Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Subject B1-12a:
Helicopter Aerodynamics and Flight
Controls
CONTENTS
Page
Definitions 3
Study Resources 4
Introduction 5
Rotary Wing Theory of Flight 12.1-1
Flight Control Systems 12.2.1-1
Main Rotor Heads (MRH) 12.2.2-1
Main and Tail Rotor Blades 12.2.2-1
DEFINITIONS
Define
To describe the nature or basic qualities of.
To state the precise meaning of (a word or sense of a word).
State
Specify in words or writing.
To set forth in words; declare.
Identify
To establish the identity of.
List
Itemise.
Describe
Represent in words enabling hearer or reader to form an idea of an object or
process.
To tell the facts, details, or particulars of something verbally or in writing.
Explain
Make known in detail.
Offer reason for cause and effect.
STUDY RESOURCES
Jeppesen Sanderson Training Products:
A&P Technician Airframe Textbook
A&P Technician General Textbook
Jeppesen, 1980, Helicopter Maintenance
INTRODUCTION
Thyis subject explain how basic rotary wing aerodynamics is applied to a variety of
different helicopter designs/types and effects in flight. The purpose , function and
opertion of basic helicopter flight control systems and components.
On completion of the following topics you will be able to:
Describe static and dynamic stability and state why most helicopters are
considered statically stable and dynamically unstable
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Newtons First Law............................................................................................4
Figure 2 Newtons Second Law ........................................................................................5
Figure 3 Newtons Third Law...........................................................................................6
Figure 4 Air Density .......................................................................................................6
Figure 5 Inflow Angle .....................................................................................................7
Figure 6 Shaft Axis ........................................................................................................7
Figure 7 Feathering Axis ................................................................................................9
Figure 8 Disc Area .......................................................................................................10
Figure 9 Lift Drag.........................................................................................................11
Figure 10 Blade Stall ...................................................................................................12
Figure 11 Thrust Vector Resultant ...............................................................................13
Figure 12 Nodes...........................................................................................................14
Figure 13 Centrifugal/Centripedal ...............................................................................15
Figure 14 Turning ........................................................................................................16
Figure 15 Acceleration .................................................................................................17
Figure 16 Angle of Bank...............................................................................................17
Figure 17 Lift/Thrust Resultant ...................................................................................18
Figure 18 Vortex Ring State .........................................................................................18
Figure 19 Vortex Ring State .........................................................................................19
Figure 20 Induced Flow................................................................................................19
Figure 21 Overpitching ................................................................................................20
Figure 22 Tail Rotor .....................................................................................................21
Figure 23 Notar............................................................................................................22
Figure 24 Fenestron.....................................................................................................22
Figure 25 Twin Rotor ...................................................................................................23
Figure 26 Tandem Rotor ..............................................................................................23
Figure 27 Cyclic ...........................................................................................................24
Figure 28 Collective .....................................................................................................25
Figure 29 Yaw Control .................................................................................................25
Figure 30 Swashplate...................................................................................................26
Figure 31 Pitch Angle ...................................................................................................27
Figure 32 Rotor Head ...................................................................................................28
Figure 33 Dissymmetry of Lift ......................................................................................29
Figure 34 Blade Tip Speed ..........................................................................................29
Figure 35 Blade Deflection/Deflaction ..........................................................................30
Figure 36 Swashplate...................................................................................................32
Figure 37 Coriolis Effect...............................................................................................32
Figure 38 Conservation of Angular Momentum.............................................................33
Figure 39 Coning .........................................................................................................34
Figure 40 Coning Angle................................................................................................34
Figure 41 Underslung Rotor .........................................................................................35
Figure 42 Ground Effect...............................................................................................36
Figure 43 Ground Effect...............................................................................................36
Figure 44 Transitional Lift............................................................................................37
Figure 45 Translating Tendency ...................................................................................37
Figure 46 Blade Twist ..................................................................................................38
Figure 47 Blade Twist ..................................................................................................39
Figure 48 Stall Area .....................................................................................................40
Figure 49 Auto-rotation................................................................................................41
Figure 50 Auto-rotation................................................................................................41
Figure 51 Stall Blade ...................................................................................................42
Figure 52 Stall Region..................................................................................................42
Figure 53 Lateral Stability............................................................................................43
Figure 54 Longitudinal Stability ...................................................................................43
Figure 55 Directional Stability......................................................................................43
Figure 56 Static Stability..............................................................................................44
Figure 57 Negative Static Stability................................................................................44
Figure 58 Neutral Dynamic Stability.............................................................................45
Figure 59 Pitch/Roll.....................................................................................................45
Figure 60 Longitudinal Stability ...................................................................................46
Figure 61 Lateral Stability............................................................................................46
Figure 62 Directional Stability......................................................................................47
Figure 63 Notar............................................................................................................47
Figure 64 Helicopter.....................................................................................................48
Figure 65 Stabiliser Bar ...............................................................................................48
Figure 66 Stabilizer Bar ...............................................................................................49
Figure 67 Stabiliser Bar ...............................................................................................49
Figure 68 Horizontal and Vertical Stabiliser .................................................................49
Figure 69 Horizontal Stabiliser .....................................................................................50
Figure 70 Horizontal Stabiliser .....................................................................................50
Figure 71 Vertical Stabiliser .........................................................................................51
Angle Of Attack
A symmetrical airfoil (and many helicopters blades are of the symmetrical shape) that is
asked to produce practical lift must be inclined to some extent to the relative airflow so
that the airs deflection over the top of the airfoil is greater than that underneath. The
inclination of the airfoil to the airflow is known as the airfoils angle of attack. Angle of
attack and induced flow are inversely proportional for a given blade section and rotor
rpm Angle of Attack: The angular difference between the chord of the blade and the
relative airflow (also known as relative wind).
Inflow Angle
The angle between the plane of rotation and the resultant airflow (relative airflow).
Axis of rotation
The line through the rotor head at right angles to the plane of rotation (POR). The blade
actually rotates around this axis.
Shaft axis
The line consistent with the rotor shaft (mast). Only when the plane of rotation is exactly
perpendicular to the shaft axis will the axis of rotation coincide with the shaft axis.
Flapping
Movement of a blade in the vertical sense relative to the plane of rotation.
Lead-lagging (dragging)
Movement of the blade forward or aft in the plane of rotation.
Feathering
The movement of the blade about its axis (which results in pitch angle changes).
Disc loading
The gross weight of the helicopter divided by the disc area, expressed as lb/sq inches or
kg/m2. Since disk area is not constant in flight, it follows that disk loading cannot be
constant.
Blade loading
The gross weight of the helicopter divided by the combined area of the helicopter blades,
expressed as above. Since blade area does not alter, blade loading must be a constant in
flight (ignoring weight and g changes).
Solidity
The ratio of total blade area to disk area. Solidity is a function of ability to absorb power
from the engine and potential to provide rotor thrust.
Flapping
Movement of a blade in the vertical sense relative to the plane of rotation.
Lead-lagging (dragging)
Movement of the blade forward or aft in the plane of rotation.
Coning angle
The angular difference between the feathering axis and the plane of rotation. It may also
be defined as the angular difference between the feathering axis and the tip plane path.
Feathering axis
The straight line axis between the root of the blade and its tip about which the blade can
alter its blade angle.
Chord (line)
The straight line between the chord of the blade and the plane of rotation. This angle
may be altered by the pilot through movement of the collective lever or through the cyclic
control.
Relative Airflow
The resultant airflow to each blade due to its speed/direction and the flow induced
downwards.
Induced Flow: The mass of air that is forced down by the rotor action.
Tip path
The circular path described by the tips of the rotor blades. Tip path plane is parallel to
the plane of rotation which acts through the rotor head. A pilot may alter this plane
through movement of the cyclic control.
Disc area
The area contained within the tip path plane. In flight, this area is not a constant since it
is affected by the coning angle of the blades.
Collective pitch
Pitch angle of all main rotor blades is varied equally and simultaneously.
Cyclic pitch
Pitch angle of the main rotor blades is varied individually during a cycle of revolution of
the rotor disc.
Coriolis effect
The tendency of a mass to increase or decrease its angular velocity when its radius of
rotation is varied.
Ground effect
A beneficial gain in lifting power when operating near
the surface.
Gyroscopic precision
A characteristic of all rotating bodies.
Gyroscopic Precision
When a force is applied to a rotating body parallel to its axis of rotation, the rotating body
will tilt in the direction of the applied force 90 degrees later in the plane of rotation.
Coriolis Effect
Rotor systems that utilize the individual flapping hinge are subjected to the Coriolis effect
to a greater degree than the seesaw system.
Coriolis effect is the change in blade velocity to compensate for the change in distance to
the centre of the axis of rotation as the blade flaps. In other words, as each individual
blade flaps upward on the advancing side, the centre of gravity moves closer to axis of
rotation (the mast).
This has a tendency to accelerate the blade in much the same manner as a figure skater
accelerates a spin by moving his arms inward to the centre of the axis of rotation
Lift
The force produced by the airfoil that is perpendicular to
the relative wind and opposes gravity. The lift is developed
by the rotor blade according to Bernoulli's Principle, which simply states that as velocity
is increased, the pressure
is decreased.
