Lectures 7 8-Metal Forming - Rolling, Extrusion and Sheetmetal Forming (Compatibility Mode)

METAL FORMING
Mechanical properties determine a materials

behavior when subjected to mechanical stresses
Properties include elastic modulus, ductility,
hardness, and various measures of strength
Metal forming processes are deformation
processes in which applied loads cause plastic
(permanent) strains.
The ability to form metals increases with the
increase of its ductility.
2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
True Stress-Strain Curve

True stress-strain curve for a typical metallic material is
shown
1
Strain Hardening in Stress-Strain Curve
Note that true stress increases continuously in
the plastic region until necking
It means that the metal is becoming stronger
as strain increases
This is the property called strain hardening
Material Behavior in Metal Forming

Plastic region of stress-strain curve is primary
interest because material is plastically
deformed
In plastic region, metal's behavior is
expressed by the flow curve:
K n
where K = strength
g coefficient;; and n = strain
hardening exponent
Flow curve based on true stress and true strain
2
Flow Stress
For most metals at room temperature,
strength increases when deformed due to
strain hardening
Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress
required to continue deforming the material
Yf K n
where Yf = flow stress,, that is,, the yield

y
strength as a function of strain
Average Flow Stress

Determined by integrating the flow curve
equation between zero and the final strain
value defining the range of interest
_
K n
Yf
1 n
_
where
Yf = average flow stress; and =
maximum strain during deformation process
3
Cold Working
Performed at room temperature or slightly
above
Many cold forming processes are important
mass production operations
Minimum or no machining usually required
These operations are near net shape or
net shape processes
Advantages of Cold Forming

Better accuracy, closer tolerances
Better surface finish
Strain hardening increases strength and
hardness
Grain flow during deformation can cause
desirable directional properties in product
No heating of work required
4
Disadvantages of Cold Forming
Higher forces and power required in the
deformation operation
Surfaces of starting workpiece must be free of
scale and dirt
Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount
of forming that can be done
In some cases, metal must be annealed to
allow further deformation
In other cases, metal is simply not ductile
enough to be cold worked
Hot Working
Deformation at temperatures above the
recrystallization temperature
Recrystallization temperature = about one-half
of melting point on absolute scale
In practice, hot working usually performed
somewhat above 0.5Tm
Metal continues to soften as temperature
increases above 00.5T
5Tm, enhancing
advantage of hot working above this level
5
Advantages of Hot Working
Workpart shape can be significantly altered

Lower forces and ppower required
q
Metals that usually fracture in cold working can
be hot formed
Strength properties of product are generally
isotropic
No strengthening of part occurs from work
hardening
Advantageous in cases when part is to be
subsequently processed by cold forming
Disadvantages of Hot Working

Lower dimensional accuracy
Higher
g total energy
gy required
q ((due to the
thermal energy to heat the workpiece)
Work surface oxidation (scale), poorer surface
finish
Shorter tool life
6
Bulk Deformation Processes
These processes are characterized by massive
deformation of the material. Only two
processes of this category will be considered:
1. Rolling
2. Extrusion
Rolling
Deformation process in which work thickness is
reduced by compressive forces exerted by
two opposing rolls
Figure 19.1 The rolling process (specifically, flat rolling).
7
The Rolls
Rotating rolls perform two main functions:
Pull the work into the g
gap
p between them by
y
friction between workpart and rolls
Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce its
cross section
Types of Rolling
Based on workpiece geometry :

Flat rolling
g - used to reduce thickness of
a rectangular cross section
Shape rolling - square cross section is
formed into a shape such as an I-beam
Based on work temperature :
Hot Rolling most common due to the
large amount of deformation required
Cold rolling produces finished sheet
and plate stock
8
Rolled Products Made of Steel
Figure 19.2 Some of the steel products made in a rolling mill.

Diagram of Flat Rolling
Figure 19.3 Side view of flat rolling, indicating before and after
thicknesses, work velocities, angle of contact with rolls, and other
features.
9
Flat Rolling Terminology
Draft = amount of thickness reduction
d t o tf
where d = draft; to = starting thickness;

and tf = final thickness
Flat Rolling Terminology

Reduction = draft expressed as a fraction of
starting stock thickness:
d
r
to
where r = reduction
10
Shape Rolling
Work is deformed into a contoured cross section
rather than flat (rectangular)
Accomplished by passing work through rolls
that have the reverse of desired shape
Products include:
Construction shapes such as I-beams,
L-beams, and U-channels
Rails for railroad tracks
Round and square bars and rods
A rolling mill for hot

