SECTION 17
Fluid Flow and Piping
Few flow problems can be solved with an acceptable degree of
accuracy when using equations designed to fit idealized appli-
cations. Flow regimes and associated pressure drops are com-
plex phenomena and require complex equations to predict their
FIG. 17-1
Nomenclature
A = pipe cross sectional area, M2 (A = D2/4)
c = sum of allowances for corrosion, erosion, etc., mm,
Fig.17-22
C = design parameter used in Hazen and Williams
formula, Equation17-33
C1 = discharge factor from Fig.17-8
C2 = size factor from Fig.17-9
d = internal diameter of pipe, mm
do = outside pipe diameter, mm
D = internal diameter of pipe, m
E = pipeline efficiency factor (fraction)
E = longitudinal weld joint factor from ANSI B31.3,
Fig.17-22
E = longitudinal joint factor from ANSI B31.8,
Fig.17-23
1/ff = transmission factor
ff = Fanning friction factor
fm = Moody friction factor (fm = 4.0 ff)
fn = single phase friction factor for Dukler calculation,
from Equation17-44
ftpr = friction factor ratio for Dukler calculation,
Fig.17-17
F = construction type design factor used in
ANSI B31.8, Fig.17-23
Fpv = volume correction for a non-ideal fluid due to
compressibility from Equation17-13
g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.8067 m/s2
hL = loss of static pressure head due to fluid flow, m
of fluid
H = total energy of a fluid at a point above a datum,
from Equation17-1
HLd = liquid holdup fraction (Dukler), Fig.17-18
HLe = liquid holdup fraction (Eaton), Fig.17-20
HLf = liquid holdup fraction (Flanigan), Fig.17-19
IL = liquid inventory in pipe, m3, from Equation17-57
L = length of line, m
Lm = length of line, kilometers (km)
M = molecular mass
Nx = Fig.17-16 horizontal coordinate, m/s
Ny = Fig.17-16 vertical coordinate, m/s
17-1
relationships. For engineering design purposes, several empiri-
cal formulas have been developed to fit particular circumstanc-
es in predicting flow capacity and pressure drop.
NE = abscissa of Eaton correlation, Fig.17-20
NLv = liquid velocity number, from Equation17-53
Ngv = gas velocity number, from Equation17-54
Nd = pipe diameter number, from Equation17-55
NL = liquid viscosity number, from Equation17-56
P = pressure, kPa (abs)
P1 = inlet pressure, kPa (abs)
P2 = outlet pressure, kPa (abs)
Pavg = average pressure, kPa (abs), from Equation17-16
Ps = base absolute pressure, kPa (abs):
PS= 101.56 kPa (abs)
Pi = internal design pressure, kPa (ga)
P100 = pressure drop, kPa/100m equivalent pipe length
Pe = elevation component of pressure drop, kPa
Pf = frictional component of pressure drop, kPa
Pt = total pressure drop, kPa
q = flow rate, m3/h
Q = flow rate of gas, m3/day at base conditions
QL = liquid volumetric flow rate at flowing conditions,
m3/h
Qg = gas volumetric flow rate at flowing conditions,
m3/h
Re = Reynolds number
Rey = mixture Reynolds number for Dukler calculation,
from Equation17-45
S = allowable stress, kPa, Fig.17-22
S = specified minimum yield strength, kPa, Fig.17-23
t = thickness, mm, Figs.17-22, 17-23
tm = minimum required wall thickness, mm, Fig.17-22
T = absolute temperature of flowing gas, K
T = temperature derating factor used in ANSI B31.8,
Fig.17-23
Tavg = average temperature, K[Tavg = 1/2 (Tin + Tout)]
Ts = base absolute temperature, K: Ts = 288.9 K)
V = single phase fluid velocity, m/s
Vsg = superficial gas velocity, m/s, from Equation17-36
VsL = superficial liquid velocity, m/s, from Equation17-35
Vm = mixture velocity, m/s, from Equation17-46
W = mass flow, kg/h
XA = Aziz fluid property correction factor (horizontal
axis, Fig.17-16)
 FIG. 17-1 (Contd)
Nomenclature
YA = Aziz fluid property correction factor (vertical axis,
Fig.17-16)
Y = coefficient found in Fig.17-22
Zavg = average compressibility factor
Ze = pipeline vertical elevation rise, m
= absolute roughness, m
= relative density of flowing gas (air = 1.0)
= flowing liquid volume fraction
= single phase fluid viscosity, Pa s
g = gas viscosity, Pa s
L = liquid viscosity, Pa s
n = mixture viscosity for Dukler calculation, Pa s
Bernoullis Theorem
The Bernoulli Theorem1 is a mathematical derivation based
on the law of conservation of energy. This theorem states that
the total energy of a fluid at any particular point above a datum
plane is the sum of the elevation head, the pressure head, and
the velocity head. Stated mathematically:
P V2
= Ze + +
H
g 2g Eq 17-1
If there are no friction losses and no energy is added to or
taken from the system, H is constant for any point in the fluid.
In reality, whenever fluid is moving there is friction loss (hL).
This loss describes the difference in total energy at two points
in the system. Expressing the energy levels at Point 1 versus
Point 2 then becomes:
P1 V21 P2 V22 Eq 17-2
Z
el + + = Ze2 + + + hL
1g 2g 2g 2g
All practical formulas for fluid flow are derived from the
above. Modifications to Equation 17-2 have been proposed by
many investigators to account for the friction losses.
Fluid Physical Properties
The physical properties of a flowing fluid must be known to
predict pressure drop in piping. The two properties entering
into the solution of most fluid flow problems are viscosity and
density.
Viscosity expresses the readiness with which a fluid flows
when it is acted upon by an external force. Two types of viscos-
ity measurements are used, absolute and kinematic. Absolute
viscosity is a measure of a fluids internal resistance to defor-
mation or shear. Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of absolute vis-
cosity to mass density. The absolute viscosity will be used for all
calculations in this section.
Viscosity is temperature dependent. The viscosity of most
liquids decreases with an increase in temperature, whereas
that of gases increases. Pressure has almost no effect on the
viscosity of liquids or near perfect gases. On the other hand, the
viscosity of saturated or slightly superheated vapors is changed
appreciably by pressure changes. The viscosity of steam is read-
ily available, but the viscosity of other vapors may not be
known.
17-2
= single phase fluid density, kg/m3
avg = average density, kg/m3 [avg = 1/2 (in + out)]
a = air density at 15C and 1.22 kg/m3
w = water density at 15C and 101.56 kPa (abs),
999.5 kg/m3
g = gas density, kg/m3
L = liquid density, kg/m3
k = two phase mixture density for Dukler calculation,
kg/m3
= interfacial tension at flowing conditions, N/m
wa = interfacial tension of air and water at 15C and
101.56 kPa (abs), 0.0724 N/m
Specific volume is the inverse of density. Relative density of
a liquid is the ratio of the density of the liquid at a specified
temperature to the density of water at 15C. The relative den-
sity of gas is defined as the ratio of the molecular mass of the
gas to the molecular mass of air.
M (gas)
=
M (air) Eq 17-3
Flow in Pipes and Reynolds Number
At low velocities, fluid molecules or particles carried by the
fluid move in a reasonably straight line. Velocity of the fluid is
maximum at the center of the pipe and zero at the pipe wall.
This flow pattern is referred to as laminar. If the velocity is in-
creased it will reach a critical point where fluid particles begin
to show a random motion transverse to the direction of flow.
This is the critical velocity. This random motion is typical of
what is referred to as turbulent flow. Above the critical velocity
the flow is considered to be completely turbulent even though
there is always a boundary layer at the pipe wall where flow is
laminar. In the turbulent zone the velocity profile is more near-
ly straight across the face of the pipe.
Reynolds developed a dimensionless number that may be
considered as the ratio of the dynamic forces of mass flow to the
shear stress due to viscosity. The Reynolds number is:
DV
Re = Eq 17-4
If the Reynolds number is less than 2000, flow may be con-
sidered laminar. If it is above 4000, the flow is turbulent. In the
zone between 2000 and 4000 the flow could be either turbulent
or laminar, but cannot be predicted by the Reynolds number.
If a non-circular conduit is encountered, the Reynolds num-
ber can be approximated by using an equivalent diameter for D.
The equivalent diameter would equal four (4) times the hydrau-
lic radius. The hydraulic radius is defined as:
Area of Flowing Fluid
Hydraulic Radius = Eq 17-5
Wetted Perimeter
This conversion would not apply to extremely narrow shapes
where the width is small relative to the length. In such cases an
approximation may be used wherein one-half the width of the
passage is equal to the hydraulic radius.
Pressure Loss Due to Friction
Flow is always accompanied by friction. This friction results
in a loss of energy available for work. A general equation for
press pressure drop due to friction is the Darcy-Weisbach2 (of-
ten referred to as simply the Darcy) equation. This equation can
be rationally derived by dimensional analysis, with the excep-
tion of the friction factor, fm, which must be determined experi-
mentally. Expressed in meters of fluid this equation is:
fm L V 2
hL = Eq 17-6
2 g D
Converting to kPa, the equation becomes:
0.5 fm LV2
Pf = Eq 17-7
D
The Moody friction factor3, fm, is used in the equations above.
Some equations are shown in terms of the Fanning friction fac-
tor, ff, which is one fourth of fm (fm = 4.0 ff). A graph of both Fan-
ning and Moody friction factors as a function of Reynolds num-
ber appears in Fig. 17-2.
The Darcy-Weisbach equation is valid for both laminar and
turbulent flow of any liquid, and may also be used for gases
with certain restrictions. When using this equation, changes in
elevation, velocity, or density must be accounted for by applying
FIG. 17-2
Friction Factors5
17-3
Bernoullis theorem. The Darcy-Weisbach equation must be ap-
plied to line segments sufficiently short such that fluid density
is essentially constant over that segment. The overall pressure
drop is the sum of the Pf values calculated for the individual
segments. For gas applications the segmental length may be
relatively short, as compared to liquid applications, since many
gas applications involve compressible gases where gas densities
vary with pressure.
Friction Factor and Effect of Pipe Roughness
When the fluid flow is laminar (Re<2000), the friction factor
has a direct relationship to the Reynolds number, such that:
fm = 64/Re or ff = 16/Re Eq 17-8
Pipe roughness has no effect on the friction factor in laminar
flow.
Substitution of the formula for Reynolds number, Equation
17-4, into Equation 17-8, yields the following:
64
f m = Eq 17-9
DV
This expression can then be substituted for the friction fac-
tor in Equation 17-7, resulting in the following formula for pres-
sure loss in kPa:
32 000 LmV 32 LV
Pf = or Eq 17-10
d2 d2
 Equation 17-10 is commonly known as Poiseuilles law for
laminar flow.
When the flow is turbulent, the friction factor depends on the
Reynolds number and the relative roughness of the pipe, /D,
which is the roughness of the pipe, , over the pipe diameter, D.
Fig. 17-2 incorporates the relative roughness of the pipe into
the determination of the friction factor. Fig. 17-3 indicates rela-
tive roughness and friction factors for various piping materials.
These figures are based on the iterative solution of the following
equation developed by Colebrook.4
1 2.51
= 2 log10 +
3.7 D Re fm
Eq 17-11
fm tion, all irreversibilities and non-idealities, except for those cov-
Various explicit equations have been presented which pro-
vide a direct solution for the friction factor. The equation below
was proposed by Chen30 and is accurate and is almost identical
to the Colebrook equation over Reynolds Numbers (4000 to
4(10)8) and roughness factors (e/D) from 0.05 to 5(10)7.
1.1098
D
5.8506
Re
A = log + 0.8981
2.8257 Eq 17-11a
1 fines the energy lost in resistance to flow for various pipe sizes,
f m =
3.7065
2
D 5.0452 A
2 log To obtain Equation 17-15, which is convenient for general
Re Eq 17-11b
Equivalent Length of Valves and Fittings
The pressure drop effects of valves and fittings can be ac-
counted for by addition of the equivalent lengths of the fit-
tings to the actual piping lengths. This augmented pipe length
is then used in any of the following pressure drop calculation
techniques. A table of equivalent lengths for a number of repre-
sentative valves and fittings appears in Fig. 17-4.
Compressibility of Gases
For more accurate values of Z, refer to Section 23. For more
approximate calculations, the value of the average compress-
ibility factor, Zavg, may be calculated from the following equa-
tions:
1
Zavg = In the absence of field data indicating otherwise, an efficien-
(Fpv)2 Eq 17-12
and
0.5
(Pavg) (0.0527) (105) (10(1.785) ())
Fpv = 1 +
Ta3v.g825 Eq 17-13
Fig. 17-5 contains a plot of the deviation factor, Fpv2.
An estimate for Zavg at pressures below 700 kPa is:
1 1/ff = 4 log10 Eq 17-17
Zavg = Eq 17-14
1 + 0.00003 Pavg
SINGLE PHASE FLOW
Transmission Line Gas Flow
Isothermal Flow The steady-state, isothermal flow be-
havior of gas in pipelines is defined by a general energy equa-
tion of the form:
17-4
Ts 1 P21 P22 0.5
Eq 17-15
Ps ff Lm Tavg Zavg
Q = 0.018 E d2.5
This equation is completely general for steady-state flow,
and adequately accounts for variations in compressibility fac-
tor, kinetic energy, pressure, and temperature for any typical
line section. However, the equation as derived involves an un-
specified value of the transmission factor, 1/ff. The correct rep-
resentation of this friction factor is necessary to the validity of
the equation.
The friction factor is fundamentally related to the energy
lost due to friction. In the derivation of the general energy equa-
ered by the real gas law, have been collected into the friction
loss term.
Empirical methods historically and currently used to calcu-
late or predict the flow of gas in a pipeline are the result of
various correlations of the transmission factor substituted into
the general energy equation.
Examination of the relationships presented by various au-
thors shows that their forms differ primarily in the inherent or
specified representation of the transmission factor which de-
roughnesses, flow conditions, and gases.
calculations, a number of simplifying assumptions have been
made. For other than pipeline sections with a very high pres-
sure gradient, the change in the kinetic energy of the gas is not
significant, and is assumed equal to zero. It is also assumed
that the gas temperature is constant at an average value for the
section considered; the compressibility factor is constant at the
value characterized by the average gas temperature and pres-
sure; and in the term giving the effect of elevation change, the
pressure is constant at the average value. In the range of condi-
tions to which pipeline flow equations are ordinarily applied,
averages are usually sufficiently accurate. Average tempera-
tures are calculated as indicated in Fig. 17-1.
The average pressure in the line can be computed by:
2 P1 P2
3 P1 + P2
Pavg = P1 + P2 Eq 17-16
cy factor, E, of 1.0 is usually assumed.
The AGA Equations The AGA Equations were devel-
oped to approximate partially and fully turbulent flow using
two different transmission factors. The fully turbulent flow
equation accounts for the relative pipe roughness, /D, based on
the rough-pipe law.4 This equation uses the following transmis-
sion factor:
3.7 D
When the transmission factor for fully turbulent flow is sub-
stituted in the general energy equation (Equation 17-15), the
AGA Equation for fully turbulent flow becomes:
0.5
Ts 3.7 D P21 P22
Ps Lm Tavg Zavg
Q = 0.018 E 4 log10 d2.5
Eq 17-18
 FIG. 17-3
Relative Roughness of Pipe Materials and Friction Factors for Complete Turbulence5

