticles
integration.
4.3. Electronics
6
+: normal ; ++: strong interest ; +++ : very strong interest
49
different parts of the vehicle, energy transformation) and all the science
payloads. The electronics industrial sector is a very innovative sector with
a huge market potential and so the study of nanotechnologies
incorporation into electronics devices represents a real stake for its actors.
Indeed nanotechnologies promise enhancement of actual electronics
devices properties reducing their size.
50
devices that were fabricated for the experiment exhibited any significantly
altered electrical changes before and after proton irradiation (Hong et al.,
2006).
With the increasing number of on-board analysis systems coupled with the
lengthening of space flight, memories have to increase their storage
density decreasing mass memory. They also have to face space
constraints like others electronics components i.e. extremes
temperatures, radiations, mechanical constraints. “Nanotechnologies offer
potential in the development of new non volatile working memories for
computer systems, which will compete in the future with conventional
memory chips like DRAM.” (VDI, 2003)
The three lasts represent the main potential applications for spacecraft.
Biological memory
51
developing this technology.
Experiments were also made with data storage on diamonds with Fluorine
and Hydrogen atoms on its surface. This structure increases data quantity
stored by 107.
MRAM
NRAM
4.3.3 Nanocharacterisation
7
See: http://www.nantero.com/pdf/Press_Release_11_06%20.pdf
52
structure containing the features of interest is physically deconstructed. It
can then be digitally reconstructed from the images taken after each cut
(Ives et al., 2005).
53
4.4. Energy generation and storage
4.4.1. Propellants
Propellants usually used for space launching are ammonium per chlorate
(NH4ClO4). The American Institute for Aeronautics and Astronautics as well
as SNPE8 are currently exploring ways to improve those using
nanoparticles of Aluminium. The most common formulation is aluminium
nanoparticles mixed with molybdenum trioxide (MoO3) or bismuth trioxide
(Bi2O3). The aluminium particles sizes range between 60 and 120 nm and
experimentally measured combustion wave speeds varied between 420
and 460 m/s. Combustion wave speeds in excess of 1km/s with an under
8
SNPE is a chemical group specialised in explosives, energetic materials.
http://www.snpe.com/uk/index.asp
54
pressure of several hundreds atmosphere. Results indicate that burn rate
increased with decreasing particle size.
At present the most efficient solar cells for space applications are based
on III/V-semiconductors such as GaAs and InP and have a conversion
efficiency that can reach 40% with triple junction cells. Conversion
efficiencies of over 50% may be possible with such compound
semiconductor solar cells (Aroutiounian et al., 2001). The conversion
efficiency of solar cells may be improved by using semiconductor quantum
dots. (VDI, 2003)
55
photovoltaic device. Theoretically studies have predicted a two-fold
improvement in efficiency over conventional device structures (Luque and
Martí, 1997). This method of device improvement relies upon the physics
of the quantum mechanical "particle in a box". Each nanocrystalline dot
behaves as a potential well with energy levels that are quantized and
inversely related to the size of the well. By modifying the size of the
particle, the absorption energy of the dot can be tuned to a region where
it will be complementary to the existing cell properties (NASA, 2002).
Although the quantum mechanical dots contribute to cell output by
providing an intermediate band, they do not require current matching. In
this respect, quantum mechanical dot devices represent an alternative to
multi-junction devices. As the quantum dots synthesis process is still not
well controlled, the problems of quantum dots integration in solar cells are
both the synthesis of quantum dots, their integration in an exogenous
structure and the potential toxicity they represent during their
manufacturing.
Figure 4.2 : Intermediate-band gap solar cell, NASA Glenn research centre
http://powerweb.grc.nasa.gov/pvsee/programs/thinfilm/tfg_nano.html
56
catalysts, membranes and hydrogen storage, which in many cases is
critical for the employment of fuel cell technology in space.
Direct methanol fuel cells (DMFC) are one platform for generating energy.
DMFC used a catalyst to convert methanol fuel to hydrogen. The
poisoning of the catalyst by carbon monoxide is one of the main obstacles.
This can be improved by the use of metallic nanoparticles or ceramic
nanopowders. Fuel storage is also considered to be a problem in
implementing fuel cells (VDI, 2003).
The other type of fuel cell is hydrogen fuel cells. They provide higher
power density and double conversion efficiency compared to DMFC. The
critical problem with hydrogen fuel cells is hydrogen storage that prevents
the use of hydrogen fuel cells power sources. Different nanomaterials
were tested for hydrogen storage due to their increased active surface
area but their energy storage is still inferior to that of carbon nanotubes.
Indeed due to their hollow tubular nature, carbon nanotubes have a
relatively good hydrogen retention rate (4-5% under very low
temperature < 100°K) that is why several space agencies (American
Institute of Aeronautics and Aerospace, NASA) investigated the use of
carbon nanotubes to enhance current hydrogen storage system.
57
4.4.4. Batteries
Space power systems used high performance batteries such as lithium ion
or nickel metal hydride accumulators for powering devices. Nickel
hydrogen or nickel metal hydride batteries are essentially used in small
sized elements like for extra vehicular activity (EVA) suit devices and
experiments. That is why powerful and miniaturized batteries are needed
to improve portative tools autonomy. Ultracaps (kind of battery where
electric energy is directly stored as positive or negative charge without
any reaction on the electrode surfaces) with mechanical storage with
kinetic wheel are also developed for pulsed and power driven applications
and are planned for Space or Lunar station. The lifetime and efficiency of
charging and discharging cycles in these batteries is critically dependent
on storage and/or intercalation properties of the anode material.
Nanostructured materials offer improvements power density and durability
by controlling the charge diffusion and the oxidation state on a nanoscale
level (Khullar et al., 2004 cited in VDI, 2003).
58
those topics because energy is a key point for future spacecraft according
to the increasing need of autonomy.
The following table summarize the different nano applications for energy
in space under study:
Life support is becoming a key research axis in space sciences. With the
development of longer manned mission and space tourism, monitoring the
life on the International Space Station or in shuttles is a real challenge.
There are numerous applications of nanotechnology within life support.
The important life support tasks have been summarised by VDI as oxygen
supply, pressure monitoring, ventilation, heat absorption and rejection,
waste water treatment, monitoring of water quality, CO2 removal,
hygiene, air cleaning and filtration, control of air quality and humidity,
health monitoring, filtering, avoiding moistures, decontaminating.
According to NASA, nanotechnologies can find potential application in gas
storage, wastewater treatment and sensors. (VDI, 2003)
As long travel mission for human far exploration are seriously engaged,
enhancing on board life management become a necessity.
Nanotechnologies can bring technological solutions to astronauts’ daily
problems.
Gas sensors: The electronic nose based on gas sensors is used for
monitoring air quality and to detect fire warning. Nanotechnology is
expected to improve the selectivity of these gas sensors. Various types of
metal oxide and ceramic nanopowders can be used to improve the
performance of electrochemical sensors. (VDI, 2003)
59
NASA researches are focused on the topic of miniaturized sensors.
Researchers from NASA’s jet propulsion laboratory developed a
nanocarpet. This unique structure is a carpet of self assembling carbon
nanotubes that can be used for trapping microscopic particles or micro
organisms (e.g. inorganic particles, pollen, bacteria, spores). Its function
is first trapping microscopic particles for scientific analysis (Noca et al.,
2004).
60
bone, muscle, performance loss, heart and blood circulation problems,
distortion of the sense of balance, of the immune system, radiation
damages, insufficient methods for on-board medical therapy and
diagnostics (Stilwell, 2001).
61
molecular probes covalently attached to the end of the multi walled
carbon nanotubes. The probe molecules could be designed as specific
biomarkers such as nucleic acids or proteins (NASA, 2006).
62
however most of the important research is being conducted in the
laboratory. The researchers are trying to fix nanoparticles on lymphocytes
and the answer can be induced by detection of suicides enzymes produced
by the cell when it is irradiated.