This principle creates a low pressure at the top of the rotor blade, while the bottom of the
blade has an increased pressure. This applies to both symmetrical and
un-symmetrical airfoils. Whenever lift is produced, drag is
also produced. That component of the total air force which is perpendicular to the
relative airflow and in the plane of rotation.
Drag
The force which tends to resist the airfoils passage through the air. Drag is always
parallel to the relative wind and perpendicular to lift. Drag is the force that tends to slow
down the rotor when the angle of attack is increased in order to produce more lift. Drag
varies as a square of velocity.
Blade stall
Stall is the condition under which the streamline flow of air separates from the camber of
the blade and reverse flow occurs, resulting in an almost complete loss of lift.
As the angle of attack increases, lift increases until the stall angle is reached, provided
the velocity remains the same. However, as the angle of attack is increased the lift
increases, and so does drag. Because of this increase in drag, the rotor blades have a
tendency to slow down. If this should occur the stall angle will be reached prematurely.
This is the reason that power must also be added in order to maintain the velocity of the
rotor or decreasing the relative wind. However, this situation is avoided because of the
slow reaction time, in when the pitch is added to the rotor system. This also means that
the lift of the rotor could be controlled by varying speed, increasing favour of keeping the
velocity constant and changing the angle of attack.
Node
Fuselage may be excited by a rotor to bend vertically in a humpback mode. Two points,
"nodes", do not move.
In some cases, a resonance might exist but not be much of a problem. For example, a
fuselage may be primarily excited by a rotor to bend vertically in a humpback mode. Two
points, known as "nodes", do not move. If the only seats are on or close to a node, then
the crew or passengers will experience a smooth flight even though parts of the fuselage
behind and ahead of them may be getting a rougher ride.
Figure 12 Nodes
This is important as vibration can not only affect the aircraft but also cause physical
discomfort and fatigue to the crew. The amount of vibration that the human body can
withstand varies, but at 4 to 7 hertz the lungs and heart are bouncing vertically with the
diaphragm acting as a spring. At around 12 hertz the spinal vertebrae begin to vibrate
bouncing off the pads between the individual vertebrae.
Good seats will tend to lessen the spinal vibration but either situation is best avoided if
crew fatigue and discomfort are to be avoided. Generally, the human body tolerates up-
down vibrations more poorly than side-to-side and fore-aft vibrations.
It has also been found that at higher frequencies humans suffer less discomfort from the
same accelerative G force which would have caused discomfort at lower frequencies.
For example, in a flight test report from the Bell UH-1H it was found that 0.3 Gs at 72 Hz
was tolerable for short times only but the same 0.3 Gs was hardly noticed at 32 hertz.
Anti-node
This is the point in a vibration range where vibration is at its maximum. An anti-node is
the opposite of a node.
Centrifugal force
The force that pulls a spinning object away from its centre of rotation.
Centripetal force
The force that opposes centrifugal force and acts to the centre of a circle.
Centrifugal force, determined by rotor rpm, acts in line with the plane of rotation and
tries to reduce the conning angle (For a constant radius, centrifugal force is equal to
centripetal force).
Centrifugal force can be used to provide drive to a rotor system by the use of a
centrifugal clutch. The centrifugal clutchs spring-loaded shoes control contact between
the inner part and outer of the clutch.
At low engine rpm, the shoes are held away from the outer part of the clutch by the
tension of springs but as the engine rpm increases, centrifugal force moves the shoes out
and contact is made with the outer part.
Figure 13 Centrifugal/Centripedal
Turning
An object travelling on a curve must have a force pulling it towards the centre of the
curve. That force is centripetal force.
The requirement for centripetal force in a turn is met by total rotor thrust, provided that
it is tilted in the direction of the turn. Thus the helicopter must be banked to make a
coordinated turn.
The tilted total rotor thrust in a banked turn provides two component forces:
The vertical component equal and opposite to weight, which ensures that the
helicopter's altitude in the turn remains constant.
Centripetal force.
Since total rotor thrust must perform an extra task in providing CPF, it follows that its
amount must increase in a turn. This is achieved by increases in blade angles (up
Training Material Only B1 12.1.1 Rotary Wing Theory of Flight
Issue A: October 2008 Revision 1 Page 15 of 52
AA Form TO-18
collective), which adversely affects the total rotor/thrust/rotor drag ratio. As a result
more power must be applied to maintain rotor rpm, especially at higher angles of bank.
One of the main differences between hovering and forward flight is parasite drag: there is
essentially no parasite drag when hovering. Parasite drag increases with the square of
the speed increase, which means that the force required to overcome parasite drag must
become progressively greater as airspeed increases. The force which overcomes parasite
drag is provided by total rotor thrust because, when tilted forward and appropriately
increased, it will produce:
A vertical component equal and opposite to weight.
Thrust, in the direction of flight, to deal with parasite drag.
When the disc is made to tilt forward initially with forward cyclic, the fuselage attitude
remains the same briefly. The forces are then as shown in Slide 17. Parasite drag has
not yet formed or is still insignificant. The slightly increased total rotor thrust (from a
touch of up collective) is inclined forward and produces a nose-down moment around the
aircraft centre of gravity.
Figure 14 Turning
During the accelerating phase, prior to achieving equilibrium ( Slide 18 ) total rotor
thrust and the resultant are not in line or acting through the aircraft centre of gravity.
Any increase in forward speed must be accompanied by a change in disc attitude so that
increased total rotor thrust (oriented forward) continues to oppose the increased
resultant of weight (a constant) and parasite drag (an increasing variable). The fuselage
attitude also changes so that ultimately total rotor thrust and the weight/parasite drag
resultant continue to act through the helicopter's centre of gravity (as shown by the line
x x ).
Figure 15 Acceleration
Relationship between angle of bank and requirement for total rotor thrust to provide the
vertical component and centripetal force
Figure 21 Overpitching
The only recovery action from over-pitching and restore rotor rpm is to roll on throttle
and simultaneously lower the collective lever. This will invariably cause the helicopter to
lose some height.
Over-pitching may occur when approaching a high altitude landing site if the power
required to hover is not available, As airspeed decreases and the need for power
increases, the helicopters descent rate builds when the engine cannot supply the power
required. Pilots who then instinctively pull up collective to arrest the sink rate are in
trouble. The high inflow angles and associated rotor drag quickly decay the rotor rpm
and the stage is set for over-pitching. The best scenario ends in a hard landing, while the
worst scenario ends in a full rotor stall, at which point the helicopter virtually falls out of
the sky.
ANTI-TORQUE SYSTEMS TAIL ROTORS
A single rotor helicopter will try to rotate under its rotor in the opposite direction,
(Newtons 3rd law), unless fitted with a tail rotor. This rotors thrust leads to a tendency
to drift in that direction unless opposed by mast offset or cyclic rigging.
Tail rotor system:
Counter torque reaction.
Provide directional control.
Maintain balanced flight conditions.
Provide directional control during auto-rotation.
Notar
This is a controllable-pitch Fan installed just aft of the transmission blowing air down
the hollow tail boom to a nozzle with a set of 90% turning vanes. The reaction against the
vanes produces an anti-torque force. Both the pitch of the fan and the size of the nozzle
opening are controlled by the pilots pedal movements.
Figure 23 Notar
Fenestron
A normal rotor has a wake that requires some distance to contract to its final size -
which is only 70% of the rotor diameter. By putting a duct around the rotor, the wake is
effectively matured in the duct and under goes no further contraction downstream, thus
the fenestron can produce the same total thrust for the same power as a tail rotor 30%
larger.
As with the tail rotor, the larger the diameter of the fenestron, the less power it takes
from the engine. To be effective, the depth of the duct should be at least 20% of the fan
diameter, according to the theory. This means that it is difficult to streamline the thick
fan for low drag in forward flight. It also means the air-path into and out of the fan is
tortuous, so its efficiency is penalised.
For this reason, the fenestron is always integrated into a generously sized cambered
vertical stabiliser that can take over the job of torque compensation in forward flight.
This has the advantage of decreasing the loads on the blades and the drive system -
which increases the life of the system.
Figure 24 Fenestron
HELICOPTER CONTROL
Cyclic Control
A control called the cyclic controls the plane of the rotor disc and provides pitch and
roll control, using the principle of gyroscopic precession.
Moving the cyclic control left/right, fore/aft or any combination thereof tilts the
swashplate, which changes the blade angle of individual blades, For instance, in a two-
bladed rotor, moving the cyclic forward decreases the blade angle on the right blade and
increases the blade angle on the left blade. Although moving cyclic alters the tilt of the
total rotor thrust, the amount of total rotor thrust is not affected. Cyclic merely points
the total rotor thrust in any required direction, it doesn't increase or decrease it.
Figure 27 Cyclic
The twist-grip type throttle at the end of the collective is, in many helicopters,
predominantly an engine rpm fine tune control, even though its use has some influence
on manifold pressure. In most modern helicopters a governor is fitted to automatically
maintain the required engine rpm and therefore rotor rpm.