17-5
 FIG. 17-4
Equivalent Length Le of Valves and Fittings

Ball valve Reduced bore 40 mm (112 in.) and smaller *

65 D
Reduced bore 50 mm (2 in.) and larger 45 D
Gate valve Standard bore 13 D
Reduced bore 40 mm (112 in.) and smaller 65 D
Globe valve, Straight pattern 340D
Valves (fully open)
Y pattern 160 D
Angle pattern 145 D
Check valve Swing type 135 D
Ball or piston type 40 mm (112) in. and smaller 340 D
Plug valve Regular pattern 45 D
Butterfly valve 150 mm (6 in.) and larger 20 D
Tee-equal Flow straight-through 20 D
Flow through side outlet 65 D
Elbow 90, R = 112 D 20 D
45, R = 1 2 D
1
16 D
Fittings
Bend 90, R = 4 D 14 D
90, R = 5 D 16 D
180, R = 4 D 25 D
180, R = 5 D 28 D
Strainer Pump suction Y-type and bucket type 250 D
Miscellaneous
Nozzle Suction nozzle vessel/tank 32 D
*D = nominal size in meters

The partially turbulent flow equation is based on the
smooth-pipe law4 and is modified to account for drag-inducing
elements. The transmission factor for this equation is:
Re systems agrees more closely with metered rates than those cal-
1/ff = 4 log10 0.6 Eq 17-19
1/ff increases with pressure. If the Q calculated from the Weymouth
Substituting 1/ff from Equation 17-19 into Equation 17-15
does not provide an equation which can be solved directly. For
partially turbulent flow a frictional drag factor must also be ap-
plied to account for the effects of pipe bends and irregularities.
These calculations are beyond the scope of this book and the
AGA Steady Flow in Gas Pipelines6 should be consulted for a
detailed treatment of partially turbulent flow.
The Weymouth equation The Weymouth equation,
published in 19127, evaluated the coefficient of friction as a
function of the diameter.
0.0235
ff = 1/3 Eq 17-20
d Panhandle A equation In the early 1940s Panhandle
1/ff = 6.523 d1/6 Eq 17-21
When the friction factor, ff, is substituted in the general en-
ergy equation, Weymouths equation becomes:
1/2
Ts P21 P22 2.667
Ps L TZavg
Eq 17-22
Q = (0.1182) E d
The Weymouth formula for short pipelines and gathering
culated by most other formulae. However, the degree of error
formula is multiplied by 1/Z, where Z is the compressibility fac-
tor of the gas, the corrected Q will closely approximate the me-
tered flow. Fig. 17-5 shows a plot of the deviation factor, 1/Z, of
a common gas and can be used safely if exact data is not avail-
able.
The equation cannot be generally applied to any variety of
diameters and roughness, and in the flow region of partially
developed turbulence, it is not valid. The Weymouth equation
may be used to approximate fully turbulent flow by applying
correction factors determined from the system to which it is to
be applied. Graphs showing gas flow calculations based on the
Weymouth equation are shown in Fig. 17-6a and 17-6b.
Eastern Pipe Line Company developed a formula for calcula-
tion of gas flow in transmission lines which has become known
as the Panhandle A equation. This equation uses the following
expressions of Reynolds number and transmission factor.

17-6
 FIG. 17-5 Panhandle B equation A new or revised Panhandle
8
Equation was published in 1956. This revised equation is
Deviation Factors known as the Panhandle B equation and is only slightly Reyn-
olds number dependent. Therefore, it more nearly approxi-
mates fully turbulent flow behavior. The transmission factor
used here is:

Q 0.01961
Eq 17-26
d
1/ff = 19.08 = 16.49 (Re)0.01961


Substituting Equation 17-23 for 1/ff in the general energy
equation (Equation 17-15), the Panhandle B equation becomes:
0.51
Ts 1.02 P21 P22
Ps L Tavg Zavg
Q = 0.339 E 0.961 d2.53 Eq 17-27

The equation can be adjusted through the use of an efficien-

(15 C)
Note: Refer to Section 23 for more accurate compressibility factors.
Q the case of the Panhandle A equation, and an approximation to
= 1734.55
Re
d
Q 0.07305
d
1/ff = 11.85 = 6.872 (Re)0.07305
The transmission factor assumes a Reynolds number value
from 5 to 11 million based on actual metered experience.
Substituting Equation 17-24 for 1/ff in the general energy
equation (Equation 17-15), the Panhandle A Equation be-
comes:
0.5392
Ts 1.0788 P21 P22 2.6182
Ps L Tavg Zavg
Q = 0.191 E 0.853
This equation was intended to reflect the flow of gas through
smooth pipes. When adjusted with an efficiency factor, E, of
about 0.90, the equation is a reasonable approximation of the
partially turbulent flow equation. The equation becomes less
accurate as flow rate increases. Many users of the Panhandle A
equation assume an efficiency factor of 0.92.
cy term that makes it applicable across a relatively limited
range of Reynolds numbers. Other than this, however, there are
no means for adjustment of the equation to correct it for varia-
tions in pipe surface. Adjusted to an average flowing Reynolds
number, the equation will predict low flow rates at low Reyn-
olds numbers, and high flow rates at high Reynolds numbers,
as compared to a fully turbulent flow equation. Efficiencies
based on the Panhandle B equation decrease with increasing
flow rate for fully turbulent flow. The efficiency factor, E, used
in the Panhandle B equation generally varies between about
0.88 and 0.94.
Conclusions The successful application of these trans-
mission line flow equations in the past has largely involved
compensation for discrepancies through the use of adjustment
factors, usually termed efficiencies. These efficiencies are fre-
quently found in practice by determining the constant required
to cause predicted gas equation behavior to agree with flow
data. As a result, the values of these factors are specific to par-
ticular gas flow equations and field conditions and, under many
circumstances, vary with flow rate in a fashion that obscures
the real nature of flow behavior in the pipe.
The Reynolds number dependent equations, such as the
Panhandle equations, utilize a friction factor expression which
yields an approximation to partially turbulent flow behavior in
Eq 17-23 fully turbulent behavior in the case of the Panhandle B.
These equations suffer from the substitution of a fixed gas
Eq 17-24 viscosity value into the Reynolds number expression, which, in
turn, substituted into the flow equation, results in an expres-
sion with a preconditioned bias.
Regardless of the merits of various gas flow equations, past
practices may dictate the use of a particular equation to main-
tain continuity of comparative capacities through application of
consistent operating policy. A summary of comparisons between
transmission factors used in the above gas equations are shown
in Fig. 17-7.
d Reference should be made to Steady Flow in Gas Pipe-
Eq 17-25 lines,6 published by American Gas Association, for a complete
analysis of steady flow in gas pipelines.
Low Pressure Gas Flow
Gas gathering often involves operating pressures below
690kPa. Some systems flow under vacuum conditions. For

17-7
 FIG. 17-6a
Gas Flow Based on Weymouth Formula

17-8
 FIG. 17-6b
Gas Flow Based on Weymouth Formula

17-9
 FIG. 17-7
Comparison of Gas Equation Transmission Factors for Nominal 500 mm Pipe

these low pressure conditions, equations have been developed tor. This simplification was checked over a wide range of flows
that give a better fit than the Weymouth or Panhandle equa- and densities for pressure drops of 6 to 35 kPa/100 m. Density
tions. Two such formulas are: was varied over a range of 100 to 1; flows varied over a range of
75 to 1. Pressure variation was from atmospheric to 7000 kPa
The Oliphant Formula9 for gas flow between vacuum and
(abs). The error from using the simplified approach as compared
690kPa:
to the actual friction factor calculated in the Darcy formula was
2.5 d3 99.3 Tb from zero to 5%, with the simplified approach giving consistent-
151.19 Ps 288.9
= 0.051
Q d + ly lower calculated pressure drop for a given flow.