4.5.3. Textile
The following table summarize the different nano applications for life
management in space under study:
9
US Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
63
Technology Characteristic Interest Perspective
Nanocarpet Particles detection, space +++ Short term
radiation resistant
Carbon nanotubes in gas Improve their sensibility; harsh +++ Short term
sensors space conditions resistant
Carbon nanotubes in Lab Improve their sensibility; harsh +++ Short term
on a chip / Biochip space conditions resistant
Drug delivery Enhance health management +++ Middle term
Smart textile More adapted to space conditions, ++ Middle term
health monitoring
In the case of non-orbital mission one speaks more about probes. The
needs identified for this kind of missions are for one part development of
more autonomous systems in order to increase missions’ duration and on
the other hand the miniaturization of satellites to decrease their weight
and so decreasing launching costs. As probes are often used for deep
space exploration (e.g. asteroid belt) problems of miniaturization and
autonomy are all the more important.
Companies that use the potential of satellites for business have launched
commercial satellites. The two main commercial applications for satellites
are: communication (e.g. cell phones, TV) and GPS. The need identified
for commercial applications is clearly costs reduction and for that mass
and size saving.
64
satellites can reach several tons). Since the launch of Sputnik in 1957 (84
kg), satellites weights have decreased to reach a ten kg for current
satellites in orbit. Researches are currently focused on the nano and pico
satellite development. Prefix used to qualify those satellites doesn’t
express the size of the satellite itself but a class of weight (1 to 10 kg for
nanosatellite, 0.1 to 1 kg for picosatellite). They most express an average
range of size components. The ultimate goal of satellite miniaturization is
the construction of a satellite-on-a-chip which represents the idea of a
completely functional satellite built as a monolithic integrated circuit.
Expected dimensions are: 216 cm² total design space, less than 5mm
thick, lass than 100g mass, 100 mW peak power (Barnhart et al., 2005).
Thus within the main space agencies program, industries are involved in
the satellite miniaturization race which includes a part of enhancement in
65
the on board nanotechnologies integration. Several examples can be
quoted:
10
See: http://ilrs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-
bin/satellite_missions/select.cgi?order=&sat_code=STA3&sat_name=Starshine-
3&tab_id=general
66
So satellite miniaturization has the potential to accelerate introduction of
advanced nanotechnologies not only in satellites but also in all the
spacecraft.
The data handling subsystem is basically the on-board computer for the
satellite, responsible for several jobs. It receives, validates, decodes and
distributes commands from the ground, payloads or other subsystem. It
also gathers processes and formats spacecraft housekeeping and mission
data for downlink or use on board. This sub-system implies both use of
advanced software and hardware.
Nanotechnologies applications for electronics can contribute to the
protection against space radiations but another nanotechnology
application could enhance data handling performances. Even if it is a long-
term application, several advances were made in the field of quantum
computing. These include building two- and three-quit quantum
computers capable of some simple arithmetic and data sorting. Large
technical issues must still be resolved. (VDI, 2003) The main potential
advantage quantum computing represent is still its potential to secure
data transmission by efficient information encoding.
67
Propulsion subsystem:
Because non-ideal forces can make a satellite move from its trajectory,
propulsion subsystem is needed to mitigate this effect. Several studies
were conducted to study the feasibility of miniaturized propulsion
subsystems. Today only MEMS or micro propulsion effort (this technology
embeds discreet amounts of propellant in an array of sealed capsules on a
silicon substrate (Barnhart et al., 2005)) were achieved but a CANEUS
project is currently focused on research for low mass, high energy density
storage systems and micro-nanotechnology based batteries for providing
adapted solutions of miniaturized propulsion system according to the kind
of space mission.
4.6.2.1. Sensors
68
Sensors can be used to detect energetic particles specific for space (solar
protons, radiation belt electrons, auroral electrons). A nanosensor based
on niobium nitride was built by a team of Delft University of Technology
and Netherlands Institute for Space Research (SRON) to detect terahertz
frequencies. Terahertz frequencies are contained in cosmic radiation and
so can be used to have more information about the birth of star systems
and planets. First tests on earth atmosphere are planned for 2008.
69
Figure 4.6 : REBR, the Aerospace Corporation
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/multimedia/images/2005/blackbox.html
4.6.2.3. Communication
70
of the critical need for real-time data downlink to support some kind of
missions such as the space weather satellite (Kraft, 2005). New
metamaterials for antenna arrays are also planned.
71
Finally it is important to notice that not only traditional optical data
transmission are improved by nanotechnologies but also nanotechnologies
allow the building of materials with innovative properties that can play a
role in data handling. As an example aerospace scientist continued to
explore the use of nanoscale glass ceramic that enhances internal
communication via photonics.
The following table summarize the different nano applications for satellites
and science payloads in space under study:
11
See: http://www.niac.usra.edu/
12
See: http://www.esa.int/gsp/ACT/ariadna/index.htm
72
4.7.1. Space elevator
Thus the main advantages that a space elevator could allow are –
All of this could call into question the current advanced technologies
because of the weight and price constraints that would be partly removed.
Thus a researcher from Los Alamos National Laboratory, Bradley Edwards,
has been credited with giving the most rigorous thought to the
components and technical breakthroughs that would be needed to build a
space elevator (Aerospace America, 2006). The main conclusions of his
research are that the main components in the construction of a space
elevator will be carbon nanotubes. Though the technology is not going to
be ready for this application soon. There has been some promising
research performed by Yuntian Theodore Zhu, who built a 4cm nanotube.
The challenge remains in constructing a cable that is 37, 786 km.
73
In order to address the technical barriers that scientists are facing with,
the NASA organizes a design contest every year to address these space
challenges. There are two parts to the challenge, the beam power and
tether15. There have been other concerns voiced such as terrorist attacks,
hacking risks and other environmental catastrophes it could bring. There
has also been concern about sharing the costs and risks internationally.
But the main problem they will have to confront is the need for improved
monitoring of the human body. Humans on such missions would have to
confront microgravity, weak magnetic fields, ionizing radiation and other
cosmic hazards. Space agencies are involved in program dedicated to
enhance space life monitoring e.g., NASA invested 10M$ in 2006 in a
program called “NASA’s Bioastronautics Roadmap”.
74
penetrating the suit, and to quickly seal over any cuts or punctures
(NASA, 2005).
Satellites Swarm
To achieve autonomous goal, researches are
focused on satellites systems called cluster of
satellite or swarms. As the main stakes of this kind
of formation are secure communication and
autonomy (energy generation, storage), researches
are being conducted in sparse aperture signal
processing, micro propulsion, formation flying,
collaborative control, spatial ionosphere effects,
MEMS/NEMS and software intelligence.
Launch of formation satellites has already done to test and improve those
technologies:
o TechSat 21, launched in 2003 is a flight experience of three micro
satellites to experimental concepts for clusters very low costs,
lightweight satellites in close formation.
o Space technology 5 (ST5) consists of three 20 kg satellites that will
demonstrate the feasibility of 100 or more sparsely distributed nano
satellite to make spatial and environment measurements. Satellites
are highly integrated with miniaturized electronics, extendable
booms and antenna, subsystems for communication and attitude
control, miniaturized thrusters and instrumentation.
o Orbital Express (OE) is a project sponsored by DARPA. It contains an
Autonomous Transporter and Robotic Orbiter (ASTRO) which is an
on orbit servicing vehicle designed for spacecraft diagnostic, repairs
and restocking (CANEUS, 2002).
75
Nanotechnologies can serve for the components quoted previously and
more generally for:
• Size and weight decrease of the structure by advanced
materials using nanotechnologies (part 1)
• Advanced electronics devices (part 2)
• Lighter and more powerful energy system (part 3)
• Advanced communication devices because with the increase of
communication between the different satellites, information
safety has to be maintained (e.g. quantum information)
Nanorobotics
Al those perspectives are in a long-term future and will may not be the
most appropriate in this future. Nanotechnologies already find a lot of
applications in futuristic vision because of the new technical opportunities
they offer but with the enhancement of “nanoresearch” in the following
years we can imagine that they will be the key for the achievement of
those “science fiction” projects.