Figure 28 Collective
SWASHPLATE
Transmits the pilots cyclic and collective control inputs to the rotor disc. The cyclic tilts
the disc in the desired direction of flight. The collective lever changes each blades blade
angle.
Figure 30 Swashplate
Having discussed the anti-torque control we must now consider the collective control and
cyclic control. Both controls perform their functions via a swashplate arrangement (also
known as the control orbit) that varies in design from one helicopter to another. The
following are principles common to most swash-plates.
The swashplate arrangement consists of two circular or angular plates (or stars) fitted
horizontally one above the other and positioned on top of, or near the top of, the mast. A
ball bearing arrangement separates the two plates and allows horizontal (circular)
movement between them. The lower plate is fixed in terms of rotation, but has the ability
to move up and down and/or tilt in any given direction. It is referred to as the stationary
or non-rotating plate (or star). Pilot inputs alter the vertical position of the plate through
the collective control and the tilt of the plate through the cyclic control.
Above the stationary plate is the rotating plate which, as the name implies, has freedom
to rotate. Since the rotating plate always follows the orientation of the stationary plate,
any pilot input to the stationary plate is passed on to the rotating plate above it. The
rotating plate is connected to each individual blade via pitch links to pitch horns fitted
either to the leading or trailing edge of each blade. Thus the rotating plate can alter the
blade angle of each blade
A counter-clockwise rotor in a hover, such as that in Figure, experiences forward cyclic
at position A, causing the blade over the tail to reduce its pitch angle. This action is
simply the result of the swashplate position which feeds the cyclic input through to the
blade in question. The angle of attack of that blade lessens and the blade starts to
descend. When descending, airflow created by the descent causes the relative airflow
onto the blade to come from lower down. This result in the angle of attack returning to
its original value, the blade has flapped to equality.
As the blade progresses on its circular path, blade angles decrease (due to swashplate
orientation) so that the rate at which the blade descends increases while the angle of
attack continuously flaps to equality. Thus the angle of attack essentially does not
change.
When at position B the blade angle reaches its minimum value and starts to increase,
This is to ensure that the rate of going down is reduced so that the rate becomes zero
when the blade is over the nose at position C. (If the blade angle were allowed to decrease
beyond B, the blade would not stop its descent over the nose of the aircraft.) Thus at
position B the rate of downward movement is maximum, and lessens as the blade
approaches the front.
At position C the rate at which the blade moves down becomes zero and the disc has
reached its lowest point over the nose of the aircraft. The blade angle increases here (due
to the orientation of the swashplate). As a consequence, the blades angle of attack briefly
increases, the relative airflow comes from higher up (because of the blades ensuing
climb) and the angle of attack returns to its original value as it flaps to equality. The
blade angle continues its increase so that the rate of the blades upward movement
increases.
At position D the blade reaches maximum blade angle and the rate of upward movement
is also maximum. From here on, the blade angle decreases so that the rate of upward
movement decreases. Returning to position A the rate of upward movement becomes
zero, the blade reaches its high point over the tail, and the next sequence starts.
Forward cyclic causes the plane of rotation to tilt forward under the Influence of changes
in blade angle while angles of attack remain essentially constant. The rate at which
blades move down and up will be greatest when blade angles are smallest and largest,
respectively. Having established the sequence for forward flight, the same principles
apply for movement in any other direction.
Thus dissymmetry of lift is caused by the airflow created by aircraft airspeed, or caused
by the wind when the helicopter is stationary such as when hovering. If the speed of the
helicopter increases, say to 50 knots, or if the wind is stronger, dissymmetry of lift
increases.
GYROSCOPIC PROCESSION
Phase Lag
The operation of the cyclic control was explained in Slide 31 where it was stated that if
the rotor disc is to be lowest over the nose of the helicopter, the greatest input in flapping
down must be made 90 beforehand, that is, minimum pitch angle midway on the
advancing side. The principle of gyroscopic precession then causes the cyclic input to act
90 further on in the direction of rotation. Thus a cyclic input causes the disc attitude to
change, the blade reaching its highest and lowest position 90 later than the point where
the maximum increase and decrease of cyclic pitch are experienced. This phenomenon is
known as phase lag.
Advance Angle
If moving the cyclic control causes the swashplate to tilt in the same direction and if, in
response to changes in pitch angles, the rotor disc tilts 90 out of phase, then the disc
will also be 90 out of phase with the cyclic stick movement. For instance, forward cyclic
would cause a roll to the right or left depending on main rotor rotation.
To overcome this problem, the orientation of the swashplate and attachments of the pitch
links are altered in such a way that forward cyclic always causes the main rotor to tilt
forward and a similar response applies for flight in any direction.
Using forward cyclic for forward flight, the pitch angle of the blade on the pilot's right
must be at its minimum on counter-clockwise rotating main rotors. The leading edge of
that blade (at that position) is lowest down (or the trailing edge highest up). If the
swashplate has the same tilt as the main rotor, then the pitch link must be attached to
the front of the rotating plate. The lowest position of the swashplate then pulls the
leading edge of the advancing blade lowest down.
The angular difference between the centre of the swashplate and the point on the
swashplate where the pitch link is attached in advance of the blade to which it relates is
known as advance angle.
In A, the swashplate is on the page, while the top of the main rotor mast and the
attached blade are some inches out of the page towards the reader. The pitch link from
the front of the rotating plate to the leading edge of the blade slants up, out of the page.
The advance angle is the difference between the attachment point of the pitch link on the
swashplate and the blade to which it refers.
Thus the advance angle in this case is 90.
Forward cyclic causes the swashplate to have its low point at the front (and the high
point at the rear), as shown in B. The pitch link pulls the leading edge of the blade on the
pilot's right (the advancing blade) as low as it can go (minimum pitch angle). The 90
precession (phase lag) rule then causes the main disc to orient down in front (and up at
the back). The tilt of the main rotor, the tilt of the swashplate and movement of the cyclic
stick are in the same sense, fully compensating for phase lag.
If the same 90 advance angle is used, but the pitch link is attached to the back of the
swashplate, then the top of the pitch link acts at the trailing edge of the blade (see C).
Forward cyclic (D) requires the trailing- edge of the advancing blade to be at its
maximum up, so the swashplate has to have its high point at the back (and the low point
at the front). Again, the swashplate, the cyclic stick movement and the main rotor disc
move in the same sense.
We can therefore conclude that no matter whether the pitch links are attached to the
leading edge or trailing edge of the blades, with an advance angle of 90, the orientation
of the swashplate and the main rotor is the same and in sympathy with cyclic movement,
and full compensation is made for phase lag.
If the cyclic stick movement is not in sympathy with the swashplate tilt, then the
advance angle has to be adjusted. If the cyclic is 45 out of phase with swashplate
orientation, the advance angle has to be 45 to fully compensate for phase lag.
Figure 36 Swashplate
CORIOLIS EFFECT
Conservation of angular momentum (Coriolis effect) influences the rotational velocity of a
blade when it flaps up or down. Any section of a blade travels on a given radius at a
given velocity and because of this; each section (and ultimately the entire rotor blade)
has a certain angular momentum that tends to be retained,
When the radius on which the centre of gravity of the blade travels is reduced, such as
when the blade flaps up or cones upward, the centre of gravity moves in towards the axis
of rotation (circumference A changes to B in Figure), the blade travels in a smaller circle.
The blade will then increase its rotational velocity to conserve angular momentum (in
this smaller circle). When a blade flaps down its centre of gravity moves out from the axis
of rotation onto a larger radius and its velocity slows down.
given velocity and because of this, each section (and ultimately the entire rotor blade)
has a certain angular momentum that tends to be retained. When the radius on which
the centre of gravity of the blade travels is reduced, such as when the blade flaps up or
cones upward, the centre of gravity moves in towards the axis of rotation (circumference
A changes to B in Figure), the blade travels in a smaller circle. The blade will then
increase its rotational velocity to conserve angular momentum (in this smaller circle).
When a blade flaps down its centre of gravity moves out from the axis of rotation onto a
larger radius and its velocity slows down.
CONING
The ability to flap vertically, either through a hinge or flexibility, results in coning. The
blades move upwards due to the vector addition of the lift and centrifugal forces. Rotor
RPM must be maintained above a minimum value to avoid excessive coning.
Figure 39 Coning
Coning angle, governed by the resultant of combined rotor thrust of the blade, and
centrifugal force acting through the blade's centre of gravity. Disc Area is effected by
Coning Angle. Generally speaking, the larger the rotor disc the greater the total rotor
thrust produced. Although the diameter of a given rotor disc ought to be determined by
blade length (a fixed value), the influence of the coning angle is to reduce the size of the
disc to some degree. The coning angle is dictated by two forces, the combined rotor
thrust of the blade and centrifugal force.
In picture you see that the combined rotor thrust of the blade, acting at right angles to
the feather axis, tries to increase the coning angle.
Without centrifugal force, coning angles would continue to increase until the blades
finally meet directly above the mast. The result would be most unfortunate. It is therefore
very important that you never exceed rotor rpm limits, especially the low limit,
determined by the manufacturer.