1/2
The Darcy formula can be written in the simple form:
T L
0.6 288.9 P21 P22 Eq 17-28

W2 62 530 (102) f

P100 =
The Spitzglass Formula for gas flow below 7 kPa (ga) at 15 C: d5 Eq 17-30
1/2
62.530 (1014) f

(P1 P2) d5 Eq 17-29 Simplifying,
C1 = W2 (109), and C2 = , then
Q = 0.821
91.44 d5
d
L 1+ + 0.00118 d
C1 C2
100 =
P
Plant Piping Gas Flow Eq 17-31

For estimating pressure drop in short runs of gas piping, (P100)

C
1= = discharge factor from chart, Fig. 17-8
such as within plant or battery limits, a simplified formula for C2
compressible fluids is accurate for fully turbulent flow, assum-
ing the pressure drop through the line is not a significant frac- (P100)
C2 = = size factor Fig. 17-9
tion of the total pressure (i.e. no more than 10%). C1
The following method is a simplification of the Darcy for- C2 incorporates the friction factor, assuming clean steel. Us-
mula, which eliminates calculation of fm, the Moody friction fac- ing this simplified approach, new lines can be sized by setting

17-10
 FIG. 17-8 Example 17-2 Calculate the required line size (of Schedule
40 pipe) to give P100 = 25 kPa or less when flowing 34 000 kg/h
Simplified Flow Formula for Compressible of methane at 2800 kPa and 38 C. The compressibility factor is
Fluids5 Values of C1 0.96 (from Fig. 23-5).

Solution Steps
16.062 (2800)
= = 18.12 kg/m3
8.3145 (273 + 38) (0.96)
C1 from Fig. 17-8 is 1.16
(P100) 25 (18.12)
C2 = = = 390.5
C1 1.16

From Fig. 17-9 the smallest size of Schedule 40 pipe with C2

less than 390 is 8-in. pipe. For 8 in. Sch 40 pipe, C2 is 257. The
actual pressure drop can then be calculated as:
1.16 (257)
P100 = = 16.45 kPa/100 m
18.12
using Equation 17-31 for the above flow conditions.

Liquid Flow
For the calculation of pressure drop in liquid lines, the Dar-
cy-Weisbach method, Equation 17-6, can be used. The calcula-
tion is simplified for liquid flows since the density can reason-
ably be assumed to be a constant. As a result, the Darcy-Weisbach
calculation can be applied to a long run of pipe, rather than
segmentally as dictated by the variable density in gas flow. In
addition, several graphical aids are available for pressure drop
calculation. Elevation pressure drops must be calculated sepa-
rately using Equation 17-32. These elevation pressure gains or
losses are added algebraically to the frictional pressure drops.
Pe = (0.00981) L Ze Eq 17-32
Water A graph showing pressure drop for water per 100 m
as a function of flow rate in m3/h and pipe size is shown in Fig.
17-10. These data are based on the Hazen and Williams empiri-
cal formula10 using a C constant of 100 which is commonly used
for design purposes in welded and seamless steel pipe.
Hazen and Williams formula for flow of water:
P1 P2 0.54
L
the desired P100 and solving for C2 with a given flow. For a q = 3.765 (10)6 d2.63 C
given flow and pipe size, P100 can be solved directly. Eq 17-33

Example 17-1 Calculate the pressure drop in a 10-in., Sched- Where:

ule 40 pipe (250 mm) for a flow of 68 400 kg/h of methane. Tem- C = 140 for new steel pipe
perature is 15 C and pressure is 5200 kPa. The compressibility
factor is 0.905 (from Fig. 23-8). C = 130 for new cast iron pipe
C = 100 is often used for design purposes to account for
pipe fouling, etc.
Solution Steps
Hydrocarbon A graph showing pressure drop for hydro-
16.042 (5200) carbons per 100 meters as a function of flow rate in m3/h and
=
= 38.48 kg/m3
8.3145 (273 +15) (0.905) pipe size is shown in Fig. 17-11. This graph assumes a relative
density of 1.0 (water). To correct for different liquid densities,
C1 from Fig. 17-8 is 4.7 the value read from Fig. 17-11 must be multiplied by the actual
C2 from Fig. 17-9 is 78.7 relative density to obtain the correct pressure loss.

C1 C2 4.7 (78.7)
P100 = =
38.48
= 9.61 kPa/100 m using Equation 17-31

17-11
 FIG. 17-9
Simplified Flow Formula for Compressible Fluids5
Values of C2

Nominal Nominal Nominal

Schedule Schedule Schedule
pipe size Value of C2 pipe size Value of C2 pipe size Value of C2
number number number
in. in. in.
1
8 40 s 13 940 000 000 8 20 234. 18 10 4.35
80 x 46 100 000 000 30 243. 20 4.51
1
4 40 s 2 800 000 000 40 s 257. ... s 4.68
80 x 7 550 000 000 60 287. 30 4.86
3
8 40 s 561 000 000 80 x 326. ... x 5.05
80 x 1 260 000 000 100 371. 40 5.24
1
2 40 s 164 600 000 120 444. 60 5.90
80 x 327 500 000 140 509. 80 6.64
160 756 800 000 ... xx 558. 100 7.66
... xx 19 680 000 000 160 586. 120 8.87
3
4 40 s 37 300 000 10 20 69.9 140 10.08
80 x 65 000 000 30 74.1 160 11.77
160 176 200 000 40 s 78.7 20 10 2.48
... xx 1 104 000 000 60 x 90.5 20 s 2.65
1 40 s 10 470 000 80 100.1 30 x 2.83
80 x 17 000 000 100 114.8 40 2.98
160 39 600 000 120 132.5 60 3.36
... xx 200 800 000 140 159.3 80 3.82
114 40 s 2 480 000 160 185.2 100 4.42
80 x 3 720 000 12 20 27.6 120 5.05
160 6 140 000 30 29.6 140 5.89
... xx 24 000 000 ... s 30.8 160 6.78
112 40 s 1 100 000 40 31.7 24 10 0.940
80 x 1 590 000 ... x 34.3 20 s 0.994
160 2 920 000 60 36.3 ... x 1.051
... xx 8 150 000 80 40.7 30 1.081
2 40 s 297 000 100 47.0 40 1.146
80 x 415 000 120 54.0 60 1.304
160 859 000 140 61.6 80 1.470
... xx 1 582 000 160 74.4 100 1.711
212 40 s 117 000 14 10 16.70 120 1.970
80 x 162 000 20 17.53 140 2.242
160 257 000 30 s 18.41 160 2.600
... xx 669 000 40 19.34 30 10 0.2959
3 40 s 37 700 ... x 20.33 ... s 0.3025
80 x 50 500 60 21.89 20 xs 0.3163
160 85 000 80 24.92 30 0.3308
... xx 170 000 100 29.16 36 10 0.1130
312 40 s 17 600 120 33.40 ... s 0.1151
80 x 23 200 140 38.37 20 xs 0.1194
4 40 s 9 100 160 44.35 30 0.1239
80 x 11 880 16 10 8.15 40 0.1287
120 15 730 20 8.50 Note: The letters s, x, and xx in the
160 20 770 30 s 8.87 columns of Schedule Numbers indicate
... xx 32 720 40 x 9.66 Standard, Extra Strong, and Double Extra
5 40 s 2 798 60 10.77 Strong pipe respectively
80 x 3 590 80 12.32
120 4 734 100 14.15
160 6 318 120 16.30
... xx 8 677 140 19.34
6 40 s 1 074. 160 21.89
80 x 1 404.
120 1 786.
160 2 422.
... xx 3 275.

17-12
 FIG. 17-10
Pressure Drop for Flowing Water

17-13
 FIG. 17-11
Pressure Drop for Hydrocarbon Liquids in Smooth Pipe

Steam Flow At the downstream end of a pipeline, it is frequently neces-

Fig. 17-12 contains a graphical representation for calculat-
ing pressure drop in steam lines.
The Babcock formula5 for steam flow is:
d + 91.44 W L2
d6
P
f = 673.9
Eq 17-34
Fire Stream Flow
Fig. 17-13 is a table permitting rapid computation of the
behavior of various sized fire nozzles. The table also includes
the estimated pressure drop in 30.5 m of 212 inch diameter fire
hose.
TWO PHASE FLOW
Two-phase flow presents several design and operational dif-
ficulties not present in single phase liquid or vapor flow. Fric-
tional pressure drops are much harder to calculate. For cross-
country pipelines, a terrain profile is needed to calculate
elevation pressure drops. Commercial software is available to
simulate these complex two-phase flow situations.
sary to separate the liquid and vapor phases in a separator. The
presence of liquid slugs complicates this process, and a slug
catcher may be required (see Section 7).
Flow Regime Determination
Several empirical flow regime maps have been presented
that determine vapor-liquid flow patterns as a function of fluid
properties and flow rates. Diagrams of these flow patterns are
shown in Fig. 17-14. One map commonly used was developed by
Gregory, Aziz, and Mandhane12 for horizontal flow. This map
appears as Fig. 17-15. The coordinates of the map are:
VsL = superficial liquid velocity
= QL/A Eq 17-35
Vsg = superficial gas velocity
= Qg/A Eq 17-36
Mandhane proposed a fluid property correction to the super-
ficial velocities, but concluded that the fluid property effects are

17-14
 FIG. 17-12
Pressure Drop in Steam Pipes by Fritzsches Formula11

17-15
 FIG. 17-13
Table of Effective Fire Streams

Smooth nozzles, size 18 mm (34") 21 mm (78") 25 mm (1")

Pressure at hydrants, 221 296 372 448 517 586 234 317 393 476 552 627 255 345 427 517 600 690
kPa
Pressure at nozzle, kPa 207 276 345 414 483 552 207 276 345 414 483 552 207 276 345 414 483 552
Pres. lost in 30.5 m, 21/2 14 21 28 34 34 41 28 41 48 62 69 76 48 69 83 103 117 138
in. hose, kPa
Vertical height, m 15 18 20 22 23 24 15 19 22 23 25 26 15 20 22 24 26 27
Horizontal distance, m 11 13 15 16 18 18 13 15 17 19 20 21 14 17 19 20 22 23
m3 discharge/h 20.4 20.4 23.6 26.3 28.3 31.1 33.4 27.9 32.3 36.1 39.5 42.7 45.7 36.6 42.2 47.2 51.3 55.9 59.7
Smooth nozzles, size 28 mm (118") 31 mm (114") 34 mm (138")
Pressure at hydrants, 290 386 483 579 676 772 338 448 558 669 779 889 400 531 655 800 931 1062
kPa
Pressure at nozzle, kPa 207 276 345 414 483 552 207 276 345 414 483 552 207 276 345 414 483 552
Pres. lost in 30.5m, 21/2 83 110 138 165 193 207 131 172 214 255 296 338 193 255 310 386 448 510
in hose, kPa
Vertical height, m 16 20 23 25 27 28 16 20 23 26 28 29 17 21 24 26 28 30
Horizontal distance, m 15 18 20 22 23 25 16 19 21 23 25 26 17 20 22 24 26 27
m3 discharge/h 46.8 54.1 60.4 66.1 71.3 76.3 58.1 67.2 75.2 82.4 89.0 96.2 71.5 82.4 92.2 101.1 109.0 116.7

Using 30.5 m of 212 in. ordinary best quality rubber lined hose between nozzle and hydrant or pump.