4.8 Conclusion
Since 1957 and the launch of the first spacecraft, the space sector has
known several technological enhancements allowing more and more
scientific explorations and the development of commercial applications.
Nanotechnology is an emerging field that just begin to find applications in
ground devices. So it explains why nanotechnologies for space
applications are more a perspective than a reality.
77
term vision and so are dependants of the technological improvements in
all the sectors concerned by nanotechnologies.
Another key aspect will be the priority that will be given by space agencies
to those technological improvements. Nanotechnologies have the potential
to enhance spacecraft, improving space knowledge and have also the
potential to be improved by the space sector. But nanotechnology
development is a long process and in some cases priority can be given to
the development of new space missions integrating well-known
technologies to the detriment of a focus on new technologies. This choice
is more strategic than scientific and is available for both sciences and
commercial applications.
78
Autonomous nanorobots swarm
Space
Space colonization
Systems
Smart textile
CNT based memory
Space Nanoparticles in
devices propellants MRAM CNT in transistors
Legend:
79
Chapter 5: Summary of Needs in Aerospace Research
5.1 Aeronautics
Figure 5.1: Goals for European Aeronautics set by the Advisory Council
for aeronautical research in Europe
80
5.1.2 Airframes
The solutions in aero structures are expected to bring benefits for green
air transportation by using lightweight materials and processes for the
airframe (ACARE4Europe, 2004-2). Nanotechnology surface application
research would lead to friction reduction thereby reducing the
environmental impact. Research in nanomaterials such as carbon
nanotube composites for weight reduction and reduced fuel consumption
is also expected to make air transport highly cost efficient.
5.1.3 Propulsion
81
are being researched (Ohio Aerospace Institute, 2005). Lightweight
architecture and materials for engine rotors and structure have also been
considered an important requirement in aircraft engine design. Another
key development required is the design of components with reduced
thermo mechanical distortion and effective sealing for turbo machinery for
an environmentally friendly air transport system. New combustion
solutions are to be considered for the existing configuration that may
reduce the emission produced by conventional engine. New nacelle design
development is needed for air breathing propulsion that is expected to
reduce the environmental impact. Thrust reverser technologies for weight
reduction are also being developed as a key technology for achieving
environmental objectives (ACARE4Europe, 2004-2).
82
system that is expected to drive down costs significantly (ACARE4Europe,
2004-2).
5.1.5 Environment
The impact of carbon dioxide and Nox emissions from the aircraft has
added significantly to the greenhouse gas effect. In addition particulate
emissions such as water vapour and soot have also added to the impact
that affects the physical and chemical properties of the atmosphere. The
change in the atmospheric chemistry is complex and not understood very
well. Strategies for combating climate change have been suggested such
as combining routes of large aircraft, lower cruise speed, encouraging
short haul flights, reducing taxi time and eliminating circling. Further
research in the new low drag wing-body blended aircraft design is
expected reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 50%.
Fuel additives
Noise reduction
Emission reduction
83
Research in other strategies such as reduction in emission by reducing
fuel burning has been proposed by aerodynamic improvements, weight
reduction and efficient engine. Development of laminar flow design is
needed for aerodynamics though innovation is required to reduce the
complexity. Development of designs in more adaptive structures would
reduce the need for additional control surfaces, engines with reduced
complexity and weight thereby reducing the fuel consumption. Nox control
remains a main problem that is not addressed even by reducing carbon
dioxide emissions by improving thermal efficiencies. The Nox emissions
are dependent on the take off weight and range of the aircraft. New
combustion technology and injection systems should be developed to
achieve an 80% reduction in Nox. Research in lean combustion should be
considered in order to meet the goals. Alternative fuels such as liquid
hydrogen, bio fuels, synthetic fuels and liquefied natural gas are should be
considered for further development (ACARE4Europe, 2004-2).
84
Goal Research Challenge
Computational methods
Table 5.2: Relating Goal and Research Challenge for Safety and Security
Improving the quality of the flying and the flight experience has been an
important driver. The research challenges that relate to the quality and
affordability have been stated in the table 5.3 below.
Passenger services
Integrated avionics
Lead-time reductions
Concurrent engineering
Table 5.3: Research needs from Strategic Quality and Affordability goals
translating to research challenges
85
5.1.8 European Air Transport System
Table 5.4: Relating European Air Transport System relation with Research
Challenges
Enhanced avionics and automation have been envisaged for future aircraft
where computers manage the entire flight from landing to takeoff.
Enhancement in the computing power with the application of
nanotechnology to transistors is expected to greatly enhance centralized
and dispersed operations. Improvements in computing power are also
expected to bring benefits to robotics leading to the development of
independent robots controlling specific tasks.
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a. Structures and Materials
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environments. Swedish Space Corporation in collaboration with Nanospace
AB is developing MEMS based components and sub-systems for space
propulsion. EADS CCR is developing a MEMS sensor to design a life
consumption monitoring system for electronics (Caneus, 2006).
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thermal imaging camera’s for rescue and police work and advanced
business project management.
Contrasting the initiative to the American effort where 87% of the known
airliners are being built. It has been estimated that public funding in US is
three times that of the European Union and its member states. The annual
turnover and number of people employer in US in this sector is more than
twice of that by EU. Similarly the amount of US export in the aerospace
sector is also known to be twice of the European Union (ACARE4Europe,
2004-1).
5.1.13 Policy
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been an alignment between courses offered at Universities and aerospace
employers needs. A strong need to develop a permanent forum for
dialogue between Universities and aerospace companies has also been
voiced to ensure appropriateness and quality of education provided. The
need for a pan European accreditation has also been beginning with a
voluntary system in the aeronautical discipline has been made.
5.1.15 SME
The supply chain orientation is so that large companies play a central role
in integration. With the increased global competition, these companies
have been presented with a choice of suppliers across the world putting
the pressure on the small and medium size businesses in the supply chain.
The SME business in the supply chain would need to implement global
best business practices and leverage industrial alliances to become more
competitive. This would require development of lean practices that
improve the performance of the SME.
5.1.16 Conclusion
5.2.1 Introduction
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Research in the space industry is being driven by a desire to reduce the
mass and volume of payload lifted into space. Reduction in the size and
energy consumption of electronics on board for data processing and
control systems is another important driver for research. A significant
research goal is to increase the autonomy of spacecraft by improving
altitude and orbit control, health monitoring and payload monitoring.
Financial investment will determine the development of lightweight and
energy saving satellites, rockets, and infrastructure for space stations. The
need to reduce costs is further pushing commercial off the shelf
technology into space applications.
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space. The various technology solutions are at different stages such as
fundamental or basic research, applied research, proof of concept and
validation. Each of these research needs or concepts is considered of some
strategic importance to the space objectives.
Space research has been driven by the goal to reduce the lift-off mass of
spacecraft, and improving safety and flexibility of space missions.
Reduction of costs is also an important parameter for space missions.
Nanomaterials research could contribute to the successful achievement of
these goals. New research is required in light nanocomposite materials,
thermal control elements, miniaturized cooling loops and heat exchangers.
CNT yarns could be potentially used for weaving larger fibres that may
have applications in electromagnetic shielding, design impact resistance
space stations or astronaut suits. However further research is required to
develop macroscopic components that may translate into applications
(Zweck & Luther, 2003). Applications based on CNTs are expected only in
the long term. Nanoparticles such as silicates (montmorillonite) and POSS
(polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane) are also being considered for
reinforcing polymers. Further research is required for the successful
demonstration of their reinforcing properties.
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However such materials require further research into their thermo
mechanical properties before application as heat shields.
Magnetic fluids are currently used as sealing and damping media, however
they could be utilized for thermal protection of control systems for
miniaturized electronic components or as self-lubricating bearing for micro
mechanical components. Further research is required in utilizing the
viscous, electrical and thermal properties of magnetic fluids for thermal
control for miniature electronics.