With V (rotor rpm) practically a constant, if mass increases then centrifugal force
increases and, for a given rotor thrust produced by the blade, the coning angle
decreases. Thus by adding mass to a rotor blade, centrifugal force increases with
beneficial results for the coning angle. This technique is used in some "high inertia
blades" when a few ounces of lead are placed inside the blade tips, which travel at
considerable speed.
The addition of mass at the tips increases the moment of inertia of blades (which
increases angular momentum) so that for the same rotor rpm, the blades operate at a
smaller coning angle compared to blades without weights at their tips.
UNDERSLUNG ROTOR
The underslung rotor system involves attaching the blades to the rotor head lower than
the top of the rotor mast. This design reduces vibrations within the rotor and minimizes
lead-lag tendencies, thereby reducing stress on rotor head components.
GROUND EFFECT
When flying a helicopter flies near the earths surface, the rotor downwash is unable to
escape as readily as it can when flying higher and creates a ground effect.
TRANSLATIONAL LIFT
When hovering in calm conditions, a given induced flow passes at right angles through
the rotor disc. If a 30 knot wind were now to blow, part of the induced flow would be
blown down-wind, parallel to the disc, so that a reduced amount will pass through the
disc. Thus the wind, in this example, has reduced the induced flow, as shown in Figure.
The amount and orientation of the total reaction determine the relationship between
rotor thrust and rotor drag. Reductions in induced flow (which invariably reduce the
inflow angle) and/or favourable angles of attack cause the total reaction to lean more
towards the axis of rotation, with less rotor drag accompanying total rotor thrust and
requiring less power. This is what helicopter operating efficiency is all about.
Some designers incorporate methods that automatically correct for tail rotor drift. The
most common ones are:
1. Construction of the main rotor mast so that it tilts slightly to the left and the rotor
disc is automatically oriented to the left.
2. The use of a bias in the cyclic control mechanism. This involves an arrangement
in the cyclic control linkage which holds the cyclic stick slightly to the left, so that
the pilot does not have to place it there.
Translating tendency occurs anytime in flight when power is in use, it must be corrected.
In forward flight and especially at speeds approaching cruise speed or higher, the
directional stability of the aircraft reduces the requirement for anti-torque so that tail
rotor drift becomes less significant.
During a maximum performance takeoff from a confined area, however, where the power
use is high and the airspeed is low, if tail rotor drift is not corrected properly, the aircraft
tends to drift to its right. The reverse applies when a large amount of tail rotor thrust is
used to maintain a constant heading in a hover and the throttle is closed rapidly (to
simulate engine failure). A rather abrupt drift to the left then occurs if the disc is not
levelled (with right cyclic) as the power is reduced.
BLADE TWIST
In viewing the main rotor from the top in a no-wind hover condition (Fig.45), it is quite
evident that different parts of the rotor are moving at different speeds. The fastest portion
is at the tip of the rotor with the least amount of speed at the root portion of the blade.
The blade will often have a twist built into it, in order to improve the lift characteristics of
the rotor throughout the blade. The twist will increase from the tip to the root. This twist
will increase the angle of attack of the slower portions of the blades thus increasing the
total lift of the blade (Fig).
In Fig. 47, a rotor system is shown with the stall area marked. It can be seen that as the
tip enters the stall condition, only a few inches are involved; but as the blade continues,
several feet towards the middle of the blade travel in the stall area, and then it will move
out toward the tip.
AUTOROTATION
In the event of total power failure, a helicopter can perform a forced landing by using the
airflow produced by a descent to maintain rotor RPM.
The pilot adjusts collective and cyclic to maintain the recommended airspeed and rotor
RPM as the RAF changes direction, and depending on aircraft type and available terrain,
controls the touchdown with collective and cyclic.
Figure 49 Auto-rotation
Figure 50 Auto-rotation
The driven region, also called the propeller region, is nearest to the blade tips and
normally consists of about 30 percent of the radius. Although lift is provided, the total
aerodynamic force in this region is inclined slightly behind the rotating axis. This results
in a drag force which slows the rotation of the blade.
The driving region or auto-rotative region normally lies between about 25 to 70 percent of
the blade radius. Total aerodynamic force in this region provides lift and is inclined
slightly forward of the axis of rotation. This inclination supplies thrust which tends to
accelerate the rotation of the blade.
The stall region includes the inboard 25 percent of the blade radius (Fig.50). It operates
above the stall angle of attack and only causes drag which tends to slow the rotation of
the blade.
Static Stability
Is a measure of an aircrafts INITIAL response to a displacement, without control inputs
from pilot or autopilot.
An aircraft has positive static stability if it tries to return to its initial attitude.
An aircraft which returns to its original attitude through a series of decreasing
OSCILLATIONS exhibits Positive DYNAMIC Stability
Figure 59 Pitch/Roll
LONGITUDINAL STABILITY
Gusts encountered in forward flight will have a similar effect as in the hovering case. A
gust from ahead causes blow back to tilt the disc and the TRR back, and the airspeed
reduces. The airframes inertia pitches it nose up, further tilting the disc back. The
airframe swings back nose down, the disc tilts forward, speed increases, and the cycle
repeats itself. Once again, we have positive static stability, but negative dynamic
stability.
Figure 63 Notar
Figure 64 Helicopter
STABILISER BARS
A shorter, end-weighted bar placed at right angles under the main rotor (Fig.64) possess
its own gyroscopic rigidity when rotating. If this bar is connected to the pitch control
links, then its rigidity causes it to supply a correcting input and stabilise a disturbance
of the main rotor blades. Movement of the fuselage is not transmitted to the rotor disc.
Stabiliser Angle
Because the main rotor downwash will influence the direction of the relative airflow, the
stabiliser may be attached at a specific angle to the aircraft axes.
HORIZONTAL STABILISER
A horizontal stabiliser acts to provide static stability exactly like that on a fixed wing
aircraft.
The stabiliser is attached in a way that induces an opposite force to any pitch
disturbance.
The effectiveness of a certain sized stabiliser depends on its distance from the aircraft
CG.
VERTICAL STABILISER
The vertical stabiliser surfaces increase the natural weather-cocking stability by
providing extra surface area behind the aircraft CG. Helicopter must be loaded such that
the CG remains inside the fore and aft limits.
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Controls ...........................................................................................................4
Figure 2 Boosted Controls ..............................................................................................5
Figure 3 Helicopter Controls...........................................................................................6
Figure 4 Cyclic Control ..................................................................................................6
Figure 5 Cyclic Control ..................................................................................................7
Figure 6 Moving Cyclic Forward Aft ................................................................................7
Figure 7 Moving Cyclic left Right ....................................................................................7
Figure 8 Cyclic Installation.............................................................................................8
Figure 9 Cyclic Components...........................................................................................9
Figure 10 Collective Pitch Control ..................................................................................9
Figure 11 Collective Head.............................................................................................10
Figure 12 Collective RPM Compensation.......................................................................11
Figure 13 Collective Control .........................................................................................11
Figure 14 Bell 412 Collective Control System................................................................12
Figure 15 Push Pull Tubes ...........................................................................................13
Figure 16 Torque Tubes ...............................................................................................14
Figure 17 Bellcranks....................................................................................................15
Figure 18 Bellcrank Installation ...................................................................................15
Figure 19 Mixer Unit ....................................................................................................16
Figure 20 Gradient Unit ...............................................................................................17
Figure 21 Swashplate...................................................................................................18
Figure 22 Anti-Torque Control......................................................................................19
Figure 23 Tail Rotor Control.........................................................................................19
Figure 24 Rolling Tendency ..........................................................................................20
Figure 25 Tail Rotor Hub..............................................................................................21
Figure 26 Bell 407 Tail Rotor........................................................................................22
Figure 27 NOTOR ........................................................................................................23
Figure 28 NOTAR System .............................................................................................24
Figure 29 Strakes ........................................................................................................25
Figure 30 NOTAR .........................................................................................................26
Figure 31 Fenestron Tail Rotor .....................................................................................27
Figure 32 Shrouded Tail Rotor .....................................................................................27
Figure 33 Cantered Tail Rotor ......................................................................................28
Figure 34 Dual Rotors..................................................................................................28
Figure 35 Contra Rotating Rotors .................................................................................29
Cyclic
Provide directional control about the pitch and roll axis.
Collective
Increases or decreases the pitch on the main rotor blades to allow the aircraft to ascend
or descend.
Anti-Torque/ Directional
Offsets torque of the main rotor and provides directional control in flight about the yaw
axis.
Figure 1 Controls
Allow pilot and AFCS control of the helicopters:
Altitude,
Attitude.
Direction.
Carried out by:
Pushrods.
Cable.
Bellcranks.
Torque shaft.
The helicopter has three basic controls that are used to control its flight. They are the
cyclic control, the collective, and the anti-torque/directional control.
The cyclic control is used to tilt the tip path plane of the main rotor. This moves the
thrust of the rotor and lift of the helicopter, pulling the helicopter in the direction of the
tip path plane.
important. For this reason, the stabilizer keeps the tail down so that a level flight attitude
may be maintained.