The vertical and horizontal distance in above table are effective streams. The effective stream, is one that has not broken up into a spray and
which will project three fourths of the water through a circle 254mm in diameter, at the distance indicated.
The bulk of the stream and extreme drops will carry a greater distance, but the stream is spread out too much to penetrate a hot fire and reach the
burning materials before evaporation. The vertical height h in meters, which the bulk of the stream will carry, may be computed by formula
h = 0.91 V2

2g
0 . 000 278 m3/h
The m3/h discharge in the above table check approximately with the formula: V = C2g H =

A
then 3 VA
m /h =
0.000278 V = Velocity in meters per second g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.80 m/s2
A = Area of nozzle, in square mm C = Coefficient for smooth nozzles = 0.98 H = Head in m = pressure x 0.335

Reference: Adapted from Fire Protection Handbook, 1976, 14th Edition, National Fire Protection Association

insignificant compared to the errors in the empirical map. The
map reports the flow regimes: stratified, wavy, annular mist,
bubble, slug, and dispersed. Care should be taken in the inter-
pretation of these flow maps as the regime boundaries are
strongly affected by pipe inclination. In particular, horizontal
flow regime maps must not be used for vertical flow, and verti-
cal flow regime maps must not be used for horizontal flow. The
Mandhane map given in Fig. 17-15 was developed for horizon-
tal lines flowing air and water at near atmospheric pressure.
Inclinations in the range of 0.1-1.0 degrees can cause substan-
tial regime boundary movement. In addition, flow regime
boundary adjustment has been observed due to fluid pressure,
pipe diameter, and surface tension.13,22 The gas density increase
caused by high pressure acts to move the slug-mist boundary to
lower superficial gas velocities, while increased pipe diameter
acts to increase the stratified wavy flow regime at the expense
of the slug flow regime. In addition, foamy fluids having a high
latter method also contains explicit pipe diameter effects but
lacks any way of accounting for surface tension.
For vertical flow, the stratified flow regime cannot exist as
there is no preferred direction for the liquid to settle. An em-
pirical flow regime map developed by Aziz14 for vertical upward
flow is shown in Fig. 17-16. The coordinates for this flow map
are the same as for the Mandhane map in Fig. 17-15 except that
fluid property corrections are used. The coordinates used in the
Aziz vertical map are:
Nx = Vsg XA Eq 17-37
Ny = VsL YA Eq 17-38
g 0.333
a
X
A= YA
Eq 17-39
Lwa 0.25

w
surface tension have been observed to flow in the dispersed flow YA =
Eq 17-40
regime even though Mandhane would have predicted superfi-
cial liquid velocities too low to cause dispersed flow. A flow re- For pipe inclinations greater than 10-20 degrees, flow regime
gime map generated by Taitel and Dukler13 contains explicit patterns resemble those of vertical flow more than those of hori-
inclination effects and should be used for inclined pipes. This zontal flow, and the Aziz vertical map should be used. For verti-

17-16
 FIG. 17-14
Two Phase Flow Regimes
Slug
Bubble
Annular Mist
Stratified Wave
FIG. 17-15
Horizontal Flow Regime Map12
cal downward flow, the flow patterns can be more complicated. A
generally accepted vertical down-flow map is not available.
Although the designer frequently does not have the choice,
avoidance of the slug flow regime in horizontal flow and the
slug and froth flow regimes in vertical flow is desirable. Slug
flow introduces a flow rate and pressure intermittency that
may be troublesome to process control. In some cases, slug flow
may be avoided by the choice of smaller pipe sizes. Of course,
frictional pressure drop may be increased by use of this smaller
pipe. In vertical upflow, oversizing the pipe may result in a
bubble flow regime, and a large liquid inventory. This liquid
inventory may cause excessive hydrostatic presure drops.
Example 17-3 A vapor-liquid mixture is flowing vertically
upward in a pipe having an inside diameter of 200 mm. The
fluid is a hydrocarbon liquid-hydrocarbon vapor mixture. The
liquid density is 832.8 kg/m3 and the vapor density is 32.0kg/
m3. The interfacial surface tension is 20 (10)7 N m. The liquid
volumetric flow rate is 17.3 m3/h and the vapor flow rate is 51
17-17
FIG. 17-16
Vertical Up-Flow Regime Map14
m3/h measured at actual conditions. What flow regime is to be
expected?
Solution Steps
(832.8) (72.4) 107
0.25
(999.5) (20) 107
YA = = 1.32 using Equation 17-40
(32) 0.333
1.224
XA = (1.32) = 3.91 using Equation 17-39
51/3600
Vsg = = 0.451 m/s using Equation 17-36
(/4) (200/1000)2
17.3/3600
VsL = = 0.153 m/s using Equation 17-35
(/4) (200/1000)2
Nx = (0.451) (3.91) = 1.76 m/s using Equation 17-37
Ny = (0.153) (1.32) = 0.202 m/s using Equation 17-38
Fig. 17-16 shows that this flow is in the slug flow regime.
Pressure Drop Calculation
Calculation of pressure drop in two-phase flow lends itself
better to computer calculation than to hand calculation. Several
two-phase pressure drop correlations are available for both
horizontal and vertical flows.15,16,17 Due to the complexity of
two-phase flow, uncertainties associated with pressure drop
calculations are much greater than uncertainties in single-
phase pressure drop calculations. As a result, errors in calcu-
lated two-phase pressure drops in the order of plus or minus
twenty percent may normally be anticipated, especially in cir-
cumstances where fluid velocities are unusually high or low,
where terrain is rugged, or where fluid properties are inade-
quately known. In addition, different two-phase flow correla-
tions may give significantly different pressure drops. In order to
evaluate these differences, several correlations should be used.
A method suggested by the American Gas Association18 can
serve as a basis for hand calculation generated by Dukler19 and
an elevation pressure drop correlation by Flanigan.20
 Frictional component18 Using the Dukler frictional
pressure drop calculation method, the frictional pressure drop
is given by the equation:
fn ftpr k Vm2 Lm
Pf = Eq 17-41
2 d
where
L 2 g (1 )2
k = + Eq 17-42
HLd (1 HLd) sure drop can be found using the Flanigan method. In this
and
QL
= Eq 17-43
QL + Qg L HLf
The single phase friction factor, fn, can be obtained from the
correlation:19
fn = 0.0056 + 0.5 (Rey)0.32 Eq 17-44
This equation is an approximate correlation of the Moody
friction factor, fm for turbulent flow having a Reynolds number
higher than 4000 in a smooth pipe. A plot of this Moody friction
factor is shown as the axis fm in Fig. 17-2.
The mixture Reynolds number, Rey, is calculated according
to the equation:
(0.001) k Vm d
Re
y= Eq 17-45
n
Calculation of this Reynolds number requires determina-
tion of mixture velocity, Vm, and mixture viscosity, n. These
quantities can be determined according to:
Vm = VsL + Vsg Eq 17-46
n = L + g (1 ) Eq 17-47
The two-phase friction factor ratio, ftpr, representing a two-
phase frictional efficiency can be determined by reference to
Fig. 17-17 or by the equation:
y tal calculations is one of the reasons why two-phase calcula-
1.281 0.478y + 0.444y2 0.094y3 + 0.00843y4
ftpr = 1 + tions are best suited for computer calculation.
Eq 17-48
where y = ln().
The remaining quantity to be calculated in the Dukler
scheme is an estimate of the liquid holdup, HLd. This holdup can
be estimated using Fig. 17-18. This figure gives liquid holdup as
a function of and Rey. Since Rey is itself a function of liquid
holdup, the calculation is, in general, iterative. For most calcu-
lations, however, the Rey line can be used for a first estimate.
Elevation component The elevation component of pres-
method, the elevation component is calculated using the equa-
tion:
P
e= Ze
100 Eq 17-49
where HLf is determined from Fig. 17-19 or calculated according
to the formula:
1
HLf =
1 + 1.078 (Vsg)1.006 Eq 17-50
The term Ze is the vertical elevation rise of a hill. The rises
are summed. No elevation drops are considered. This is tanta-
mount to ignoring any possible hydrostatic pressure recoveries
in downhill sections of pipeline and may lead to a considerable
error in the pressure drop analysis.
Once the frictional component or pressure drop is found us-
ing the Dukler method, and the elevation component is found
using the Flanigan method, the overall two-phase pressure
drop is found by summing the friction and elevation compo-
nents.
Pt = Pe + Pf Eq 17-51
Since fluid properties and liquid holdups can change rapidly
in a two-phase line, accuracy is improved if this AGA calcula-
tion procedure is performed segmentally. The need for segmen-
Liquid holdup The liquid holdup correlation given in
Fig. 17-18 is intended only for use in the Dukler friction pres-

FIG. 17-17
Two-Phase Friction Factor Ratio18

17-18
sure drop calculation. A correlation by Eaton et al.21 is better Example 17-4 A pipeline segment with a 6-inch inside diam-
suited for liquid holdup determination in liquid inventory cal- eter (150 mm), 1200 m long, transports a mixture of gas and oil.
culations. The pipeline has a gradual upward slope and rises 30 m over the
1200 m length. The inlet pressure of the pipeline is 2800 kPa
The Eaton21 holdup correlation is shown in Fig. 17-20. In (abs), liquid viscosity is 0.02 Pa s, the vapor viscosity is 0.000015
this figure, the holdup fraction, HLe, is plotted directly as a func- Pa s, and the interfacial surface tension is 1.5 x 106 N/m. The
tion of the dimensionless group, NE. This dimensionless group liquid flow rate is 17 m3/h and the vapor flow rate is 425 m3/h.
is of the form: The density of the liquid phase is 880 kg/m3, and the density of
the gas phase is 20.8 kg/m3 at operating conditions. What is the
Pb
Pavg 0.05
1.84 (NLv)0.575 (NL)0.1 pressure at the downstream end of the line segment, and what
Ne = Eq 17-52 is the liquid inventory of the line?
Ngv (Nd)0.0277
Solution Steps
where
0.25 Calculate the flowing liquid volume fraction using Equation
L

NLv = 0.0565 VsL Eq 17-53 17-43.
17
= = 0.038
L 0.25 425 + 17

Ngv = 0.0565 Vsg Eq 17-54
Calculate the mixture viscosity, n using Equation 17-47.
L 0.50

Nd = 0.00003134 d Eq 17-55 n = (0.02) (0.038) + (0.000015) (1.0 0.038)
= 0.000774 Pa s
1 0.25 For a first guess, assume HLd = and estimate k using
L3
NL = 0.001769 L Eq 17-56
Equation 17-42.
The Eaton correlation has been found reasonably accurate (880) (0.038)2 (20.8) (1.0 0.038)2
k = + = 53.45 kg/m3
by several investigators, particularly for low holdup flows. 0.038 (1.0 0.038)
The liquid holdup fraction, HLe, is the fraction of the flow Calculate the superficial velocities and the mixture velocity.
area of the pipe occupied by liquid. To calculate the liquid in-
ventory in the pipe, IL, the pipe internal volume is multiplied by 17
VsL = = 0.259 m/s
this holdup fraction. (/4) (152.4/1000)2 (3600) using Equation 17-35
IL = (7.853) (107) HLed2L Eq 17-57 425
Vsg = = 6.472 m/s
Since holdup fractions may change along the length of the (/4) (152.4/1000)2 (3600) using Equation 17-36
pipe, a segmental calculation is more accurate.
Vm = 0.259 + 6.472 = 6.731 m/s using Equation 17-46