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5.2.3 Energy Production and Storage
a. Solar cells
b. Fuel cells
Fuel cells combine hydrogen (fuel) and oxygen (from air) to produce water
and an electric current. Fuel cells are considered as an alternative to
batteries in space applications. Nanotechnology research in this sector is
focused on improving efficiencies by enhancing the performance of
catalysts, membranes and hydrogen storage. Fuel cells with the exception
of direct methanol fuel cells require hydrogen. Methanol is easier to store,
however, direct methanol fuel cells face the problem of carbon monoxide
poisoning of the catalysts, and overcoming this is the focus of much
current research. Other areas that require further development include the
proton exchange membrane, to enhance proton transfer and therefore
efficiency.
Solid oxide fuel cells operate at a much higher temperature and are more
efficient; however they require ceramics that are stable at high
temperatures. Current research on ceramic nanopowders such as yttrium
stabilised zirconium aims to improve their ionic conductivity and thermal
stability for high temperature solid oxide fuel cells.
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Hydrogen storage has been considered one of the most critical problems
in the successful implementation of fuel cells. Increased research is
needed to investigate the role of nanocrystalline metal hydrides such as
magnesium nickel alloys for high temperature storage and lanthanum
nickel alloys for low temperature storage. High absorption capacity has
been reported for carbon nanotubes; however the results were not
reproducible. Further research is required to have reproducible results in
hydrogen storage with carbon nanotubes or alkali metal doped graphite.
Lithium ion batteries and nickel metal hydride accumulators have been
implemented within the power supply of space systems. The performance
of these batteries can be improved further by using nanostructured
materials. Materials that are being developed include carbon aerogels,
carbon nanotubes, and vanadium oxide for cathodes and tin/antimony for
anodes. Further research is required to produce higher power density and
durability by controlled charge diffusion and oxidation state on a
nanoscale level. With the increasing miniaturisation of electronics, the
development of thin film batteries is seen as an important step. Thin film
batteries can also be integrated with thin film solar cells. Research and
development would be required in thin film deposition techniques for
development of such devices.
d. Capacitors
Data processing and systems control are an important area for spacecraft.
Nanotechnology applications can enable highly integrated avionics,
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wireless data communication and state of the art sensors. There is
research being conducted at NASA for data processing and communication
systems that need minimum energy. The research is also being conducted
in highly integrated nanodevices to be used in miniaturized space
systems. One area that has been highlighted for new research is a
quantum device for applications in ultra sensitive detection, analysis and
communication.
a. Electronics
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inductors, whereas hard magnetic nanomaterials are used in energy
storage, data storage and sensors. Such nanocomposites have the
advantage of high sensitivity to changes in magnetic field and a wide
operating temperature range (Wincheski & Namkung, 2000). Research
and development is required using these properties in energy saving
antennas, inductors, sensors and data memories for various space
applications.
Magneto electronic sensors and memory chips are based on the magnetic
resistance effect (Magneto Resistance) that occurs in magnetic multilayer
systems. Such sensors and memory chips are consist of ultra-thin layers
of metals and insulators up to 1 nm thick. With further research they
could be developed as sensors for measuring position, acceleration, and
rotation. A problem that needs to be addressed is the limited operating
temperature range for space applications.
b. Optical Transmission
Quantum dots provide the freedom to cover the entire spectrum from
ultraviolet to infrared and production methods are now well characterised.
However for quantum dot lasers to be realized in space applications, it will
require specification of the laser, integration into spacecraft sub-systems
and qualification.
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and low throughput rates, is a limiting factor for such applications. X-ray
mirrors (composed of a thin single mirror and mirror foil with a nested
design) play an important role in astronomy. Further research and
development is required in the ultra precision finishing of surface figuring
of coil substrates of X-ray mirrors (Zweck & Luther, 2003).
5.2.5 Sensors
Gas sensors are used for detecting hydrogen leaks in rockets, measuring
oxygen in the upper atmosphere and monitoring air quality in manned
space flight. The different gas sensors used for space applications are
Schottky diodes based on silicon carbide, resistive sensors based on
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polymer films and electrochemical sensors based on tin oxide. Further
research is required in integrating electrochemical sensors with CMOS
circuits. Research is also needed on nanopowders used as coatings on
sensors for improved sensitivity and robustness.
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waste water treatment using regenerative membranes, monitoring of
water quality by using electronic nose sensors, carbon dioxide removal,
hygiene, air cleaning and filtration, control of air quality and humidity.10
Further research is required in developing nanomaterials, by conducting
basic research in the above mentioned areas for space travel.
Areas which will be important (particularly for the planned long duration
manned spaceflights to other planets) are the development of sensors
capable of measuring physiological parameters such as bone density,
blood chemistry, disease or radiation load. This will also require more
effective lab-on-a-chip systems where both the measuring and analysis
unit are combined, and which allow the concurrent and rapid analysis of
different analytes.
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Thermal protection layers are used in the re-entry to act as heat shields
and for thermally insulating the rocket engines. The heat insulating layer
of rocket engines are required to be temperature stable, strain tolerant
and have high adhesion strength. Research is needed in manufacturing
processes such as pulse laser deposition that ensures high precision and
reproducibility.
Other applications where thin film technology can be usefully applied are –
large telescopes, mirrors and antennas. Feasibility studies are required in
visionary applications such as solar sails for interplanetary spacecraft and
extremely light solar generators for solar powered satellites. Research is
also need in intelligent multi-functional structures that can be used for
active control.
NASA is aiming to develop structures and systems that can adapt, evolve,
heal and replicate in response to changes in the environment. Intelligent
sensing requires research in areas that combine novel material properties
such as optical, thermal and mechanical. Biomimetic material
development is required to realize enhanced functionalities such as self-
organization, self-healing and self-replication. An approach inspired by
bottom-up nanobiotechnology may provide a novel solution.
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b. Space Elevator
The Space Elevator is a novel concept that has been proposed to transport
mass into space from the earth using a cable or ribbon. However, such a
system would require research and development of an extremely high
strength-to-weight ratio material. Carbon nanotubes have been proposed
as a suitable material as they has the right strength to weight ratio.12 The
desired strength for a space elevator is 62 GPa with carbon nanotubes
having a stiffness (Youngs modulus = 1 TPa and tensile strength = 200
GPa). Research is further required in spinning of composite fibres (carbon
nanotube reinforced) that will be able to stand the extreme stresses of the
earths atmosphere, turbulence in weather, corrosion, and vibrations
created by the flowing winds. Among other solutions needed are tether
technology for the cable, a suitable propulsion technique (potentially
electromagnetic propulsion), and development of supporting infrastructure
before this concept can be turned into reality (NASA, 2000).
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d. Gossamer Spacecraft
Gossamer Spacecraft have been envisaged to be very large, light and self-
unfolding with integrated subsystems. The development of such a light
and foldable structure requires an airframe inspired by nature and an
energy generation system such as those based on thin film solar cells.
Alternative fuel-less propulsion research needs be conducted in laser and
microwave propelled sails, such as that by NASA JPL (2000). Research
would also be required in thin film technology that can be used to develop
phased array antennas for communication, and in integrating other
equipment such as telescopes and mirrors for detecting planets outside
the solar system on unmanned missions (Zweck & Luther, 2003).
5.2.9 Conclusion
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between space and nanotechnology research communities is essential for
the continued development of nanotechnology applications for space. In
any event, such research and development is expected to take nearly a
decade before it is implemented in space crafts.
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Chapter 6: Economic Aspects
6.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the economic impacts that the aerospace industry
has in the EU in particular, but also, because of its nature, globally. It
discusses the impacts on civilian aviation and space exploration, and the
strategies that are being developed by the various sectors to ensure
economic success, and the role that SMEs will play in this. It concludes
with a presentation of patents utilising nanotechnology that are applied to
the aerospace industry.