Under other circumstances, such as takeoffs, it may be desirable to fly in a nose down
attitude in order to build up airspeed by obtaining maximum thrust from the main rotor.
Then the stabilizer may be used to allow the tail to come up, allowing the maximum
thrust to be obtained as in a landing configuration. It is important that the nose be
allowed to come up and be brought down. This may also be assisted by the movable
stabilizer. On some helicopters the horizontal stabilizer is fixed in one position. It may be
shaped as an inverted airfoil, forcing the tail downward with a spoiler strip for landing
flares. Some of the newer helicopters are moving the stabilizer electronically in order to
meet the demands of the helicopters airspeed and attitude.
Operation
When the rotor disc is tilted, the thrust of the rotor and the lift of the helicopter is
changed pulling the helicopter in the direction of the required flight. The disc can be
made to tilt in any direction. To overcome the forces of gyroscopic precession, the change
of pitch of each rotor blade is required to be made 90 degrees prior to the placement of
the cyclic stick.
This discussion of the principles of helicopter fight is by no means complete, but should
be sufficient to help the maintenance technician to understand more thoroughly the
principles regarding various maintenance practices that are performed on helicopters.
Mixing
Bell Crank
Friction Clamp
Yoke
Torque Tube
Collective Lever
Bell 206BIII JetRanger Collective lever (Refer Figure 11 Collective Head)
The collective lever is connected to the rotor system via push pull tubes. The 206 also
has a droop compensation device which senses changes in the collective pitch lever and
increases or decreases fuel to the engine somewhat in anticipation of a change in power
required. This helps to minimize the RPM fluctuations during collective pitch change.
The lower left hand arrow points to the twist grip throttle. This performs the function of
an engine condition control, with positions for off, idle, and flight. In the flight position
the throttle is rolled full open, and the fuel control (governor) controls the amount of fuel
going to the engine in order to maintain proper rotor RPM.
Between the flight and idle positions, the throttle can be used as a manual throttle,
although this would only be done during an emergency (or simulated emergency)
condition. This is useful during any event which would cause engine or rotor RPM to go
too high, such as a high side governor failure or short shaft failure.
The throttle can be rolled off to limit the amount of fuel going to the engine so that RPM
is maintained in the green operating arc. Another time when this is useful is while
landing after a tail rotor failure. The throttle can be manipulated to produce the amount
of torque required to line the landing gear up with ground track during a running
landing. The throttle can not be used to increase fuel flow over what the governor is
commanding, which means it can not be used as a manual fuel control to correct for a
low side governor failure.
The third from the top on the left hand side arrow is pointing to the idle release button.
When the throttle is rolled from "off" to "idle", the idle release button snaps into a detent
which prevents the throttle from being rolled back to "off". This prevents the pilot from
flaming out the engine when going from "flight" to "idle". In order to move the throttle
from "idle" to "off", the pilot must hold down the idle release button while rolling the
throttle to "off".
The second from the top on the left side hand arrow is pointing at the starter button.
Pushing this button causes the starter/generator to act as a starter motor, turning over
the engine. The starter can also be used to motor the engine in order to cool it down by
forcing cool air through it.
The upper left hand arrow points at the landing light switch, which is a three position
switch. The three positions are "off", "forward" and "both". In forward, only the forward
pointing light is activated. In "both", the forward and the downward angled lights are
activated.
The right hand arrow on the bottom points to the RPM adjustment button. By holding it
in "increase" or "decrease" the pilot can set the RPM that the governor will attempt to
maintain.
Push-pull Tubes
The push-pull tubes used in a cyclic or collective system may vary in construction. Some
have forked rod ends installed on both ends. Others use combinations of forked and
spherical bearing ends. Some end fittings are adjustable, while others are not. Where
very fine adjustments are called for, one end may often be coarse threaded and the other
end fine threaded. There seems to be a tendency to reduce the number of adjustable
tubes. Many of the rod ends are sealed with PROSEAL or METAL SET on the adjustable
ends, providing a good moisture seal, preventing corrosion on the inside of the tube.
When the rod ends are removed, maintenance shops will often make a policy of flushing
tubes with a primer.
Wear factors do not progress on a straight-line factor. For example, .001 of an inch wear
that occurred in 500 hours of operation may quadruple in the next 500 hours of
operation. As the wear factor increases in one area, it will add to the wear factor in units
connected to it. Since every unit is connected to another, the whole helicopter is
connected in this progression. The replacement of one worn rod end is good cheap
maintenance.
Torque Tubes
Torque tubes are used for several different purposes in flight control systems of
helicopters. They usually lie perpendicular to the center line of the helicopter and are
attached to each end of the structure by a bearing so that partial rotation of the shaft
may take place.
The tube is usually held by a saddle. The torque tube may, in some instances, be used to
convert a rotary motion to a linear motion, such as the movement of the collective. It may
also be used to transfer the motion to two points, such as the rotor and the engines to
change direction or mechanical advantages, or to transfer a movement from one place to
another.
Torque tubes are inspected periodically for security, bearing wear, and cracks, especially
at the horn attachment point and rod attachment point.
Bellcranks
Bellcranks are used in conjunction with push pull rods. Their function is mainly to
change the direction of movement within the system. Bellcranks are also used to change
the travel of rods and provide the required mechanical advantage.
Bellcranks are constructed of aluminium cast and are often fitted with spherical bearings
to allow smooth operation of the collective system.
Closely related to the function of the torque tube is the bellcrank, mainly used to change
direction with a push-pull tube. The bellcrank may not be used to change direction, but
will always change the travel of the tube and the mechanical advantage. See Fig. 6-25 for
some typical bellcranks.
Figure 17 Bellcranks
Mixer box
Another item closely related to the torque tube and bellcrank is the mixer box. Most
helicopters use a mixer box for cyclic and collective inputs prior to the swashplate. The
purpose of the mixer is to prevent the collective input from affecting the cyclic input as
they move together or in relation to each other. If such a device were not installed,
movement of the collective would change the height of the cyclic setting on the
swashplate and the cyclic setting would alter the collective.
When the collective is pulled upward, the swashplate will move upward and the cyclic
control movement that was already present will move the same amount in the same
direction. This will move the swashplate up parallel to its original position. As the
collective is lowered, the swashplate will lower, staying parallel to its position.
Gradient Unit
Since many Helicopters today use a hydraulic boost on the controls, feel of movement of
the control is removed. This feel is artificially added. this is accomplished by what is
commonly referred to as a gradient unit. Gradient units may be found on all inputs to
the cyclic and are sometimes found with the tail rotor system and collective. Basically
these gradient units are spring units that are compressed and released as movement of
the control are made. This spring compression takes place in both directions. These
units are usually made for each input and are not interchangeable. They may be
adjusted for the required spring tension. The units are always installed in conjunction
with the control system, never as an integral part of the system. In addition to their use
as an artificial feel, they are often used to help trim the helicopter, in conjunction with a
magnetic brake unit.
Helicopters, like fixed wing aircraft, may require trimming to hold proper flight attitude
this is commonly due to load distribution. Unlike fixed wing aircraft, it would be most
difficult to install movable trim tabs that could be used to adjust flight characteristics.
For this reason, the pilot is forced to use the cyclic for these corrections. This means that
if the aircraft flew somewhat nose heavy a constant back pressure would be required
during flight, If the aircraft flew one side low as well, both back pressure and side
pressure would be required. This could become very tiring in a very short time. With the
gradient system and a magnetic brake, the cyclic may be moved to make the required
attitude change and to engage the magnetic brake. From that point the gradient spring
will relieve the required force to hold the cyclic, so that the aircraft remains in the
trimmed attitude. Aircraft may still be flown working against the gradient unit as usual.
A trim motor is quite similar to a gradient unit.
Basically it works on the same principle, except that the trim or movement of the cyclic is
done by use of a linear actuator in conjunction with a switch on the cyclic. This linear
actuator moves the stick against spring pressure to trim the helicopter.
Figure 21 Swashplate
ANTI-TORQUE CONTROL
The anti-torque pedals are sometimes referred to as the rudder pedals. They are operated
by the pilots feet and change the pitch of the tail rotor, which is used to control the
torque of the main rotor. In addition to the anti-torque correction, the pitch of the tail
rotor is changed to give the helicopter heading control. During takeoff; the power applied
to the main rotor is at its maximum. At this time the highest positive pitch will be
required by the tail rotor. On U.S.-made helicopters, this is added to the tail rotor by
depressing the left pedal.
When in powered flight in a single-rotor helicopter, the main rotor tries to remain
stationary while the fuselage is subjected to a torque couple trying to rotate it in a
direction opposite to that of main rotor rotation. Since potential yaw is caused by a
torque couple it is logical that an opposing couple should be used to counteract it; when
equal and opposite, the nose of the aircraft would not yaw left or right.