FIG. 17-18
Liquid Holdup Correlation18

17-19
 Calculate an estimate of the mixture Reynolds number, Rey, Determine the elevation component of pressure drop, Pe,
using Equation 17-45 using Equation 17-49
(0.001) (53.45) (6.731) (152.4) Pe = (0.01) (880) (0.12) 30 = 31.68 kPa
Re
y= = 70 839
(0.000774)
Find the total pressure drop, Pt, using Equation 17-51
From Fig. 17-18, determine a better estimate for the holdup
fraction HLd using = 0.038, Rey = 70 839 Pt = 317.9 + 31.68 = 349.6 kPa

HLd = 0.12 Find the segment discharge pressure

Using this improved HLd, recalculate k using Equation 17- P2 = 2800 349.6 = 2450.4 kPa
42 The pipeline segment has a discharge pressure of
(880) (0.038)2 (20.8) (1.0 0.038)2 2450.4kPa.
k = + = 32.463 kg/m3

(0.12) 1.0 0.12 To calculate the liquid inventory, the liquid holdup fraction
Using this improved k recalculate Rey using Equation 17- from Eatons correlation must be found. First determine the
45 nondimensional parameters:

(0.001) (32.463) (6.731) (152.4) NLv = (0.0565) (0.259) (880/1.5 106)0.25 = 2.277
Re
y= = 43 024 using Equation 17-53
(0.000774)
From Fig. 17-18 with = 0.038 and Rey = 43 024, HLd = 0.16. Ngv = (0.0565) (6.472) (880/1.5 106)0.25 = 56.91
Another iteration using HLd = 0.16 indicates Rey = 40 900 and using Equation 17-54
HLd = 0.16. Nd = (0.00003134) (152.4) (880/1.5 106)0.5 = 115.69
Calculate the single phase friction factor with Rey = 40 900 using Equation 17-55
using Equation 17-44
1 0.25

(880) (1.5 10 )
fn = 0.0056 + 0.5 (40 900)0.32 = 0.0223 L = (0.001769) (0.02)
N = 0.152
6 3
using Equation 17-56
Determine the two-phase friction factor, ftpr, from Fig. 17-17
using = 0.038 Determine Eatons nondimensional abscissa, NE, using
Equation17-52
ftpr = 2.59
(1.84) (2.277)0.575 (2800/101.56)0.05 (0.152)0.1
Now for = 0.038, HLd = 0.16 then k = 30.86 using Equation NE =
(56.91) (115.69)0.0277
17-42.

l = 0.0445
Calculate the frictional component of pressure drop Pf us-
ing Equation 17-41 From Fig. 17-20, read the holdup fraction, HLe
(0.5) (0.0223) (2.59) (30.86) (6.731) (1200)
2
HLe = 0.14
Pf = = 317.9 kPa
152.4
Note that this estimate is close to the HLf predicted in
Find HLf from Fig. 17-19 using Vsg = 6.472 m/s Fig.17-19 for elevation pressure drop determination. It also co-
incides closely with the value of 0.16 from Fig. 17-18.
HLf = 0.12

FIG. 17-19
Flanigan Liquid Holdup Correlation20

17-20
 FIG. 17-20
21
Eaton Liquid Holdup Correlation
Calculate the pipeline segment liquid inventory from Equation
17-57
IL = (7.853) (107) (0.14) (152.4)2 (1200) = 3.064 m3
The pipeline segment contains 3.064 cubic m of liquid at any
instant.
Liquid Slugging
Purpose of Separators The slug flow regime is fre-
quently encountered for pipe sizes and flow rates used in pro-
cess and transmission piping. Liquid slugging introduces an
additional design and operational difficulty as liquid and vapor
must generally be separated at the downstream end of the two-
phase flow line. The downstream separator serves both as a
liquid-vapor disengaging device and as a surge vessel to absorb
the fluctuating liquid flow rates caused by slugging. In order to
size the separator or slug catcher, the length of the incoming
slugs must be determined. Slug length calculation methods are
not well developed, and there is large uncertainty in slug length
determination.
Mechanisms of Slug Generation Liquid slug lengths
are difficult to determine in part because there are at least four
identifiable mechanisms for liquid slug generation. Slugs can
form as the result of wave formation at the liquid-gas interface
in a stratified flow. When the liquid waves grow large enough to
bridge the entire pipe diameter, the stratified flow pattern
breaks down and a slug flow is formed.
Slugs can also form due to terrain effects. Liquid collects at
a sag in the pipeline and blocks the gas flow. The pressure in
this blocked gas rises until it blows the accumulated liquid in
17-21
FIG. 17-21
Example Line Drip
GRADE
GAS FLOW
DRIP
BELOW
LINE
DRIP LIQUID
DRIP
VESSEL
DRIP
VALVE NO
the sag out as a slug. Changes in pipeline inlet flow rate can
also cause slugs. When the inlet flow rate increases, the liquid
inventory in the pipeline decreases, and the excess liquid forms
a slug or series of slugs. Finally, pigging can cause very large
liquid slugs as the entire liquid inventory of the line is swept
ahead of the pig. Of the four mechanisms described, wave
growth normally produces the shortest slugs, followed in length
by terrain generated slugs. Methods for calculating wave in-
duced slugs were described by Greskovich and Shrier22, and by
Brill et al.23 A preliminary scheme for calculating terrain gener-
ated slugs was reported by Schmidt.24 Analytical methods for
determining inlet flow rate generated slugs were given by Cun-
liffe,25 and a method of analyzing pigging dynamics was given
by McDonald and Baker.26
Slug Catchers Refer to Section 7 for a discussion on
Slug Catchers.
An example of a line drip catcher is shown in Fig. 17-22. A
drip vessel is connected to the incoming pipeline and often laid
beneath it. A flow line from the drip vessel is used to blow the
liquids out to a storage or surge vessel as they accumulate.
Pigging Pipelines are pigged for several reasons. If wa-
ter is present in the line, it must be removed periodically in or-
der to minimize corrosion. This water accumulates in sags in
the pipeline, and these low spots are particularly susceptible to
corrosion. Pipelines are also pigged to improve pressure drop-
flow rate performance. Water or hydrocarbon liquids that settle
in sags in the pipeline constitute partial blockages that increase
pressure drop. Pigging can remove these liquids and improve
pipeline efficiency. Pigging can also be used as a means of limit-
ing the required slug catcher size. By pigging at frequent inter-
vals, liquid inventory buildup in a pipeline can be reduced, and
the maximum slug size can be limited. The required down-
stream slug catcher size must take into account pigging fre-
quency.
Operational hazards are associated with pigging. The very
large slugs swept ahead of the pig may overwhelm inadequately
sized downstream facilities. Pigs may also occasionally be de-
stroyed in the pipeline and the resulting debris may damage
downstream fittings or equipment. Even worse, the pig may be-
come stuck in the line and require an expensive shutdown for
location and removal.
 FIG. 17-22
Working Pressures Refinery Piping
To determine allowable internal working pressure for
straight sections of pipe in accordance with ANSI B31.3,
Code for Pressure Piping, Petroleum Refinery Piping, use
the following:
tm = t + c
Pido 2 tSE
t = or Pi = do
2(SE + PiY) do 2 tY
do or Pi
For
t> > 0.385 calculation of pressure design
6 SE
thickness requires special consideration.
where:
tm = minimum required thickness, satisfying
requirements for pressure, and mechanical,
corrosion, and erosion allowances, mm.
Selected thickness shall be no less than tm plus
the manufacturers negative tolerance. The
typical negative tolerance is 12.5%.
t = pressure design thickness, mm
c = the sum of the mechanical allowances
(thread depth and groove depth), corrosion, and
erosion allowances, mm
Pi = internal design pressure, kPa (ga)
do = outside diameter of pipe, mm
S = allowable stresses, kPa
E = longitudinal weld joint factor:
Seamless = 1.000, ERW = 0.85
Y = coefficient having values for ferritic steels
as follows: 0.4 up to and including 480C
0.5 for 510C
0.7 for 540C and above
17-22
FIG. 17-23
Working Pressures Transmission Lines
To determine allowable internal working pressures for pip-
ing outside of refineries and other processing facilities in ac-
cordance with ANSI B31.8-1999, Code of Pressure Piping,
Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping, use the follow-
ing:
2 S t
Pi = (F) (E) (T)
Where
Pi = Design pressure, kPa (ga)
S = Specified minimum yield strength, kPa
do = Nominal outside diameter, mm
t = Nominal wall thickness, mm
F = Construction type design factor,
Table 841.114A and Par. 840.2 (see note)
Location Class F
1 Div 1 .80
Div 2 .72
2 .60
3 .50
4 .40
Complete details are covered in Par. 841.
E = Longitudinal joint factor, Table 841.115A
Normally a factor of 1.0 is used for seamless
and welded pipe except for the following:
Fusion Welded A 134 and A 139 0.80
Spiral Welded A 211 0.80
Furnace Butt Welded ASTM-A53, API-5L 0.60
T = Temperature derating factor, Table 841.116A
Temp, C Factor T
120 or less 1.000
150 0.967
175 0.933
200 0.900
230 0.867
For intermediate temperatures, interpolate for
derating factor.
 FIG. 17-24
Representative Allowable Stresses in Tension for Materials
(Developed from ASME B31.3, 2002, Tables A-1, A-1B)

17-23
 FIG. 17-25
Design Properties and Allowable Working Pressures for Piping ASTM A106, grade B seamless pipe Petroleum
Refinery Piping Code for Pressure Piping ANSI B31.3-2002 Corrosion allowance = 1.3 mm