The European Commission (EC) has recognised the central importance of
the aerospace industry to innovation, prosperity and security, and in 2002
published a Strategic Aerospace Review for the 21st Century (STAR 21),
the result of the efforts of an advisory group with members from industry,
the EC and the EU parliament. The STAR 21 report recommends four
governing principles for Europe’s aerospace industry:
1. Aerospace is vital to meeting Europe’s objectives for economic
growth, security and quality of life. It is directly associated with, and
influenced by a broad range of European policies such as trade,
transport, environment and security and defence.
2. A strong, globally competitive industrial base is essential to provide
the necessary choices and options for Europe in its decisions as
regards its presence and influence on the world stage.
3. European aerospace must maintain a strong competitive position if it
is to play a full role as an industrial partner in the global aerospace
marketplace.
4. Europe must remain at the forefront of key technologies if it is to
have an innovative and competitive aerospace industry.
To ensure that the aerospace industry in the EU continues to succeed, the
report highlights the need for evaluating and harmonising competition
policies and tax incentives amongst member states, ensuring that
adequate training schemes are established (that also take account of
continued education and training), that worker mobility between Member
States is supported, and that long-term R&D goals are well defined. To
achieve these goals it recommends that combined public and private
funding for civil aeronautics in the EU should reach a total of €100 billion
by 2020.
6.2 Aviation
The aerospace industry is a significant contributor to economic wealth
worldwide. According to the Advisory Council for Aeronautics Research in
Europe (ACARE, 2004-1) the European air transport industry directly
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contributed €220 billion to European GDP (or 2.6%) in 2004, and taking
into account ancillary business, an estimated 10% of GDP. Air transport
alone is estimated to account for approximately 18% of all international
trade. Furthermore, it is estimated that total employment within the
industry in Europe is some 3 million, and that this will increase to 5 to 7
million by 2020. In the US, the aerospace industry generated $170 billion
(€133 billion) in sales during 2005, with profits of $11 billion (€8.6
billion). (Napier, 2006)
The major manufacturers in the industry are Airbus in the EU and Boeing
in the US, with Airbus commanding slightly over half of the global market
share. The most important sites for the global civil aerospace industry are
Seattle (Boeing), Toulouse and Hamburg (both Airbus). However, other
important global players are located in Russia, Brazil, Canada, and
Ukraine:
Russia
There are 6 manufacturers of civilian aircraft in Russia. As of April 2007
these are to be merged into one company by the Russian government.
The new company, United Aircraft Building Corporation (UABC), is being
established in an effort to streamline operations and improve the Russian
aviation industry’s global competitiveness (Russian Minister, 2006). The 6
individual companies are:
• Sukhoi- the largest Russian aircraft manufacturer (both military and
civil) with a reported 14% of global output of aircraft products (25%
for military aircraft). Civil aircraft orders are of the order of €780
million per annum (www.sukhoi.org/en).
• Irkut- primarily a military aircraft manufacturer, but with plans to
increase its percentage of civilian aircraft manufacturing from 13%
to 45% over the next 10 years. It had sales of €468 million in 2004
(www.irkut.com/en).
• Ilyushin- manufactures both military and civil aircraft
(www.ilyushin.org/eng).
• Tupolev OKB- oldest Russian aeronautics company. Manufactures
both military and civil aircraft (www.tupolev.ru/English).
• A.S. Yakovlev- primarily involved in military aircraft design, but with
several small to medium size civilian aircraft (www.yak.ru/ENG).
• Mikuyan- manufacturer of the famous MiG fighter planes, but also
produces small civil aircraft (www.migavia.ru/eng).
Brazil
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Canada
Ukraine
Antonov ASTC originally designed military aircraft for the former Soviet
Union (and famously the largest aircraft ever built: the An-225 Mriya
transport). However, since 1992 it has also manufactured small to
medium sized civilian aircraft (www.antonov.com/index.html).
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cargo from Asia to North America will be greater than Europe to North
America. One issue now is that packaging of such high-value goods takes
up relatively more of the cargo space, such that there is greater demand
for larger capacity aircraft.
What are the strategies that the industry sees as necessary to ensure
continued growth? Both efficiency and capacity increases are required.
The industry metric is revenue passenger kilometre (RPK), and it is
estimated that increased productivity across the industry will contribute
approximately 0.8% of the yearly growth in RPKs. The remainder will be
met by increasing passenger numbers through more aircraft, larger
aircraft, and increasing the frequency of flights.
Routes- there are two airline strategies in place for connecting
destinations: hub and point-to-point. Of the two, hub-based flight
patterns are the most economical and long-lived. This essentially means
linking major destinations together by larger aircraft, with passengers
connecting via these and flying on to their final destination by smaller
regional aircraft. In contrast, point-to-point flights link secondary or
tertiary cities, and offer greater convenience to passengers. The success
rates speak volumes: of 75 routes opened during the past twenty years
between a primary city in Asia and a primary city in Europe, almost 90%
have proved successful and are still in operation today. Conversely, of the
47 routes opened between secondary or tertiary cities, only 40% have
been lucrative enough to survive. Within different regions the
preponderance of the two types of strategy varies, with Europe favouring
point-to-point, intra-regional flights while Asia-Pacific has a larger demand
for hub flights. The future forecasts for world population growth indicate
that by 2020 16 cities worldwide will have more than 20 million
inhabitants (compared with 5 today). 10 of these cities will be in the Asia-
Pacific region, which will further increase the demand for hub flights and
underlines the need for larger aircraft to service this region.
Passengers- it has been determined from several independent surveys
that the most important issue to passengers is price rather than
convenience (as evidenced by the growth of low-cost airlines). This
favours hub based routing for the major airlines.
Aircraft size- there needs to be continued development of different
aircraft sizes: large aircraft for hub-based flights, smaller versatile aircraft
for point-to-point. It has been estimated that two-thirds of new aircraft
will be single aisle with between 100 and 210 seats (the size favoured by
the low cost airlines).
Regulation- new regulations on greenhouse gas emissions will have a
major impact on the air traffic industry. As part of its strategy, ACARE
has set goals of reducing fuel consumption and CO2 emissions by 50%,
reducing NOx emissions by 80% and decreasing noise pollution by 50%.
Air Traffic Management- improving the air traffic management systems
will allow shorter flight times (as a result of less time in holding patterns
on approach to airports) and less time spent taxiing or on stand. As a
result aircraft turnaround will be faster and passenger capacity will
increase.
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Investment in R&D- the industry already has significant investment in
R&D (approximately 12% of turnover); however ACARE has recommended
that 65% more funding is required over the period to 2023 to ensure that
the projected growth in the industry is maintained. In contrast to other
sectors, the funding available in the EU from the private sector is
comparable to that in the US, while it is the public finance in aerospace
R&D that is lacking (25% that in the US). However, it is not only financial
investment that is required. There are issues in attracting sufficient
researchers, engineers and technologists into the industry, and policy
changes that will ensure that European companies retain their presence
within Europe and do not migrate to North America. To ensure that this is
achieved will require coordinated efforts by each member state and not
just the centralised EU administration.
ACARE has proposed a strategic research agenda (SRA) to meet these
goals:
• As with many technical sectors the aerospace industry is facing a
shortage of suitably qualified and experienced personnel. To
reverse this trend there needs to be continual assessment of
university curricula (aligning it more with the needs of the industry),
ensuring that standards are met and improving the mobility of
graduates. This will also require the enthusing of young people to
embark on a career in science, technology or engineering, and
strengthening links between the aerospace industry and higher
education.
• Recognition that the industry also depends on the expertise and
service from tens of thousands of smaller, specialist companies.
What is lacking is a coherent map of these companies and their
expertise, and the means to coordinate their activities and those of
the larger players. In this regard there is also the need for the large
organisations in particular to move away from the “perpetuation of
self-interest”, and that companies must cooperate to maximise the
outcomes of the limited pool of finance and expertise within the EU
to achieve R&D goals.