The use of an opposing couple, however, poses considerable construction problems and
for that reason the torque couple is opposed by a moment produced by the thrust of the
anti-torque rotor (tail rotor) positioned at the tail. The magnitude of a moment is
determined by the force applied over a given distance. Thus the tail rotor, producing
thrust to the right, provides the force required while the position of the tail rotor well
behind the mast (upon which the torque couple is centred) gives the required distance. If
this distance is increased, the anti-torque moment produced by the tail rotor thrust is
more powerful.
NOTAR SYSTEM
Propels air through variable jets fitted on either side of the tail cone.
This is a controllable-pitch Fan installed just aft of the transmission. Blowing air down
the hollow tail boom to a nozzle with a set of 90% turning vanes. The reaction against the
vanes produces an anti-torque force. Both the pitch of the fan and the size of the nozzle
opening are controlled by the pilots pedal movements.
A NOTAR system is one where directional control is achieved without the use of a tail
rotor. A shortened tail rotor shaft connected to the main gearbox drives a variable pitch
fan which propels air down the tail cone to variable jets on either side of the tail to
provide yaw control.
More anti torque reaction is produced by the circulation control tail boom. A slot on the
lower right hand side of the boom directs a jet of air nearly tangential to the boom's
surface which entrains the rotor wakes boundary layer on the right side delaying its
separation and bending the whole wake flow to the left. This distortion of the wake
produces suction on the right side of the boom which helps to counteract the main rotor
torque.
Figure 27 NOTOR
Utilises a variable pitch propeller driven by the Main Transmission. Also uses the main
rotor thrust over the tail cone to create a suction on one side of the tail cone. Rotor less
Anti-Torque System.
Some helicopters are equipped with anti-torque systems that do not use the conventional
tail rotor. An example is the NOTAR helicopter produced by McDonnell Douglas (MD).
The explanations are based on the main rotor rotating anti-clockwise when viewed from
above, and thus during powered flight the anti-torque force will be required to act
towards the right when viewed from behind the aircraft.
There are a number of features in the NOTAR systems that improve on the conventional
tail rotor design such as:
Elimination of the hazards associated with tail rotor strike.
Elimination of foreign object damage to the tail rotor.
Elimination of tail rotor blade stall and improved control in crosswind conditions.
Reduced vibration.
Components
The MD NOTAR anti-torque system has the following components:
An air intake at the top rear of the fuselage
A fan, driven from the main gearbox, which forces low pressure air from the intake
into and through the tail boom
Two slots along the right-hand side of the tail boom that allow some of the fan-
driven air to escape so that this air can energize the boundary layer of the main
rotor downwash on that side (see Figure)
A tail thruster cone which permits high speed fan-driven air to exit through a
"direct jet thruster"
Fixed baffle plates which turn the fan-driven flow of air more or less at right
angles before exiting through the rotatable direct jet thruster cone
In addition to the above there are two movable vertical stabilizers which come into play
during forward flight.
Finally, the 520N has a strake along almost the entire length of the tail boom on the
opposite side to the slots, ie, on the left-hand side.
Figure 29 Strakes
The coanda effect is at a maximum when the helicopter is in the hover in nil wind
conditions when the main rotor downwash is as near to the vertical as possible. As
forward speed increases, or when there is a wind blowing, the main rotor downwash
develops a horizontal component which lessens the benefit of the strake. But this loss is
somewhat compensated in forward flight by an increase in directional stability when the
fuselage tends to align itself with the direction of flight.
A secondary benefit of the strake is an improvement in maintaining heading when flying
sideways to the right, or when experiencing a crosswind from the right because more left
pedal is available. However, as sideways speed increases and a smaller percentage of the
main rotor downwash passes the tail boom, the benefit decreases. This is aggravated by
the increasing pressure build-up on the right of the fuselage and tail boom as sideways
speed increases, this factor varies greatly between different helicopter designs.
A disadvantage of the strake is its exposure to downward pressure from the main rotor
downwash, and to some extent, its weight. The additional total rotor thrust required to
overcome these factors depends largely on the strake design. The combination of main
rotor downwash plus vectored fan exhaust creates a side force opposing torque.
In addition to the nozzle reaction, another contribution to the required anti torque force
is provided by the circulation - control tail boom. This concept makes use of the
deflection of the main rotor wake as it passes the circular tail boom. This is
accomplished by a jet of air blowing from the pressurised boom through a slot on the
lower right hand side.
The jet of air comes out nearly tangential to the booms surface and entrains the
boundary layer on the right side - delaying its separation and bending the whole wake
flow to the left. This distortion of the wake produces suction on the right side of the boom
which helps to react the main-rotor torque. As a matter of fact, the design calculations
indicated that about two thirds of the anti torque force in hover should come from this
effect. In forward flight, the rotor wake dose not impinge on the boom, so the forces must
come from the deflected jet and the cambered vertical stabiliser.
Figure 30 NOTAR
Figure 37 Reservoir
Figure 39 Filter
Figure 40 Accumulator
Figure 41 Actuator
Figure 43 Helicopter
FLY BY WIRE
Although not new in concept, complete re-development of the system was seen to be
necessary in recent years, as a means of controlling some highly sophisticated types of
aircraft coming into service. The problem associated with such aircraft has been one of
designing conventional forms of mechanical linkage to suit the complex flight control
systems adopted. Thus, an FBW system, as the name very aptly suggests, is one in
which wires carrying electrical signals from the pilots controls, replace mechanical
linkages entirely. In operation, movements of the control, and the forces exerted by the
pilot, are measured by electrical transducers, and the signals produced are then
amplified and relayed to operate the hydraulic actuator units which are directly
connected to the flight control surfaces.
Figure 44 Fly-By-Wire
TRIM CONTROLS
Helicopters do not have trim tabs such as fixed-wing aircraft. Instead, trimming is
generally achieved through either of the following.
Bias Control
Bias control involves increasing or decreasing the tension at will in one or more of the
linkages leading from the pilot controls to the blade control mechanism. For instance, by
increasing the tension in the linkage system leading to the swashplate so that it provides
a slight amount of left cyclic, the cyclic stick is automatically held in that position so that
less pilot input is needed.
STABILISERS
Stabilisers are flat-plate or airfoil shaped surfaces attached horizontally to the tail boom
or to the rear of the fuselage. Their main function is to stabilise the fuselage to prevent
follow-through pitching movements when flap-back occurs.
A gust from straight ahead during forward flight causes blow-back, so the disc tilts back
and the fuselage pitches up. This pitch up produces an increased angle of attack on the
stabiliser, which results in greater lift production at the rear of the aircraft. As a
consequence, the nose is prevented from pitching up further and in some designs, it is
actively encouraged to pitch down to some degree. Thus stabilisers tend to dampen
dynamic oscillations by stabilising the fuselage and the disc.
Stabilisers are helpful for longitudinal stability in forward flight, but they can be
detrimental to rearward flight. When flying backwards the stabiliser accentuates
longitudinal oscillations and a dangerous situation can develop in a short period of time.
Figure 45 Stabiliser
Stabilisers are fitted to some helicopters at odd angles because the angle of attack on the
stabiliser is influenced by the airflow from forward flight as well as that from rotor
downwash slanting rearward in forward flight. Design tests are usually conducted to
determine where, and at what angle, to place the stabiliser to make the best use of its
functions. Stabilisers are generally set up to function best at normal forward cruise
speeds.
Figure 46 Stabiliser
Synch Elevators.
Synch elevators are stabilisers, but instead of being rigidly attached to the fuselage
empennage, they pitch up and down with fore/aft cyclic movements (they are
synchronised), Synch elevators strengthen the degree of response from the stabilizer at
varying airspeeds.
Synthetic Stabilising. It is difficult to provide satisfactory longitudinal stability even with
the best designed stabilisers. Modern helicopters are therefore equipped with electronic
stabilisation, such as gyro-controlled autopilots and computers, which provide inputs
into the main control linkage system.
Static balance can be accomplished in several different ways. As on the main rotor,
balancing equipment for the specific tail rotor is often available from the manufacturer.
Universal balancing equipment is also available for a number of tail rotors. Addition of
weight in areas other than those authorized would be dangerous. Basically the balance
procedure for the tail rotors are similar, except the actual balancing point may vary.
Balancing Procedures
Blades are balanced in either a vertical or horizontal position. Fig shows a tail rotor
placed in a universal balancer. This balancer operates in the same manner as the
universal balancer used on the main rotors. The bushings, etc., are made for the specific
rotor while the balancing arbour, with the correct bushing and holders, may fit several
different tail rotors. Like the arbour used on the main rotor, the arbour utilizes a disc
attached to the cable and dampened in oil. Weight is added to the blade at the
predetermined locations until a perfect circle is visible between the disc and the collar of
the balancer is shown in view A of Fig. This type of balancer is very sensitive and will be
disturbed by any air currents. All static balancing must be accomplished in a closed
room to insure accuracy of the procedure.
Control Rigging
Maintenance is usually confined to removal and replacement for items other than rod
ends and bolts. However, many of the items in a control system are adjustable, and
control movements are quite critical. For this reason, it is often necessary after removal
and replacement of components, that the particular control system be rigged; meaning
that the system must be adjusted so that the correct amount of pitch is present on the
collective and the cyclic travel is within tolerances.