flat rolling. The
steel plate is seen
as the glowing
strip in lower left
corner (photo
courtesy of
Bethlehem Steel).
11
Extrusion
Compression forming process in which work
metal is forced to flow through a die opening to
produce a desired cross-sectional shape
Process is similar to squeezing toothpaste out
of a toothpaste tube
In general, extrusion is used to produce long
parts of uniform cross sections
Twoo bas
basic
c types
types:
Direct extrusion
Indirect extrusion
Direct Extrusion
Figure 19.30 Direct extrusion.
12
Comments on Direct Extrusion
Also called forward extrusion
As ram approaches
pp die opening,
p g a small
portion of billet remains that cannot be forced
through die opening
This extra portion, called the butt, must be
separated from extrudate by cutting it just
beyond the die exit
Sta
Starting
t gbbillet
et ccross
oss sect
section
o usua
usually
y round
ou d
Final shape of extrudate is determined by die
opening
Hollow and Semi-Hollow Shapes
Figure 19.31 (a) Direct extrusion to produce a hollow or semi-hollow

cross sections; (b) hollow and (c) semi-hollow cross sections.
13
Indirect Extrusion
Figure 19
19.32
32 Indirect extrusion to produce (a) a solid
cross section and (b) a hollow cross section.
Comments on Indirect Extrusion

Also called backward extrusion and reverse
extrusion
Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed by
Lower rigidity of hollow ram
Difficulty in supporting extruded product as it
exits die
14
Advantages of Extrusion
Variety of shapes possible, especially in hot
extrusion
Limitation: part cross section must be
uniform throughout length
Grain structure and strength enhanced in cold
and warm extrusion
Close tolerances possible, especially in cold
extrusion
e t us o
In some operations, little or no waste of material
Hot vs. Cold Extrusion

Hot extrusion - prior heating of billet to above
its recrystallization temperature
Reduces strength and increases ductility of
the metal, permitting more size reductions
and more complex shapes
Cold extrusion - generally used to produce
discrete parts
Thee te
term impact
pact eextrusion
t us o is
s used to
indicate high speed cold extrusion
15
Extrusion Ratio
Also called the reduction ratio, it is defined as
Ao
rx
Af
where rx = extrusion ratio; Ao = cross-sectional

area of the starting billet; and Af = final cross-
sectional area of the extruded section
Applies to both direct and indirect extrusion
Complex Cross Section
Figure 19.36 A complex extruded cross section for a heat

sink (photo courtesy of Aluminum Company of America)
16
Sheet Metal Forming Processes
- Sheets produced by flat rolling are used in
secondary sheet metal forming processes:
1. - Cutting
Shearing to separate large sheets
Blanking to cut part perimeters out of sheet
metal
Punching to make holes in sheet metal
2 Drawing
2.
Forming of sheet into convex or concave
shapes
Sheet and Plate Metal Products

Sheet and plate metal parts for consumer and
industrial products such as
Automobiles and trucks
Airplanes
Railway cars and locomotives
Farm and construction equipment
Small and large appliances
Office
Offi furniture
f i
Computers and office equipment
17
Advantages of Sheet Metal Parts
High strength
Good dimensional accuracyy
Good surface finish
Relatively low cost
Economical mass production for large
quantities
Sheet Metal Cutting
Figure 20.1 Shearing of sheet metal between two cutting edges:

(1) just before the punch contacts work; (2) punch begins to
push into work, causing plastic deformation;
18
Sheet Metal Cutting
Figure 20.1 Shearing of sheet metal between two cutting edges:

(3) punch compresses and penetrates into work causing a
smooth cut surface; (4) fracture is initiated at the opposing
cutting edges which separates the sheet.
Shearing, Blanking, and Punching

Three principal operations in pressworking that
cut sheet metal:
Shearing
Blanking
Punching
19
Shearing
Sheet metal cutting operation along a straight line
between two cutting edges
Typically used to cut large sheets
Figure 20.3 Shearing operation: (a) side view of the

shearing operation; (b) front view of power shears
equipped with inclined upper cutting blade.
Blanking and Punching

Blanking - sheet metal cutting to separate piece
(called a blank) from surrounding stock
Punching - similar to blanking except cut piece is
scrap, called a slug
Figure 20.4 (a) Blanking and (b) punching.