• Policy changes at the European level that will improve European
research infrastructure, the supply chain, certification and
qualification, education and improving trans-European research. In
addition, it will be essential that new policies encourage business to
retain their centre of operations within the EU, and thus continue to
re-invest in the EU R&D market. This could be through “low
corporation tax rates, R&D tax credits, export credit guarantee
schemes, risk-sharing equity funds, and the level and quality of
publicly funded research.”
• Improved collaboration both within the EU and with other regions (in
particular the US) to ensure that R&D efforts are not duplicated.
This will require the establishment of cross-stakeholder groups to
identify the necessary research infrastructure, EU-wide coordination
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activities (such as ERA net), continued support through the FPs,
establishment of networks centres of excellence. One mechanism
could be the development of roadmaps for the industry and the
establishment of a technology watch. ACARE sees collaboration in
two ways: context and commercial. While commercial collaboration
is unlikely to be achieved with the US, context collaboration, aimed
at “developing international standards that promote customer
service and confidence, or increase society acceptance”, is a more
achievable goal.
5 High Level Target Concepts (HLTC) are identified in the ACARE Vision
2020 report that will play a role in shaping the future of air transport: the
Highly Customer Oriented Air Transport System; the Highly Time Efficient
Air Transport System; the Highly Cost Efficient Air Transport System; the
Ultra Green Air Transport System; the Ultra Secure Air Transport System.
These are seen as “technology pools” which will each contribute to the
changing face of air transport over the coming decades. The drivers for
these changes will be external e.g. increased security threats, increased
air travel restriction as a result of environmental impact, etc.
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6.3 Space
Despite a decline in the commercial market for space since 2000, space
exploration and exploitation is seen as a major goal for many different
nations, with an increase in public spending in the USA, Russia, China and
India. The leaders in space technologies at present are: the US, Russia,
EU, and China (although other countries such as Japan and India have
established Space Agencies and programmes).
In the EU, the European Space Agency (ESA) has set forth an ambitious
plan for development split into two areas: Mandatory Activities and
Optional Programmes (ESA, 2005). The Mandatory Activities have a
budget of €3.1 billion in the following areas in the period to 2010:
• The scientific programme (€2.1 billion) for basic R&D- covering
topics in the following areas “what are the conditions for life and
planetary formation?”, “how does the Solar System work?”, “what
are the fundamental laws of the Universe?”, “how did the Universe
originate and what is it made of?”
• The General Studies Programme (GSP) continues to develop basic
science, earth observation, launchers, telecommunication and
navigation, human spaceflight and exploration.
• The Technology Research Programme (TRP) looks at developing
cross-cutting technology developments, including those from outside
the space sector.
• The Technology Transfer Programme (TTP) focuses on
commercialising new technologies through the support of new start-
ups and the creation of “European Space Incubators” in ESA
centres.
• The Earthnet Programme- supports the Earth Observation
programme including the participation of Third countries.
• Education- development of space education offices to provide
support for young students and graduates.
The level of investment for the Optional Activities is even higher (€3.8
billion). The specific projects attracting funding are: Envelope programme,
ARTES programme, ISS Exploitation, ELIPS 2, ACEP (Ariane 5
Consolidation and Evolution Preparation), Ariane 5 ARTA, Vega VERTA,
CSG (Guyana Space Centre) Resolution. In addition, it has a budget of
€1.9 billion set aside for proposals for new activities in Earth Observation
Applications, Space Exploration, Telecommunications, and Launchers.
According to Dario Izzo of ESA’s Advanced Concepts Team (ACT), "the
future of space flight is in using new systems, new architectures and
exploring technologies to reinvent the design of space missions”. To
achieve this will require both “discovery and competitiveness”.
The Technology Transfer Programme has been very successful not only for
the aerospace industry but the wider economy. According to the ESA
website
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(www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Technology_Transfer/SEMZ5TRMD6E_0.html), it
has resulted in:
• more than 200 successful transfers of space technologies to non-
space sectors;
• over €800 million cumulative turnover generated in both space and
non-space sectors;
• over 30 new companies established as a direct result of exploiting
technologies;
• around 1500 jobs created yearly;
• more than €30 million attracted in venture capital and funding;
• a portfolio of over 450 active space technologies available for
transfer and licensing;
• some 15 start-ups within the European Space Incubator (ESI);
• some 36 incubators within the European Space Incubator Network
(ESINET).
Examples of inventions that have applications in other industrial sectors
include: airbags, carbon brakes, navigation systems, vibration damping,
insulation, cooling systems and many more. Recently, Formula 1 has
utilised advanced technologies developed within the aerospace industry to
design lighter cars.
Galileo (a joint programme between the ESA and the EC) finally moved
towards becoming a reality with the launch of its first satellite (GIOVE-A)
on the 28th December 2005. In 2008 the ESA’s Columbus laboratory will
be launched to the International Space Station (ISS).
The primary commercial agency for fulfilling the EU’s space aspirations is
EADS SPACE, which employs over 11,000 people. EADS SPACE is a wholly
owned subsidiary of the European Aeronautic Defence and Space
Company (EADS) and is the European authority on civil and military space
transportation and manned space activities. It designs, develops and
produces Ariane launchers, the Columbus laboratory and the ATV cargo
vessel for the International Space Station, atmospheric re-entry vehicles,
ballistic missiles for France’s nuclear deterrent force, propulsion systems
and space equipment. In 2004 it had revenues of €2.6 billion with an
order backlog of €11.3 billion. Another company within EADS SPACE,
Astrium, is responsible for the design and manufacture of satellite systems
for both civilian and military telecommunication and Earth observation
purposes.
In the US even larger budgets are available: in 2004 NASA had a budget
of 16 billion USD, while the Department of Defence had 18.6 billion USD.
NASA is investing in commercial space transportation by opening up a
competitive tender for supply to the International Space Station (ISS).
Two industrial partners (Space Exploration Technologies [SpaceX] and
Rocketplane-Kistler [RpK]) will each share approximately 500 million USD
to achieve this goal, however the partners will only receive this money if
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they are successful (payments will be made in stages based on achieving
targets). The US is focused on 2 priorities: space exploration (particularly
a manned mission to the moon, and then to Mars) and the use of space in
support of homeland security and defence.
Of all the countries involved in space exploration, Russia still remains the
one launching the greatest number of spacecraft. The Russian Federal
Space Agency is responsible for space science research, with a budget of
some €12.5 billion from 2006 to 2015 (Forbes, 2005). It plans to develop
a new re-usable spacecraft called Kliper (although a suitable contractor
has yet to be identified), two new launching pads, send missions to one of
the two moons orbiting Mars, and double the number of earth orbiting
satellites to 70. On 10 March 2006, Russia, the EU and ESA signed a
cooperation agreement on space, stimulating agreement between the
Russian GLONASS and the European Galileo satellite navigation systems.
The EU and Russia are also engaged in a dialogue on space cooperation,
including science and technology. The EU is also collaborating with Canada
and the USA on a bilateral basis and in the International Space Station.
China is one of only 3 countries to have put a person in space (in 2003
using the Shenzhou spacecraft) (China, 2006). The Chinese Space
Programme contracts most of its work to the state-owned China
Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation (CASC), which has
registered capital of 1.1 billion USD (€860 m) and employs 110,000
people. China has plans to send unmanned and manned flights to the
moon, and is in negotiations with Russia over joint missions to the moon
and Mars. It is also looking to collaborate more closely with the EU after
the US blocked closer cooperation with the ISS (BBC).
Japan established its own space agency, JAXA (Japan Aerospace
Exploration Agency) on the 1st of October 2003 with the merger of 3
organisations: Japan's Institute of Space and Astronautic Science (or
ISAS), the National Aerospace Laboratory of Japan (NAL), and Japan's
National Space Development Agency (NASDA). It aims to achieve a
leading global position in reliability and capability for both launch vehicles
and satellites, and has plans for human spaceflight and exploitation of the
moon. In the interim it has plans nearer to earth- to develop a supersonic
aircraft capable of flying at Mach 5 that would cut the flight time between
Japan and the US to a few hours. JAXA’s vision comes with large
investment, around 258-280 billion yen p.a. (€1.7-1.9 billion) over the
first 10 years of the strategy.