Figure 53 Helicopter
Regardless of the type of helicopter, rigging procedures must be in accordance with the
manufacturers instructions, to insure that the helicopter acquires no unsafe flight
characteristics from the rigging procedure. This does not mean that minor adjustments
will not be required after the initial flight. Even these minor adjustments must be in
accordance with the maintenance manual and in small increments to avoid unstable
flight characteristics.
Figure 54 Rigging
In order to perform rigging of the flight controls, some equipment will be necessary. In
many instances special tools such as jigs, rigging pins, and holding fixtures will be
required. Other items of the helicopter, such as mast alignment, which would adversly
affect the rigging often require checking.
The equipment required for rigging the cyclic and collective varies with the type of
helicopter to be rigged. In addition to common hand tools, because it may be necessary
to level the helicopter, suitable jacks of sufficient capacity for the levelling operation may
be needed. This situation is seldom experienced with the newer helicopters. If levelling is
required, instructions will be given in a separate section of the maintenance manual.
Other common equipment used in rigging procedures are a measuring scale, used to
obtain required dimensions, and a universal protractor (propeller protractor). The
protractor is used to obtain predetermined degrees in the bellcranks, swashplate, etc.
Figure 56 Protractor
Some helicopters manufactured today make use of rigging jigs and pins to aid in the
rigging procedure. Pins are placed in predetermined locations to hold bellcranks; so rods
may be adjusted according to a set length. Jigs may be used for a variety of rigging tasks,
as a holder for the swashplate, or as a template to determine the degrees of travel.
Figure 57 Rigging
Usually the rigging procedure of the cyclic would consist of placing the cyclic control in
the neutral position, which would be straight up or perpendicular to the floor. A number
of devices have been made for specific helicopters for centring the cyclic in this position.
Once the cyclic is centred, the rods are adjusted to the next check point. This may be a
bellcrank that is either held in place by a rigging pin or is to have a preset angle
determined by a protractor. When the bellcrank is in the correct position, the next
reference point may be the hydraulic servo unit. Normally these are adjustable in length
and the servo valve is set in neutral. The actuator may be attached to the swashplate
which must be set to a fixed number of degrees by a protractor or another rigging fixture.
Figure 58 Rigging
From this point the control rods which go to the rotor are set. The rotor may be held in
position or be checked with a protractor for its neutral position. After this neutral
position is established, the extreme positions are set by stops, which may be located on
the bellcranks or on the swashplate. Although oversimplified, these would be typical
basic steps that would be taken in the rigging of a cyclic system.
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 MRH ................................................................................................................4
Figure 2 Rigid Rotor .......................................................................................................5
Figure 3 Rotor -Rigid......................................................................................................6
Figure 4 Semi Rigid........................................................................................................7
Figure 5 Underslung Rotor .............................................................................................8
Figure 6 Fully Articulate Rotor .......................................................................................9
Figure 7 Fully Articulate Rotor Components .................................................................10
Figure 8 Bell 205 Damper ............................................................................................10
Figure 9 Multi Disc Dampener .....................................................................................11
Figure 10 Hydraulic Dampener ....................................................................................11
Figure 11 Dampener ....................................................................................................12
Figure 12 Elastromeric Dampener ................................................................................12
Figure 13 Elastometric Bearing ....................................................................................12
Figure 14 Cylindrical Elastometric ...............................................................................13
Figure 15 Spherical Elastometric Bearing.....................................................................13
Figure 16 Conical Elastometric Bearing........................................................................14
Figure 17 Bell 206 MRH...............................................................................................15
Figure 18 Bell 206 Blade Attachment ...........................................................................16
Figure 19 Trunnion Assembly ......................................................................................17
Figure 20 MRH S-58 ....................................................................................................17
Figure 21 S-58 MRH ....................................................................................................18
Figure 22 Dampener ....................................................................................................18
Figure 23 Fully Articulated MRH Components S-76......................................................19
Figure 24 Fully Articulated MRH Components..............................................................20
Figure 25 Fully Articulated MRH Components - Dampers .............................................20
Figure 26 Vibration ......................................................................................................21
Figure 27 Helicopter Landing - Vibrations ....................................................................22
Figure 28 MRH ............................................................................................................22
Figure 29 Maintenance MRH........................................................................................23
Figure 30 Correctable Vibrations..................................................................................23
Figure 31 Vertical Vibrations........................................................................................24
Figure 32 Lateral Vibrations.........................................................................................25
Figure 33 MRH Vibrations............................................................................................25
Figure 34 Helicopter Inspection....................................................................................27
Figure 1 MRH
Rotor Heads
There are actually three major types of rotor heads in use today. They are described as:
Rigid.
Semi-Rigid.
Fully articulated.
The latter two (semi-rigid and fully articulated) are the most widely used.
Semi-Rigid Systems
Two bladed underslung.
Fully Articulated
Incorporate hinge mechanism allowing individual movement of the blades.
RIGID ROTOR
The rigid rotor system makes use of a feathering axis only. For this reason the
possibilities of this system have been neglected over the years due to the inability to
correct for dissymmetry in lift. The certified helicopters that make use of the rigid rotors
today use fibreglass blades which are designed to flex, giving flapping motion as well as
the lead-lag properties to the blade rather than to the hub.
At least one other rigid rotor was built and used experimentally in which the blade angles
of each individual blade were changed during rotation. By using this method, corrections
in dissymmetry in lift were made (Fig. 2-30). However, experimental work in this area has
been discounted at this time.
To allow change of pitch of each blade, the hub may have a feathering bearing of either
metal or elastomeric construction. Some rigid rotor systems use a torsionally flexible
beam in place of the feathering bearing.
Most rigid rotors used today have fibreglass or composite blades that are designed to flex,
providing flapping and lead and lag motions from the blade itself instead of the hub.
One piece titanium forging incorporating provisions for a feathering axis only. The blades
are constructed of reinforced glass fibre with a large amount of elasticity. Because of this
elasticity and the forces applied, the blades lead, lag and flap independently allowing a
fully articulated action.
Rigid rotors are more common in smaller helicopters because bearing-less hubs have the
following advantages:
Simplicity.
Reduced component numbers.
Improved reliability and maintainability.
Weight, cost and drag are reduced.
Composite materials offer long fatigue life.
Another advantage found in some rigid rotors is that the effects of air and ground
resonance are reduced because the natural frequency of the rotor is so high.
A disadvantage experienced in some rigid rotor systems is the high control loadings. This
can be overcome by fitting a control gyro to the hub. With suitable linkages, the pilot
controls the gyro which in turn stabilisers and controls the rotor head.
This system allows the blade freedom to feather only it does not allow for freedom to flap
or lead lag (drag) Control loads in this type of rotor are very high and stability is difficult
to achieve. In advanced rigid-rotor systems, it is usual to incorporate computer systems
to facilitate ease of control and stability.
SEMI-RIGID ROTOR
The semi-rigid rotor is probably the most popular rotor system. However, some of the
newly designed heads may change this situation within a few years. The semi-rigid rotor,
like the rigid rotor, makes use of a feathering axis for pitch change. In addition to this
movement, the rotor is allowed to flap as a unit. For this reason it is sometimes referred
to as a seesaw rotor system. Some are built with additional movement about the
chordwise axis by use of a gimbal ring. The reason for this additional movement is to
compensate for the Coriolis Effect as described earlier. Other semi-rigid systems correct
this problem with a built-in correction factor in the swashplate which changes pitch
angles during rotation.
The head shown in the top view has movement on two axes while the bottom head has
movement on one axis only.
The Underslung Rotor is a semi rigid rotor system where the rotor is mounted below the
top of the mast. This keeps a small distance between the centre of gravity of the blades
and the axis of rotation of the blades.
The fully articulated rotor system is one that utilises the feathering axis for the blade
pitch, an individual flapping hinge for each blade, and a lead-lag hinge for each blade. At
the present time there are probably not as many fully articulated heads as semi-rigid
heads, but because of new technological developments in this area, this trend may soon
be reversed.
Hydraulic Dampener
Controls the rate of dampening by fluid passing through a metered orifice. Newer
dampers are sealed thus NOT allowing for field adjustments.
Elastromeric Dampener
New type of damper utilising elastomerics contained in a cylinder. Works on the principle
of Hysteresis (After compressing or absorbing shear load it will slowly return back to its
original shape).
Figure 11 Dampener
Elastometric Bearings
Basic construction of a elastomeric bearing is the placing of alternating layers of
Elastomers (Rubber) between metal laminates. Elastomeric Bearings are used for
Oscillating Loads where complete rotation is unnecessary. Do not confuse this with the
rotational and thrust loads of roller or ball bearings
The cap assembly is held in place by the static stops (9) bolted to the yoke. The grip
assembly (21) is supported by two bearings (20) on the yoke. It is secured to the yoke by
a latch bolt passing through the grip and the tension-torsion strap and is secured to the
yoke with the cap and pin. The pitch horn (17) bolts to the grip for pitch change. This is
also the attachment point for the oil reservoir (14) and sight glass to lubricate the grips.