Weight of Allowable working pressures for temperatures (in C) not to exceed, Mpa (ga).
Nom pipe pipe kg/ Wall thk. I D mm Flow
29 to 38 93 149 204 260 316 371
size in. Sch. No. meter O.D. mm mm (d) area mm2
1/2 S40 1.27 21.3 2.8 15.8 196 15.57 15.57 15.57 15.57 14.72 13.47 12.85
3/4 S40 1.69 26.7 2.9 20.9 344 13.33 13.33 13.33 13.33 12.60 11.53 11.00
X80 2.20 3.9 18.8 279 23.80 23.80 23.80 23.80 22.49 20.59 19.63
1 S40 2.50 33.4 3.4 26.6 558 14.50 14.50 14.50 14.50 13.71 12.54 11.97
X80 3.24 4.5 24.3 464 23.92 23.92 23.92 23.92 22.60 20.69 19.73
160 4.24 6.4 20.7 337 39.45 39.45 39.45 39.45 37.28 34.12 32.54
XX 5.46 9.1 15.2 182 65.75 65.75 65.75 65.75 62.14 56.88 54.25
1-1/2 S40 4.05 48.3 3.7 40.9 1 313 11.53 11.53 11.53 11.53 10.90 9.97 9.51
X80 5.41 5.1 38.1 1 140 19.15 19.15 19.15 19.15 18.10 16.57 15.80
160 7.25 7.1 34.0 907 30.99 30.99 30.99 30.99 29.29 26.81 25.57
XX 9.56 10.2 27.9 613 49.85 49.85 49.85 49.85 47.11 43.12 41.12
2 S40 5.45 60.3 3.9 52.5 2 165 10.13 10.13 10.13 10.13 9.57 8.76 8.36
X80 7.49 5.5 49.3 1 905 17.16 17.16 17.16 17.16 16.21 14.84 14.16
160 11.10 8.7 42.8 1 442 31.72 31.72 31.72 31.72 29.98 27.44 26.17
XX 13.46 11.1 38.2 1 145 43.34 43.34 43.34 43.34 40.96 37.49 35.76
3 S40 11.30 88.9 5.5 77.9 4 769 11.31 11.31 11.31 11.31 10.69 9.79 9.33
X80 15.28 7.6 73.7 4 261 17.60 17.60 17.60 17.60 16.63 15.22 14.52
160 21.36 11.1 66.6 3 489 28.43 28.43 28.43 28.43 26.86 24.59 23.46
XX 27.70 15.2 58.4 2 680 41.99 41.99 41.99 41.99 39.68 36.32 34.65
4 S40 16.09 114.3 6.0 102.3 8 213 9.92 9.92 9.92 9.92 9.38 8.58 8.19
X80 22.35 8.6 97.2 7 417 15.69 15.69 15.69 15.69 14.83 13.57 12.94
160 33.56 13.5 87.3 5 989 27.43 27.43 27.43 27.43 25.93 23.73 22.63
XX 41.06 17.1 80.1 5 034 36.60 36.60 36.60 36.60 34.59 31.66 30.19
6 S40 28.30 168.3 7.1 154.1 18 639 8.31 8.31 8.31 8.31 7.86 7.19 6.86
X80 42.61 11.0 146.3 16 817 14.22 14.22 14.22 14.22 13.43 12.30 11.73
160 67.54 18.2 131.7 13 633 25.88 25.88 25.88 25.88 24.46 22.39 21.36
XX 79.27 21.9 124.4 12 151 32.13 32.13 32.13 32.13 30.37 27.79 26.51
8 S40 42.58 219.1 8.2 202.7 32 275 7.57 7.57 7.57 7.57 7.15 6.55 6.25
X80 64.71 12.7 193.7 29 460 12.86 12.86 12.86 12.86 12.14 11.12 10.60
XX 107.94 22.2 174.6 23 950 24.51 24.51 24.51 24.51 23.17 21.20 20.22
160 111.37 23.0 173.1 23 520 25.51 25.51 25.51 25.51 24.11 22.07 21.05
10 S40 60.38 273.1 9.3 254.5 50 874 7.05 7.05 7.05 7.05 6.66 6.10 5.81
X60 81.55 12.7 247.7 48 169 10.23 10.23 10.23 10.23 9.68 8.86 8.44
160 172.50 28.6 215.9 36 610 25.77 25.77 25.77 25.77 24.35 22.29 21.26
12 S 73.95 323.9 9.5 304.8 72 966 6.12 6.12 6.12 6.12 5.79 5.30 5.05
X 97.51 12.7 298.5 69 957 8.59 8.59 8.59 8.59 8.12 7.43 7.08
160 238.99 33.3 257.2 51 956 25.51 25.51 25.51 25.51 24.11 22.07 21.05
14 10 54.72 355.6 6.4 342.9 92 347 3.35 3.35 3.35 3.35 3.17 2.90 2.77
S30 81.40 9.5 336.6 88 959 5.57 5.57 5.57 5.57 5.26 4.81 4.59
X 107.49 12.7 330.2 85 634 7.81 7.81 7.81 7.81 7.37 6.75 6.44
16 10 62.77 406.4 6.4 393.7 121 736 2.93 2.93 2.93 2.93 2.77 2.54 2.42
S30 93.33 9.5 387.4 117 841 4.86 4.86 4.86 4.86 4.59 4.20 4.01
S40 123.45 12.7 381.0 114 009 6.81 6.81 6.81 6.81 6.43 5.89 5.62
18 10 70.67 457.2 6.4 444.5 155 179 2.60 2.60 2.60 2.60 2.46 2.25 2.14
S 105.26 9.5 438.2 150 777 4.31 4.31 4.31 4.31 4.08 3.73 3.56
X 139.40 12.7 431.8 146 438 6.04 6.04 6.04 6.04 5.71 5.22 4.98
20 10 78.57 508.0 6.4 495.3 192 676 2.34 2.34 2.34 2.34 2.21 2.02 1.93
S20 117.19 9.5 489.0 187 767 3.88 3.88 3.88 3.88 3.66 3.35 3.20
X30 155.20 12.7 472.6 182 921 5.43 5.43 5.43 5.43 5.12 4.69 4.48
24 10 94.52 609.6 6.4 596.9 279 829 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.84 1.68 1.61
S20 141.04 9.5 590.6 273 907 3.23 3.22 3.22 3.22 3.05 2.79 2.66
X 187.11 12.7 584.2 268 048 4.55 4.51 4.51 4.51 4.26 3.90 3.72
Note: The above allowable working pressures are calculated from Fig. 17-22 using a reduction in tm to 87.5% of the wall thickness shown above to recognize mill
wall tolerance of 12.5%.

17-24
 FIG. 17-26
Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping
Code for Pressure Piping ANSI B31.8-1999
Carbon Steel and High Yield Strength Pipe
(Values apply to A106, API 5L and API 5LX pipe having the same specified minimum yield strength as shown)

Allowable Working Pressures up to 120C, in MPa (ga)

Nom Construction Type Design Factors
Wall
Pipe O.D.
Thk. Type A, F = 0.72* Type B, F = 0.60 Type C, F = 0.50 Type D, F = 0.40
Size mm
mm GR.B GR.B GR.B GR.B
in.
241.4 289.7 317.2 358.6 413.8 241.4 289.7 317.2 358.6 413.8 241.4 289.7 317.2 358.6 413.8 241.4 289.7 317.2 358.6 413.8
(STD) 3.9 22.5 18.8 15.7 12.5
2
60.3 5.5 31.9 26.6 22.2 17.7
3.2 12.4 20.7 10.3 8.6 6.9
4.0 15.5 12.9 10.8 8.6
88.9 4.8 18.7 15.6 13.0 10.4
3 (STD) 5.5 21.4 17.9 14.9 11.9
6.4 24.8 20.7 17.2 13.8
7.1 27.9 23.3 19.4 15.5
7.6 29.8 24.8 20.7 16.6
3.2 9.7 11.6 12.7 8.0 9.7 10.6 6.7 8.0 8.8 5.4 6.4 7.0
4.0 12.0 14.5 15.8 10.0 12.0 13.2 8.4 10.0 11.0 6.7 8.0 8.8
4.8 14.5 17.4 19.1 12.1 14.5 15.9 10.1 12.1 13.3 8.1 9.7 10.6
114.3 5.6 16.9 20.3 22.2 14.1 16.9 18.5 11.8 14.1 15.4 9.4 11.3 12.4
4 (STD) 6.0 18.3 22.0 24.1 15.3 18.3 20.0 12.7 15.3 16.7 10.2 12.2 13.4
6.4 19.3 23.2 25.4 16.1 19.3 21.2 13.4 16.1 17.6 10.7 12.9 14.1
7.1 21.7 26.0 28.5 18.1 21.7 23.8 15.1 18.1 19.8 12.1 14.5 15.8
7.9 24.1 28.9 31.7 20.1 24.1 26.4 16.7 20.1 22.0 13.4 16.1 17.6
8.6 26.0 31.2 34.2 21.7 26.0 28.5 18.1 21.7 23.8 14.5 17.4 19.0
4.0 8.2 9.8 10.8 12.2 6.8 8.2 9.0 10.1 5.7 6.8 7.5 8.4 4.5 5.5 6.0 6.8
4.8 9.9 11.8 13.0 14.6 8.2 9.9 10.8 12.2 6.8 8.2 9.0 10.2 5.5 6.6 7.2 8.1
5.6 11.5 13.8 15.1 17.1 9.6 11.5 12.6 14.2 8.0 9.6 10.5 11.9 6.4 7.7 8.4 9.5
168.3 6.4 13.1 15.7 17.2 19.5 10.9 13.1 14.4 16.2 9.1 10.9 12.0 13.5 7.3 8.7 9.6 10.8
6
(STD) 7.1 14.7 17.6 19.3 21.8 12.2 14.7 16.1 18.2 10.2 12.2 13.4 15.2 8.2 9.8 10.7 12.1
7.9 16.4 19.6 21.5 24.3 13.6 16.4 17.9 20.2 11.4 13.6 14.9 16.9 9.1 10.9 12.0 13.5
9.5 19.7 23.6 25.9 29.2 16.4 19.7 21.6 24.4 13.7 16.4 18.0 20.3 10.9 13.1 14.4 16.2
11.0 22.7 27.2 29.8 33.7 18.9 22.7 24.8 28.1 15.7 18.9 20.7 23.4 12.6 15.1 16.6 18.7
4.0 6.3 7.5 8.3 9.3 5.2 6.3 6.9 7.8 4.4 5.2 5.7 6.5 3.5 4.2 4.6 5.2
4.8 7.6 9.1 10.0 11.3 6.3 7.6 8.3 9.4 5.3 6.3 6.9 7.8 4.2 5.0 5.5 6.3
5.2 8.2 9.8 10.8 12.2 6.8 8.2 9.0 10.1 5.7 6.8 7.5 8.4 4.5 5.5 6.0 6.8
5.6 8.8 10.6 11.6 13.1 7.4 8.8 9.7 10.9 6.1 7.4 8.1 9.1 4.9 5.9 6.4 7.3
6.4 10.1 12.1 13.2 15.0 8.4 10.1 11.0 12.5 7.0 8.4 9.2 10.4 5.6 6.7 7.4 8.3
219.1 7.0 11.2 13.4 14.7 16.6 9.3 11.2 12.2 13.8 7.8 9.3 10.2 11.5 6.2 7.4 8.2 9.2
8
7.9 12.6 15.1 16.5 18.7 10.5 12.6 13.8 15.6 8.7 10.5 11.5 13.0 7.0 8.4 9.2 10.4
(STD) 8.2 13.0 15.6 17.1 19.3 10.8 13.0 14.2 16.1 9.0 10.8 11.8 13.4 7.2 8.6 9.5 10.7
8.7 13.9 16.6 18.2 20.6 11.6 13.9 15.2 17.2 9.6 11.6 12.7 14.3 7.7 9.2 10.1 11.4
9.5 15.1 18.1 19.9 22.5 12.6 15.1 16.5 18.7 10.5 12.6 13.8 15.6 8.4 10.1 11.0 12.5
11.1 17.7 21.2 23.2 26.2 14.7 17.7 19.3 21.9 12.3 14.7 16.1 18.2 9.8 11.8 12.9 14.6
12.7 20.2 24.2 26.5 29.9 16.8 20.2 22.1 24.9 14.0 16.8 18.4 20.8 11.2 13.4 14.7 16.6
4.8 6.1 7.3 8.0 9.0 5.1 6.1 6.7 7.5 4.2 5.1 5.5 6.3 3.4 4.1 4.4 5.0
5.2 6.6 7.9 8.6 9.8 5.5 6.6 7.2 8.1 4.6 5.5 6.0 6.8 3.6 4.4 4.8 5.4
5.6 7.1 8.5 9.3 10.5 5.9 7.1 7.8 8.8 4.9 5.9 6.5 7.3 3.9 4.7 5.2 5.8
6.4 8.1 9.7 10.6 12.0 6.7 8.1 8.9 10.0 5.6 6.7 7.4 8.3 4.5 5.4 5.9 6.7
273.1 7.1 9.0 10.8 11.9 13.4 7.5 9.0 9.9 11.2 6.3 7.5 8.2 9.3 5.0 6.0 6.6 7.4
10
7.8 9.9 11.9 13.0 14.7 8.3 9.9 10.9 12.3 6.9 8.3 9.1 10.2 5.5 6.6 7.2 8.2
8.7 11.1 13.3 14.6 16.5 9.3 11.1 12.2 13.8 7.7 9.3 10.2 11.5 6.2 7.4 8.1 9.2
(STD) 9.3 11.8 14.2 15.5 17.5 9.8 11.8 12.9 14.6 8.2 9.8 10.8 12.2 6.6 7.9 8.6 9.7
11.1 14.2 17.0 18.6 21.0 11.8 14.2 15.5 17.5 9.8 11.8 12.9 14.6 7.9 9.4 10.3 11.7
12.7 16.2 19.4 21.2 24.0 13.5 16.2 17.7 20.0 11.2 13.5 14.8 16.7 9.0 10.8 11.8 13.3
4.8 5.1 6.2 6.7 7.6 4.3 5.1 5.6 6.3 3.6 4.3 4.7 5.3 2.8 3.4 3.7 4.2
5.2 5.5 6.6 7.3 8.2 4.6 5.5 6.1 6.9 3.8 4.6 5.1 5.7 3.1 3.7 4.0 4.6
5.6 6.0 7.2 7.8 8.9 5.0 6.0 6.5 7.4 4.1 5.0 5.4 6.2 3.3 4.0 4.4 4.9
6.4 6.8 8.2 9.0 10.1 5.7 6.8 7.5 8.4 4.7 5.7 6.2 7.0 3.8 4.5 5.0 5.6
7.1 7.7 9.2 10.1 11.4 6.4 7.7 8.4 9.5 5.3 6.4 7.0 7.9 4.3 5.1 5.6 6.3
323.9 7.9 8.5 10.2 11.2 12.6 7.1 8.5 9.3 10.5 5.9 7.1 7.8 8.8 4.7 5.7 6.2 7.0
12
8.4 9.0 10.8 11.8 13.4 7.5 9.0 9.9 11.1 6.2 7.5 8.2 9.3 5.0 6.0 6.6 7.4
8.7 9.4 11.2 12.3 13.9 7.8 9.4 10.3 11.6 6.5 7.8 8.6 9.7 5.2 6.2 6.8 7.7
(STD) 9.5 10.2 12.3 13.4 15.2 8.5 10.2 11.2 12.7 7.1 8.5 9.3 10.5 5.7 6.8 7.5 8.4
10.3 11.1 13.3 14.6 16.4 9.2 11.1 12.1 13.7 7.7 9.2 10.1 11.4 6.2 7.4 8.1 9.1
11.1 11.9 14.3 15.7 17.7 10.0 11.9 13.1 14.8 8.3 10.0 10.9 12.3 6.6 8.0 8.7 9.9
12.7 13.6 16.4 17.9 20.2 11.4 13.6 14.9 16.9 9.5 11.4 12.4 14.1 7.6 9.1 10.0 11.2
*Type A construction also applicable to Liquid Petroleum Transportation Piping Code, ANSI B31.4-2002