The Indian Space Research Organisation was established in 1972 and has
developed launch vehicles (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, and
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle) for its own use and those of
international customers, and satellite systems for telecommunications and
earth observation. It employs 20,000 people and has a budget of
approximately €550 million. India aims to put an astronaut in space by
2014 (a programme that is estimated to cost €1.7 billion, www.isro.org).
One of the major challenges to the EU space industry is the fact that in
the US over 75% of funding for R&D comes from the Department of
Defence and NASA (while in the EU it is 50%). Turnover in the EU is also
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significantly lower than the US (€5 500 million compared with €33 700
million, 1999 figures). This inevitably puts EU industry at a competitive
disadvantage, and will require continued and concerted action at the EU
level. In this respect FP7 funding for space related R&D is €1.4 billion from
2007 to 2013, approximately a four-fold increase from FP6 (European
Commission FP7 fact sheet).
16
See www.espacenet.com/access/index.en.htm
114
Numbers of Patents in the Nanotechnology Section using different key word searches
18
17
16
15
14
12
10
8
7
6
5
4
4
2
1 1 1
0
A B C D E F G H
Figure 6.1. A-G: numbers of patents in the category “nanotechnology” using the search
terms: “aerospace”, “aircraft”, “satellite,” “spacecraft”, “rocket”, “airplane”,
“aeronautic*”. H: numbers of patents in the category Aircraft; aviation; cosmonautics
using the search term “nano*”. No results were returned for “nanotechnology” plus
“space exploration”, “extraterrestrial” or “aviation”, or “apparatus for, or methods of,
winning materials from extraterrestrial sources” and “nano*”. There were 5 duplicated
results between the searches giving a total of 46 patents.
115
Global Nanotechnology Patents with Application to the Aerospace Industry
1 1 1
1
2
2
US
Germany
6 France
Japan
Canada
Italy
23 Sweden
China
Korea
116
plane of surface before applying adhesive or decorative
material
Space and time modulator for X-ray beam FR 1
Process for producing organized powders by spraying from at FR 2
least two sets of particles, and organized powders thus
obtained
Metal/metalloid nitride/carbide ceramic powders prepared by FR 1
flash pyrolysis
Ammunition or ammunition part comprising a structural FR 1
element made of energetic material
Method to manufacture X ray mirrors with thin film multilayer IT 1
structures by replication technique
Magneto static wave device JP 1
Quantum wire structure JP 1
Carbon nano particles having novel structure and properties KR 1
Reactor for decomposition of ammonium dinitramide-based SE 1
liquid monopropellants and process for the decomposition
Reinforced foam covering for cryogenic fuel tanks US 1
Self-cleaning super hydrophobic surface US 1
Novel carbon nanotube lithium battery US 1
Electrically conductive polymeric foams and elastomers and US 2
methods of manufacture thereof
Systems and methods for modifying ice adhesion strength US 5
Dark field, photon tunnelling imaging probes US 1
117
6.5 Role of SMEs
As described above, SMEs are seen as a crucial component of the
aerospace industry as they provide both services and additional expertise
in R&D to that of the major corporations. Ensuring that SMEs can engage
effectively in R&D with each other and other organisations is therefore a
key element for the future success of the European aerospace industry.
AeroSME is one of the main instruments that have been set-up to aid the
involvement of SMEs in EU-funded projects in aerospace. It is a joint
activity between the AeroSpace and Defence Industries Association of
Europe (ASD) and the EC, and includes 32 countries: the 25 EU member
states, plus Bulgaria, Iceland, Israel, Norway, Romania, Switzerland, and
Turkey. On the website is a database of over 1000 SMEs which can be
searched by country, technology or keyword. Using “nano” as keyword
search term however identifies only two SMEs: Bekaert Dymonics NV
(www.bekaert.com/dymonics), which specialises in surface treatment
technologies and NanoCraft (www.nanocraft.de), which specialises in
coatings and material analysis and characterisation.
Other initiatives to support SMEs include:
European Communities Aeronautics REsearch+ (ECARE+) which is funded
under FP6 from 01.02.06 for 30 months. It both networks aeronautical
SMEs and allows prospective project coordinators to identify “research-
intensive SMEs”.
SCRATCH is another EU-funded project that supports SMEs in the
aeronautics industry to establish consortia and submit project proposals to
the EC.
The NAVOBS+ project which supports the participation of SMEs in R&D
projects in the field of Space infrastructures (e.g. satellites).
6.6 Conclusions
Europe is in a relatively strong position as regards its current market
share in aviation technologies. However, this is not the case for space
technologies, which are largely dominated by the US. Much of this can be
attributed to the high level of public funding for aerospace research in the
US (particularly for space) through the Department of Defence and NASA,
to maintain the stated US objective of “supremacy in aerospace”.
Furthermore, there is significant overlap in aerospace R&D for civil and
military purposes, which can further compound the competitive
disadvantage of EU industry, as certain technology developments in the
US are subject to restrictive trade agreements. Ultimately this means that
an EU manufacturer may not be able to include US technology if the final
product (e.g. aircraft or satellite) is sold to a country with which the US
has trade restrictions. In other cases, devices may be subject to
incorporation, or the final product validated, by the US manufacturer or
118
approved organization. In the absence of a comparable EU technology this
has the potential to severely restrict markets.
Through advances in nanotechnology it is expected that the aerospace
industry will be able to address issues of improved and novel propulsion
systems, and decreasing environmental impacts. Other applications
include communication and navigation. Advances in materials will be
through decreasing the weight required for structural components
(through increased strength, ductility, wear resistance, etc) thus reducing
fuel consumption, and increasing their functionality (e.g. engineering anti-
fouling surfaces). In the longer term, nanotechnology enabled systems
should provide novel energy production and storage, sensors and
electronics. To achieve this and to ensure that critical technologies will be
developed by EU R&D requires the ongoing support of large-scale
collaborative projects through the Framework Programmes. The
involvement of appropriate authorities such as ACARE and the ESA is
essential to ensure that this funding is targeted to the best projects to
achieve the long-term strategic goals.
119
Chapter 7: Environment, Health and Safety
Aspects
7.1 Introduction
17
See e.g. Nanoforum, 2005 and click the button “safety and environment” on top of the
page www.nanoforum.org for an overview of recent developments and publications.
120
Toxicology Northwest presented results of a release comparison study of
simulated Boeing shop floor sanding a "control" composite versus a nano
modified composite. This exposure risk study was thought to be one of the
first to evaluate, under controlled conditions, the possibility of free
engineered nanoparticle release from standard shop floor processing. The
general debate about EHS aspects of engineered nanomaterials in the
workplace is also relevant to aerospace industry. A review of this debate
goes beyond the scope of the present report. Relevant news and
publications can be found elsewhere at the Nanoforum site or through
other media.
In this part of the report, we summarise the available literature and come
up with suggestions for further research. The focus is on response to
engineered nanoscale materials explicitly intended for application in the
aeronautics or space sectors.
18
Source: AC/UNU Millennium project : « Environmental and Health Hazards resulting
from military uses of nanotechnology, round 2 : www.acunu.org/millennium/nanotech-
rd2.doc
121
Nanoparticles as surface coverage Erosion of these nanoparticles make
to make it harder, smoother, them inhalable by staff but also by
stealthy the general population
Nanopollution in the environment
and contamination of the
environment (vegetables, fruits
etc), humans and animals. The
contamination can also infect
drinkable water and fish
122
7.2.1 Health risks
Health impacts of nanomaterials are the most pressing concern in
spacecraft, because astronauts can spend months inside a spacecraft,
whereas pilots, cabin staff and passengers don’t spend more than some
hours at a time in a commercial aircraft.