20
Punch and Die Components
Figure 20.30 Components of a punch and die for a blanking operation.
Clearance in Sheet Metal Cutting

Distance between punch cutting edge and die
cutting edge
Typical values range between 4% and 8% of
stock thickness
If too small, fracture lines pass each other,
causing double burnishing and larger force
If too large, metal is pinched between
cutting
cutt g edges aanddeexcessive
cess e bu
burr results
esu ts
21
Clearance in Sheet Metal Cutting
Recommended clearance is calculated by:
c = at
where c = clearance; a = allowance; and t =
stock thickness
Allowance a is determined according to type of
metal
Sheet Metal Groups Allowances
Metal group a
1100S and
d 5052S aluminum
l i alloys,
ll allll 0 045
0.045
tempers
2024ST and 6061ST aluminum alloys; 0.060
brass, soft cold rolled steel, soft
stainless steel
Cold rolled steel, half hard; stainless 0.075

steel, half hard and full hard
22
Punch and Die Sizes
For a round blank of diameter Db:
Blanking
gppunch diameter = Db - 2c
Blanking die diameter = Db
where c = clearance
For a round hole of diameter Dh:
Hole punch diameter = Dh
Hole die diameter = Dh + 2c
where c = clearance
Punch and Die Sizes
Figure 20.6 Die size

determines blank
size Db; punch size
determines hole
size Dh.; c =
clearance
23
Cutting Forces
Important for determining press size (tonnage)
F=StL
where S = shear strength of metal; t = stock
thickness, and L = length of cut edge
Deep Drawing
Sheet metal forming to make cup-shaped,
box-shaped, or other complex-curved,
hollow-shaped parts
Sheet metal blank is positioned over die cavity
and then punch pushes metal into opening
Products: beverage cans, ammunition shells,
automobile body panels
24
Drawing
Figure 20.19 (a) Drawing

of cup-shaped part:
(1) before punch
contacts
t t work,k (2)
near end of stroke;
(b) workpart: (1)
starting blank, (2)
drawn part.
Clearance in Drawing
Sides of punch and die separated by a
clearance c given by:
c = 1.1 t
where t = stock thickness
In other words, clearance is about 10% greater
than stock thickness
25
Tests of Drawing Feasibility
Drawing ratio
Reduction
Thickness-to-diameter ratio
Drawing Ratio DR
Most easily defined for cylindrical shape:
Db
DR
Dp
where Db = blank diameter; and Dp = punch

diameter
Indicates severity of a given drawing operation
Upper limit: DR 2.0
26
Reduction r
Defined for cylindrical shape:

Db Dp
r
Db
Value of r should be less than 0.50
Blank Size Determination

For final dimensions of drawn shape to be
correct, starting blank diameter Db must be
right
Solve for Db by setting starting sheet metal
blank volume = final product volume
To facilitate calculation, assume negligible
thinning of part wall
27
Shapes other than Cylindrical Cups
Square or rectangular boxes (as in sinks),
pp cups
Stepped p
Cones
Cups with spherical rather than flat bases
Irregular curved forms (as in automobile body
panels)
E
Eachh off these
h shapes
h presents iits own unique
i
technical problems in drawing
28

Lectures 7 8-Metal Forming - Rolling, Extrusion and Sheetmetal Forming (Compatibility Mode)

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Lectures 7 8-Metal Forming - Rolling, Extrusion and Sheetmetal Forming (Compatibility Mode)

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METAL FORMING

Mechanical properties determine a materials

True Stress-Strain Curve

Material Behavior in Metal Forming

where Yf = flow stress,, that is,, the yield

Average Flow Stress

Advantages of Cold Forming

Workpart shape can be significantly altered

Disadvantages of Hot Working

Figure 19.1 The rolling process (specifically, flat rolling).

Based on workpiece geometry :

Figure 19.2 Some of the steel products made in a rolling mill.

Diagram of Flat Rolling

where d = draft; to = starting thickness;

Flat Rolling Terminology

A rolling mill for hot

Figure 19.30 Direct extrusion.

Hollow and Semi-Hollow Shapes

Figure 19.31 (a) Direct extrusion to produce a hollow or semi-hollow

Comments on Indirect Extrusion

Hot vs. Cold Extrusion

where rx = extrusion ratio; Ao = cross-sectional

Complex Cross Section

Figure 19.36 A complex extruded cross section for a heat

Sheet and Plate Metal Products

Sheet Metal Cutting

Figure 20.1 Shearing of sheet metal between two cutting edges:

Figure 20.1 Shearing of sheet metal between two cutting edges:

Shearing, Blanking, and Punching

Figure 20.3 Shearing operation: (a) side view of the

Blanking and Punching

Figure 20.4 (a) Blanking and (b) punching.

Figure 20.30 Components of a punch and die for a blanking operation.

Clearance in Sheet Metal Cutting

Sheet Metal Groups Allowances

Cold rolled steel, half hard; stainless 0.075

Punch and Die Sizes

Figure 20.6 Die size

Figure 20.19 (a) Drawing

Most easily defined for cylindrical shape:

where Db = blank diameter; and Dp = punch

Defined for cylindrical shape:

Value of r should be less than 0.50

Blank Size Determination

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