17-25
 FIG. 17-26 (Contd.)
Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping

Allowable Working Pressures up to 120C, in MPa (ga)

Nom Construction Type Design Factors
Wall
Pipe O.D.
Thk. Type A, F = 0.72* Type B, F = 0.60 Type C, F = 0.50 Type D, F = 0.40
Size mm
mm GR.B GR.B GR.B GR.B
in.
241.4 289.7 317.2 358.6 413.8 241.4 289.7 317.2 358.6 413.8 241.4 289.7 317.2 358.6 413.8 241.4 289.7 317.2 358.6 413.8
5.6 4.8 5.7 6.2 7.1 8.2 4.0 4.8 5.2 5.9 6.8 3.3 4.0 4.3 4.9 5.7 2.6 3.2 3.5 3.9 4.5
6.4 5.4 6.5 7.1 8.1 9.3 4.5 5.4 6.0 6.7 7.8 3.8 4.5 5.0 5.6 6.5 3.0 3.6 4.0 4.5 5.2
7.1 6.1 7.3 8.0 9.1 10.5 5.1 6.1 6.7 7.6 8.7 4.2 5.1 5.6 6.3 7.3 3.4 4.1 4.5 5.0 5.8
7.9 6.8 8.1 8.9 10.1 11.6 5.6 6.8 7.4 8.4 9.7 4.7 5.6 6.2 7.0 8.1 3.8 4.5 4.9 5.6 6.5
16 406.4 8.7 7.5 9.0 9.8 11.1 12.8 6.2 7.5 8.2 9.2 10.7 5.2 6.2 6.8 7.7 8.9 4.2 5.0 5.5 6.2 7.1
(STD) 9.5 8.1 9.8 10.7 12.1 14.0 6.8 8.1 8.9 10.1 11.6 5.7 6.8 7.4 8.4 9.7 4.5 5.4 6.0 6.7 7.8
11.1 9.5 11.4 12.5 14.1 16.3 7.9 9.5 10.4 11.8 13.6 6.6 7.9 8.7 9.8 11.3 5.3 6.3 6.9 7.8 9.1
12.7 10.9 13.0 14.3 16.1 18.6 9.1 10.9 11.9 13.4 15.5 7.5 9.1 9.9 11.2 12.9 6.0 7.2 7.9 9.0 10.3
15.9 13.6 16.3 17.8 20.2 23.3 11.3 13.6 14.9 16.8 19.4 9.4 11.3 12.4 14.0 16.2 7.5 9.1 9.9 11.2 12.9
20 6.4 4.3 5.2 5.7 6.5 7.4 3.6 4.3 4.8 5.4 6.2 3.0 3.6 4.0 4.5 5.2 2.4 2.9 3.2 3.6 4.1
7.1 4.9 5.9 6.4 7.3 8.4 4.1 4.9 5.4 6.1 7.0 3.4 4.1 4.5 5.0 5.8 2.7 3.3 3.6 4.0 4.6
7.9 5.4 6.5 7.1 8.1 9.3 4.5 5.4 5.9 6.7 7.7 3.8 4.5 5.0 5.6 6.5 3.0 3.6 4.0 4.5 5.2
8.7 6.0 7.2 7.9 8.9 10.2 5.0 6.0 6.6 7.4 8.5 4.2 5.0 5.5 6.2 7.1 3.3 4.0 4.4 4.9 5.7
(STD) 9.5 6.5 7.8 8.6 9.7 11.2 5.4 6.5 7.1 8.1 9.3 4.5 5.4 6.0 6.7 7.8 3.6 4.3 4.8 5.4 6.2
508.0 10.3 7.1 8.5 9.3 10.5 12.1 5.9 7.1 7.7 8.7 10.1 4.9 5.9 6.4 7.3 8.4 3.9 4.7 5.2 5.8 6.7
11.1 7.6 9.1 10.0 11.3 13.0 6.3 7.6 8.3 9.4 10.9 5.3 6.3 6.9 7.8 9.1 4.2 5.1 5.6 6.3 7.2
12.7 8.7 10.4 11.4 12.9 14.9 7.2 8.7 9.5 10.8 12.4 6.0 7.2 7.9 9.0 10.3 4.8 5.8 6.3 7.2 8.3
15.9 10.9 13.0 14.3 16.1 18.6 9.1 10.9 11.9 13.4 15.5 7.5 9.1 9.9 11.2 12.9 6.0 7.2 7.9 9.0 10.3
19.1 13.0 15.6 17.1 19.4 22.3 10.9 13.0 14.3 16.1 18.6 9.1 10.9 11.9 13.4 15.5 7.2 8.7 9.5 10.8 12.4
7.1 4.1 4.9 5.4 6.0 7.0 3.4 4.1 4.5 5.0 5.8 2.8 3.4 3.7 4.2 4.8 2.3 2.7 3.0 3.4 3.9
7.9 4.5 5.4 5.9 6.7 7.7 3.8 4.5 5.0 5.6 6.5 3.1 3.8 4.1 4.7 5.4 2.5 3.0 3.3 3.7 4.3
8.7 5.0 6.0 6.5 7.4 8.5 4.2 5.0 5.5 6.2 7.1 3.5 4.2 4.5 5.1 5.9 2.8 3.3 3.6 4.1 4.7
(STD) 9.5 5.4 6.5 7.1 8.1 9.3 4.5 5.4 5.9 6.7 7.8 3.8 4.5 5.0 5.6 6.5 3.0 3.6 4.0 4.5 5.2
24 609.6 10.3 5.9 7.1 7.7 8.7 10.1 4.9 5.9 6.4 7.3 8.4 4.1 4.9 5.4 6.1 7.0 3.3 3.9 4.3 4.9 5.6
11.1 6.3 7.6 8.3 9.4 10.9 5.3 6.3 6.9 7.8 9.1 4.4 5.3 5.8 6.5 7.6 3.5 4.2 4.6 5.2 6.0
12.7 7.2 8.7 9.5 10.8 12.4 6.0 7.2 7.9 9.0 10.3 5.0 6.0 6.6 7.5 8.6 4.0 4.8 5.3 6.0 6.9
15.9 9.0 10.9 11.9 13.4 15.5 7.5 9.1 9.9 11.2 12.9 6.3 7.5 8.3 9.3 10.8 5.0 6.0 6.6 7.5 8.6
19.1 10.9 13.0 14.3 16.1 18.6 9.1 10.9 11.9 13.4 15.5 7.5 9.1 9.9 11.2 12.9 6.0 7.2 7.9 9.0 10.3
7.1 3.8 4.5 4.9 5.6 6.4 3.1 3.8 4.1 4.7 5.4 2.6 3.1 3.4 3.9 4.5 2.1 2.5 2.7 3.1 3.6
7.9 4.2 5.0 5.5 6.2 7.2 3.5 4.2 4.6 5.2 6.0 2.9 3.5 3.8 4.3 5.0 2.3 2.8 3.0 3.4 4.0
660.4 8.7 4.6 5.5 6.0 6.8 7.9 3.8 4.6 5.0 5.7 6.6 3.2 3.8 4.2 4.7 5.5 2.6 3.1 3.4 3.8 4.4
(STD) 9.5 5.0 6.0 6.6 7.4 8.6 4.2 5.0 5.5 6.2 7.2 3.5 4.2 4.6 5.2 6.0 2.8 3.3 3.7 4.1 4.8
26 10.3 5.4 6.5 7.1 8.1 9.3 4.5 5.4 6.0 6.7 7.8 3.8 4.5 5.0 5.6 6.5 3.0 3.6 4.0 4.5 5.2
11.1 5.8 7.0 7.7 8.7 10.0 4.9 5.8 6.4 7.2 8.4 4.1 4.9 5.3 6.0 7.0 3.2 3.9 4.3 4.8 5.6
12.7 6.7 8.0 8.8 9.9 11.5 5.6 6.7 7.3 8.3 9.6 4.6 5.6 6.1 6.9 8.0 3.7 4.5 4.9 5.5 6.4
15.9 8.4 10.0 11.0 12.4 14.3 7.0 8.4 9.2 10.3 11.9 5.8 7.0 7.6 8.6 9.9 4.6 5.6 6.1 6.9 8.0
19.1 10.0 12.0 13.2 14.9 17.2 8.4 10.0 11.0 12.4 14.3 7.0 8.4 9.2 10.3 11.9 5.6 6.7 7.3 8.3 9.6
7.9 3.6 4.3 4.8 5.4 6.2 3.0 3.6 4.0 4.5 5.2 2.5 3.0 3.3 3.7 4.3 2.0 2.4 2.6 3.0 3.4
8.7 4.0 4.8 5.2 5.9 6.8 3.3 4.0 4.4 4.9 5.7 2.8 3.3 3.6 4.1 4.7 2.2 2.7 2.9 3.3 3.8
(STD) 9.5 4.3 5.2 5.7 6.5 7.4 3.6 4.3 4.8 5.4 6.2 3.0 3.6 4.0 4.5 5.2 2.4 2.9 3.2 3.6 4.1
762.0 10.3 4.7 5.6 6.2 7.0 8.1 3.9 4.7 5.2 5.8 6.7 3.3 3.9 4.3 4.9 5.6 2.6 3.1 3.4 3.9 4.5
30
11.1 5.1 6.1 6.7 7.5 8.7 4.2 5.1 5.6 6.3 7.2 3.5 4.2 4.6 5.2 6.0 2.8 3.4 3.7 4.2 4.8
12.7 5.8 7.0 7.6 8.6 9.9 4.8 5.8 6.3 7.2 8.3 4.0 4.8 5.3 6.0 6.9 3.2 3.9 4.2 4.8 5.5
15.9 7.2 8.7 9.5 10.8 12.4 6.0 7.2 7.9 9.0 10.3 5.0 6.0 6.6 7.5 8.6 4.0 4.8 5.3 6.0 6.9
19.1 8.7 10.4 11.4 12.9 14.9 7.2 8.7 9.5 10.8 12.4 6.0 7.2 7.9 9.0 10.3 4.8 5.8 6.3 7.2 8.3
*Type A construction also applicable to Liquid Petroleum Transportation Piping Code, ANSI B31.4-2002
Notes: 1. All dimensions are as shown
2. See Fig. 17-23.