Studies have shown that modifying the surface of nanomaterials with
surfactants or biocompatible polymers (e.g., polyethylene glycol) reduces
the toxicity in vitro (Derfus et al., 2004) and alters the half-life and tissue
deposition in vivo (Ballou et al., 2004). These findings indicate there may
be many ways to reduce the health risk for astronauts who are expected
to spend considerable lengths of time in a spacecraft. The magnitude of
the protective response is generally proportional to the magnitude,
complexity, and duration of exposure. The last factor is the main source of
chronic adverse health effects.
123
space based observations and their relation to parameters of the objects.
He believed “nano- and micro technologies are well-suited to provide
significant improvements in these applications. Several already existing
applications, like those used in petroleum well monitoring are adapted or
adaptable to environmental problems…”
124
7.4 Health benefits
125
The European Commission has reviewed and updated its Transport policy
mid 2006. The EU aims to be a world leader in sustainable transport
solutions. The aviation industry is consolidating at European level. EU
innovation policy under FP7 includes the greening of air transport, safety
and security in transport, intelligent transport systems and engine
technology providing increased fuel efficiency and promoting the use of
alternative fuels. Air transport accounts for 9% of EU oil consumption. The
EC aims to reduce this dependence on oil supplies through innovative
energy efficiency and alternative energy solutions. “Although airlines have
reduced fuel consumption by 1-2% per passenger-kilometre in the last
decade and noise emission from aircraft has declined significantly, the
overall environmental impact of civil aviation has increased due to
buoyant growth in traffic… greenhouse gas emissions from air transport
have grown by over 4% per year in the last decade.” (EC, 2006, p 8)
126
aerospace. When the first nano-norms appear, these are likely to be
applied also to individual sectors including aerospace. The discussion
about nanotechnology is starting in aerospace norms and standard setting
circles. It is not yet clear if there will be a need for nanospecific norms.
The European debate takes place in ECSS, and Dutch companies are
involved in it. (Source Ivo van der Werff, NEN, personal communication,
October 2006).
7.7 Conclusion
19
This project runs from 1 February 2005 until 31 January 2007, results
will be published at http://www.impart-
nanotox.org/impartnanotox/nanotox_summary.html
127
scenarios due to release of engineered nanomaterials in the air at high
altitudes and in the cabin environment are also needed.
The novelty of nanoscale materials arises from the fact that with the size
decrease the properties of the materials change, which, however, may be
accompanied by increased environmental, health and safety risks. Safe
usage of engineered nanomaterials in aerospace requires employing strict
control on atmospheric nanoparticle release from aircraft in the
atmosphere because the nanoparticles could easily be distributed widely
over the Earth’s surface. Whether international regulations could ever
prevent potential future disasters is problematic. Development of
instruments and methods for nanomaterials characterisation considered
crucial for testing impacts on environment, health and safety is urgently
needed. This is true for all applications of engineered nanoscale materials
including aerospace and is being addressed worldwide.
128
Chapter 8: Ethical, Legal and Social Aspects
8.1 Introduction
In this chapter, we will not review all the literature on ethical, legal and
social aspects of nanotechnology in general, but focus on the relevant
issues and regulatory framework for nanotechnology applications in
aeronautics and especially outer space. Most of the issues and discussions
are likely to focus on outer space, since space travel and commercial uses
of outer space in satellites, space tourism and other activities are more
recent than large-scale air travel and transport. Issues like the use of
outer space and ownership claims are still not regulated and the potential
risks of human activities and the deployment of human-made technologies
in outer space are highly uncertain and not addressed in any systematic
way.
20
See Nanoforum (2005) or click the button “More” followed by “Society Issues” on top
of the webpage www.nanoforum.org for an overview of relevant developments and
publications.
129
In this chapter, we first review current developments in European and
international regulations governing the space sector which are relevant for
nanotechnology. Then we review some early literature exploring potential
ethical, legal and social implications of nanotechnology applied in outer
space and aeronautics. We conclude with some suggestions for further
research.
8.2 Regulations
21
See UNESCO website: http://portal.unesco.org/shs/en/ev.php-
URL_ID=6353&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html
130
The European Union (EU) is developing a European Space Policy. The
European Commission has published a Communication on European Space
Policy – Preliminary Elements in May 2005 (European Commission, 2005).
The aim is to develop a strategy for space technology development
coordinating the activities of the EU, European Space Agency (ESA) and
EU Member states as well as other countries including Russia, the United
States (US), China and Israel. They are also developing a regulatory and
institutional framework, in which the current principles of governance in
space can evolve, the strategic benefits of space can be recognised and
ESA can be maintained as Europe’s pole of excellence. The communication
envisages at least five scenarios for developing a legal framework and
recommends assessing all of them. The scenarios deal with who should
take the lead in managing and funding regulations and space activities,
the roles of EU, ESA, member states, national space agencies and other
organisations.
The US President established the White House’ new National Space Policy
on 31 August 2006. They declare the conduct of US space programs and
activities a top priority, guided by a number of principles, which seem to
imply that the US reserves the right to protect their own national security
in space, while denying adversaries the use of space capabilities hostile to
the US national interests. At the same time they will oppose the
development of new legal regimes, other restrictions or arms control
agreements restricting US activities.
22
See: http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/space/themes/inter_cooperation_en.html
23
See: http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/space/themes/inter_cooperation_en.html
131
technologies with capabilities significantly better than those achievable by
current or near-term foreign systems.” (US White House, 2006)
Among the goals of expert control policies for sensitive goods is to block
or slow down access to militarily relevant equipment. The EU is party to
many such arrangements.
132
satellites. The first meeting has been in Montreal, 25 October 2006.
(Caneus, 2006)
Most Ethical, Legal and Social issues are related to outer space, as
opposed to air travel and terrestrial policies. The international community
is currently in the process of developing ethical declarations, treaties and
legislation to govern human activities in outer space as has been reviewed
above. The more detailed discussion of how the uptake of nanotechnology
in aerospace may lead to new ethical, legal and social issues is reviewed
below. These issues can be divided in two groups:
1) Implications for privacy, security and safety of humans and our
earthly society and environment;
2) Ethical implications of applications of nanotechnology in planetary
and outer space exploration, e.g. in the case of sending out
autonomous “thinking” systems to other planets and who is
responsible for what they do there, carrying out risky experiments in
outer space or attempts at terraforming other planets.
The first group is a more immediate concern, because the earth
observation and communication satellites are already there, and
nanotechnology can only be a factor in making them smaller, cheaper and
increasing their use. These implications should be viewed in the context of
decades. How we structure nanotechnology related outer space use today
will influence development for decades. The second group is a very long
term concern, but nevertheless discussed already by proponents as well
as opponents. We show progress in the discussion by briefly summarising
relevant literature in chronological order.
24
http://www.wtec.org/loyola/nano/NSET.Societal.Implications/nanosi-
s65.pdf
133
from outer space. The compatibility of life science experiments in outer
space and their return to Earth should also be studied. This issue is also
linked to the ethical concerns raised by nanotechnology”. (UNESCO, 2004,
p 10-11)
134
Security measures are inherently ambiguous. While carried out in the
interest of one’s own security, it often decreases the security of others,
leading to arms races and decreased stability (security dilemma). The way
out of this dilemma is agreed international limitation with verification of
compliance.
8.4 Conclusion
25
The Nanoforum contract precludes covering military activities; therefore we had to
make this distinction in the present report.
135
research projects should be initiated which focus on newly identified
issues of major concern to society.
- An inventory of regulations on aeronautics should also be prepared
in addition to the list of outer space treaties. A main new topic for
nanotechnology use in air traffic could be crewless aircraft. These
are becoming available first in military, and later in civilian air
traffic. Mini- and micro-aircraft are becoming available for military
uses, but may also be appropriated by terrorists in the longer term.
- Educational programs at schools and universities are needed which
combine nanosciences, nanotechnologies, aerospace applications
and social, legal and ethical aspects. Two types of programmes
should be developed. The first type of programmes should educate
the nanotechnology and aerospace workforce. The second type of
outreach activities should enhance public awareness of the potential
benefits and risks of nanoscience and technology including those
specific for aerospace applications.
136
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