17-26
 FIG. 17-27
Pressure-Temperature Ratings for Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings from ANSI B16.5-1996

CLASS 150 300 400 600 900 1500 2500

A105 (1) A216-WCB (1) (2), A515-70 (1)

Material Group 1.1 (Carbon Steel) A516-70 (1) (2)
A350-LF2 (1), A537-C1.1 (3)
C Pressures are in MPa (ga)
29 to 38 1.97 5.10 6.83 10.21 15.31 25.55 42.55
93 1.79 4.66 6.21 9.31 13.97 23.28 38.79
149 1.59 4.52 6.03 9.07 13.59 22.62 37.72
204 1.38 4.38 5.83 8.76 13.10 21.86 36.41
260 1.17 4.14 5.52 8.28 12.38 20.66 34.41
316 0.97 3.79 5.03 7.55 11.31 18.86 31.45
343 0.86 3.69 4.93 7.41 11.10 18.52 30.86
371 0.76 3.69 4.90 7.34 11.03 18.38 30.62
399 0.66 3.48 4.62 6.97 10.41 17.38 28.97
427 0.55 2.83 3.79 5.69 8.52 14.21 23.66
454 0.45 1.86 2.45 3.69 5.55 9.24 15.38
482 0.34 1.17 1.59 2.38 3.55 5.93 9.86
510 0.24 0.72 0.97 1.41 2.14 3.55 5.93
538 0.14 0.34 0.48 0.72 1.07 1.79 2.97
A182-F304 (5), A182-F304H

Material Group 2.1 (Type 304) A240-304 (5), A351-CF8 (5)
A351-CF3 (4)
29 to 38 1.90 4.97 6.62 9.93 14.90 24.83 41.38
93 1.59 4.14 5.52 8.28 12.41 20.69 34.48
149 1.41 3.72 4.97 7.45 11.17 18.62 31.03
204 1.31 3.41 4.55 6.86 10.28 17.14 28.55
260 1.17 3.21 4.28 6.41 9.62 16.07 26.76
316 0.97 3.00 4.00 6.03 9.03 15.07 25.10
343 0.86 2.97 3.97 5.93 8.90 14.83 24.69
371 0.76 2.93 3.90 5.86 8.79 14.66 24.41
399 0.66 2.86 3.83 5.72 8.59 14.31 23.86
427 0.55 2.79 3.72 5.55 8.34 13.90 23.17
454 0.45 2.72 3.66 5.45 8.21 13.66 22.76
482 0.34 2.69 3.59 5.38 8.03 13.41 22.34
510 0.24 2.62 3.52 5.28 7.90 13.17 21.93
538 0.14 2.21 2.97 4.41 6.66 11.07 18.45
566 2.14 2.83 4.24 6.38 10.66 17.72
593 1.76 2.38 3.55 5.31 8.86 14.79
621 1.38 1.83 2.76 4.10 6.86 11.41
649 1.07 1.41 2.14 3.21 5.31 8.86
677 0.79 1.03 1.55 2.34 3.90 6.52
704 0.59 0.79 1.17 1.76 2.97 4.93
732 0.41 0.55 0.86 1.28 2.14 3.55
760 0.34 0.45 0.62 1.00 1.66 2.76
788 0.24 0.31 0.48 0.72 1.17 1.97
816 0.17 0.24 0.38 0.55 0.93 1.59

Notes: (1) Upon prolonged exposure to temperatures above about 800F (425C), the carbide phase of carbon steel may
be converted to graphite; permissible but not recommended for prolonged use above 425C
(2) Not to be used over 455C
(3) Not to be used over 371C
(4) Not to be used over 425C
(5) At temperatures over 540C, use only when the carbon content is 0.04 percent or higher
(6) For temperatures above 540C, use only if the material is heat treated by heating it to a temp-
erature of at least 1040C and quenching in water or rapidly cooling by other means

17-27
 PIPE AND FLANGE DATA
The Petroleum Refinery Piping Code (ANSI B31.3) is used
to determine the allowable pressure limits for piping inside re-
fineries and other processing facilities. Refer to Fig. 17-22 for
the calculation method.
The table of allowable stresses, Fig. 17-24, is extracted from
ANSI B31.3. The designer is strongly urged to consult the latest
ANSI B31.3 publication for full description of the code. A tabu-
lar compilation of maximum allowable working pressures cal-
culated according to ANSI B31.3 appears in Fig. 17-25.
For piping outside of refineries and other processing facilities,
a separate code applies for determining allowable pressure limits,
ANSI B31.8. Refer to Fig. 17-23 for the calculation method.
The designer is encouraged to refer to the latest ANSI B31.8
standard for comprehensive code description. A tabular compi-
lation of maximum allowable working pressures computed ac-
cording to ANSI B31.8 appears in Fig. 17-26.
Fig. 17-27 provides pressure ratings for steel flanges and
flanged fittings.
REFERENCES
1. Fluid Mechanics by N. DeNevers, Addison-Wesley, Reading,
Mass., 1970, p. 127.
2. Experimental Research on the Flow of Water in Pipes by H.
Darcy, Mem. Acad. Sci. Inst. Imp. Fr., Vol. 15, 1858, p. 141 (in
French), Mechanics of Engineering by J. Weisbach, Van Nos-
trand, 1872 (translated from German).
3. Friction Factors for Pipe Flow by L. Moody, Trans ASME 66,
1944.
4. C.F. Colebrook, Turbulent Flow in Pipes with Particular Refer-
ence to the Transition Region Between the Smooth and Rough
Pipe Law, J. Inst. Civil Engineers, London, 1939.
5. Flow of Fluids through Valves, Fittings and Pipe, by the Crane
Co., Chicago, Technical Paper No. 410, 1988.
6. Steady Flow in Gas Pipelines, American Gas Association, IGT
Technical Report 10, Chicago, 1965.
7. T.R. Weymouth, Transactions of the American Society of Me-
chanical Engineers, Vol. 34, 1912.
8. F.E. Richardson of Foreman-Richardson-Baird, The Petroleum
Engineer, July, 1945, p. 175.
9. F.N. Oliphant, Production of Natural Gas, Report of USGS,
1902.
10. Fluid Flow, Pumps, Pipes and Channels by N. Cheremisinoff,
Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1981, p. 184.
11. Piping Handbook, Sabin Crocker, McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.,
Inc., 1945.
12. Mandhane, J.M., G.A. Gregory, and K. Aziz. A Flow Pattern
Map for Gas-Liquid Flow in Horizontal Pipes Int. J. Multiphase
Flow, Pergamon Press, Vol. 1, 1974, pp. 537-553.
13. Taitel, Yehuda, and A.E. Dukler. A Model for Predicting Flow
Regime Transitions in Horizontal and Near Horizontal Gas-Liq-
uid Flow AIChE Journal, Vol. 22, No. 1, Jan. 1976, pp. 47-55.
14. Aziz, K., G.W. Govier, and M. Fogarasi. Pressure Drop in Wells
Producing Oil and Gas J. Cdn. Pet. Tech., July-Sept 1972, pp.
38-48.
15. Lockhart, R.W., and R.C. Martinelli, Proposed Correlation of
17-28
Data for Isothermal Two-Phase, Two-Component Flow in Pipes
Chemical Engineering Progress, Vol. 45, No. 1, January 1949,
pp. 39-48.
16. Beggs, H. Dale, and James P. Brill. A Study of Two-Phase Flow
in Inclined Pipes Trans. AIME, May 1973, pp. 606-617.
17. Orkiszewski, J. Predicting Two-Phase Pressure Drops in Verti-
cal Pipe J. Pet. Tech, AIME, June 1967, pp. 829-838.
18. Baker, O., et al. Gas-Liquid Flow in Pipelines, II. Design Manu-
al AGA-API Project NX-28, October 1970.
19. Dukler, A.E., Moye Wicks, III, and R.G. Cleveland. Frictional
Pressure Drop in Two-Phase Flow: B. An Approach through Sim-
ilarity Analysis AIChE Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, January 1964,
pp. 44-51.
20. Flanigan, Orin. Effect of Uphill Flow on Pressure Drop in De-
sign of Two-Phase Gathering Systems Oil and Gas Journal,
March 10, 1958, pp. 132-141.
21. Eaton, Ben A., et al. The Prediction of Flow Patterns, Liquid
Holdup and Pressure Losses Occurring During Continuous Two-
Phase Flow in Horizontal Pipelines J. Pet. Tech. AIME, June
1967, pp. 815-828.
22. Greskovich, Eugene J., and Adam L. Shrier. Slug Frequency in
Horizontal Gas-Liquid Slug Flow Ind. Eng. Chem. Process De-
velop., Vol. 11, No. 2, 1972, pp. 317-318.
23. Brill, James P., et al. Analysis of Two-Phase Tests in Large Di-
ameter Prudhoe Bay Flowlines SPE 8305, AIME, 1979.
24. Schmidt, Zelmir, and James P. Brill. Experimental Study of Se-
vere Slugging in a Two-Phase Flow Pipeline-Riser System SPE
8306 AIME, 1979.
25. Cunliffe, R.S. Condensate Flow in Wet Gas Lines can be pre-
dicted Oil and Gas Journal, October 30, 1978, pp. 100-108.
26. McDonald, Alvis E., and Ovid Baker. Multiphase Flow in Pipe-
lines Oil and Gas Journal, June 15, June 22, June 29, and July
6, 1964
27. Manual of Petroleum Measurement, Chapter 14.3, Orifice Me-
tering of Natural Gas and Other Related Hydrocarbon Fluids,
Second Edition, September, 1985 (AGA Report #3)(GPA 8185-85)
(ANSI/API 2530).
28. Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refinery Piping, ANSI/ASME
B31.3.
29. Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems, ANSI/ASME
B31.8.
30. Chen, N.H., An Explicit Equation for Friction Factor in Pipe,
Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund., 18(3), 296 (1979). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY
T.R. Aude, Suggested Formula for Calculating Capacity of Products
Pipe Lines, 1943.
W.G. Heltzel, Fluid Flow and Friction in Pipelines, Oil & Gas Journal,
June 5, 1930.
R.W. Leach & W.P. Redmond, How a Computer is Applied to a Specific
Problem in Pipeline Design, Oil & Gas Journal, Flow Calculations in
Pipelining, 1960.
 ilson, McAdams & Seltzer, Flow of Fluids Through Commercial
W
Pipelines, Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Febru-
ary, 1922.

Wilson & McAdams, Contribution No. 19 from the Department of
Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
T.R. Young, Digital Simulation of Crude Oil Pipelines, API Pipeline
report, May 2, 1960.