Another interesting feature of the grips is the hollow blade bolts (25) used for the
addition of weight for spanwise balance. It might also be noted that no drag braces are
used.
The blade is supported by a latch mechanism in place of the drag brace.
Placed on the top of the yoke is a trunnion assembly. It is bolted to the yoke with two
pillow blocks (10) which act as oil reservoirs and bearing retainers for the trunnion (3).
The flap restraint is placed on top of the trunnion (2) which limits the flapping action of
the rotor at low RPM.
Figure 21 S-58 MRH hows that the head consists of a hub (75) which is splined to the
mast and flanged to accommodate an upper and lower plate assembly (48, 91). The plate
assemblies form the support for the four lead-lag hinges (113) that are placed on tapered
roller bearings and form the support of the individual flapping hinge for each blade. The
sleeve spindle assembly (18) comprises the other half of the flapping hinge and is pinned
to the lead- lag hinge by a horizontal pin (15).
Figure 22 Dampener
The sleeve spindle assembly also provides the feathering action of the blade. The sleeve
(53) attaches to the pitch horn and slides over the spindle (63). Thrust loads of the blade
are taken up by a thrust bearing stack (57) which allows pitch change of the blades. The
flapping and drooping action of this rotor is limited by flap and droop steps attached to
the lead-lag hinge.
Training Material Only B1-12.2.2 Main Rotor Heads
Issue A: October 2008 Revision 1 Page 18 of 28
AA Form TO-18
The first unusual feature of the rotor head is the bifilar vibration absorber that is
mounted on top of the rotor. This system has been used on other Sikorsky helicopters,
such as the S-61-N, with much success in reducing the vibration levels and stresses
placed on the helicopter. The bifilar system works on the same principle as the dynamic
dampeners used for many years in reciprocating engines. It is made up of a blade
assembly placed on top of the rotor, with four weights attached at intervals between the
main rotor blades. The weights are attached by bolts, thus forming a very loose fit. This
loose fit allows the weight to oscillate. As the rotor turns, centrifugal force holds the
weights outward, causing impulses to be absorbed by the oscillating weights.
The blade is attached to the hub by a row of bolts fastening the elastomeric bearing to
the hub. This elastomeric bearing is built up of laminations of metal and elastomers
bonded together in a soup bowl design with a hole in the bottom. With this design the
blades may flap, lead, and lag. This eliminates the flapping and lead-lag hinge from the
system. The elastomeric bearings require no lubrication.
The pitch axis passes through this bearing by use of the integral spindle. The thrust load
is carried from the spindle nut, through another thrust type elastomeric bearing to the
retention bearing, which is bolted to the hub. The dampening action of the blade is
accomplished through a conventional hydraulic dampener.
HELICOPTER VIBRATIONS
With as many rotating parts as a helicopter has, we must expect it to vibrate. These
vibrations are caused by out of balance forces resulting from uneven rotor mass
distribution, aerodynamic forces associated with incorrect blade tracking and forces
resulting from unbalanced components such as drive shafts.
Pilots need to understand the cause and effect of helicopter vibrations, since higher than
normal vibrations result in premature component wear and in the case of severe
vibration, even structural failure.
Figure 26 Vibration
Types of Vibrations
Vibrations fall into two categories, those that are non-correctable and those that are
correctable.
Non-Correctable
3Vibrations are essentially those that the manufacturer cannot eliminate completely.
They are generally caused by aerodynamic forces that "excite" natural resonance in
blades and other helicopter components. The age of the helicopter, normal wear of
components and loose parts aggravate the degree of non-correctable vibration it
experiences. The problem can be managed by proper maintenance, but it cannot be
eliminated.
Figure 28 MRH
Non-correctable vibrations are normally related to the number of blades that make up
the rotor system, commonly referred to as "n-per-rev," where "n" equals the number of
blades. A five-blade rotor system would experience a "five-per-rev" vibration, which is
evident if all the other "correctable" vibrations are eliminated. The two-per-rev vibration
in many Bell helicopters, with their semi-rigid rotor systems, is familiar to many pilots.
Correctable
Vibrations are predominantly caused by out-of-track blade(s) and/or by uneven mass
distribution within the rotor system. A blade is tracking correctly when its path of travel
is the same, or nearly so, as the preceding blade.
Even mass distribution is obtained when the centre of gravity of the overall mass of the
spinning rotor is precisely located on the axis of rotation.
Vertical Vibrations
When a vibration is caused by an out-of-track blade (an aerodynamic cause), the result
is a one-per-rev vertical vibration. A faulty trailing position of the trim tab or wear in
pitch link bearings can cause incorrect tracking. The problem can also show up when an
old blade or a repaired blade is installed among new blades.
A pilot can easily detect vertical vibrations by resting the forearm on the knee and
allowing the wrist to relax. Vertical vibrations move the relaxed hand up and down at the
rate of one shake per revolution of the rotor. Another good tell-tale sign is the vertical
movement of the (rod-type) HF antenna that is often mounted horizontally forward from
the nose cone of some helicopters. Blade tracking can be a tedious process, particularly
when the rotor consists of more than two blades. Correction for tracking is normally
done by adjusting pitch links and trim tabs positioned at the trailing edge of blades.
Having tracked the blade into the correct plane while in the hover, it is likely that it will
be out of track again at a given forward speed.
Thus the blades must be checked (normally through the use of strobe lights and blade
markers) while the helicopter flies at different speeds. The final correction is always a
compromise of the least out-of-track condition in the greatest range of airspeed. Most
manufacturers stipulate a limit for the degree of out-of track vibration.
Lateral Vibrations
The steering wheel of a car vibrates if the mass of each front wheel is not correctly
distributed. We solve the problem by attaching small weights to the rim of each wheel so
that the centre of gravity of its total mass is as close to the centre of rotation as possible.
The same principle applies to spinning rotors. When the mass of the rotor is not evenly
distributed, it causes a "lateral" one-per-rev vibration, which shakes the helicopter from
side to side.
There are many reasons for lateral vibrations, including blade damage, an uneven
coating of ice or dust, shedding from one blade of blade tape (which helps prevent
corrosion), or peeling paint, all of which produce an imbalance in weight distribution.
inspection criteria for special inspections and designate the areas of the airframe to be
inspected.
MRH Servicing
The servicing of the rotor head normally consists of lubrication. Proper lubrication of the
rotor head cannot be stressed enough. The greasing of the head is done with a hand-type
grease gun, using the manufacturer's specified grease. The intervals are also specified by
the manufacturer. However, when operations are conducted in certain areas, more
frequent greasing is advisable. For example: a sandy environment would require more
frequent lubrication to remove the sand from the greased areas. Although the wet head
should require less servicing and lubrication, leaks may occur. Most systems will have
some leakage, but excessive leakage will cause bearing damage
Normal rotor head inspections are visual. Loose items, such as rod ends, will only add to
a more rapid deterioration of the head. The feel of the movements and the possibility of
cracks should not be omitted from any inspection criteria.
On certain heads, periodic inspections may be required. These might include such items
as DYE CHECK inspections, partial disassembly, and rotation of bearings. These could
be required at different intervals of time or as the result of Airworthiness Directives.
Special inspection of the rotor system will be required when certain circumstances exist,
such as overspeeds, sudden stoppage and hard landings. The inspections will vary with
the design of the head and the requirements of the manufacturer.
Depending upon circumstances, the inspection required may be only a through visual
inspection, while in other situations it may require a complete teardown or replacement
of the rotor. Manufacturer's publications cover the special inspections in detail.
MRH Reassembly
After the head is reassembled, the blades may be reinstalled, taking the same
precautions used in disassembly. At this point, a series of maintenance procedures may
begin, including:
Blade alignment.
Static main rotor balance.
Vibration check.
Tracking.
Spanwise dynamic balance of the rotor.
Blade sweeping.
Electronic balancing.
Dampener maintenance.
Counterweight adjustment.
Autorotation adjustments.
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Paul Cornu.......................................................................................................3
Figure 2 Rotor Blade ......................................................................................................3
Figure 3 Wooden Rotor Blade .........................................................................................4
Figure 4 Wooden Rotor Blade .........................................................................................4
Figure 5 Bell Rotor Blade ...............................................................................................4
Figure 6 Main Rotor Blade .............................................................................................5
Figure 7 Wooden Blade Damage .....................................................................................5
Figure 8 Wooden Blade Deterioration .............................................................................6
Figure 9 Wooden Blade Rot ............................................................................................6
Figure 10 Wooden Blade Inspection................................................................................7
Figure 11 Wooden Blade Repair .....................................................................................7
Figure 12 Inspection and Cleaning .................................................................................8
Figure 13 Blade Balancing .............................................................................................8
Figure 14 Damaged Blade ..............................................................................................9
Figure 15 Helicopter Metal Blades ...............................................................................9
Figure 16 Metal Blade Repair .........................................................................................9
Figure 17 Blade Inspection...........................................................................................10
Figure 18 Composite Blade Construction......................................................................10
Figure 19 Blade Inspection...........................................................................................11
Figure 20 Helicopter Main Blade ..................................................................................12
Figure 21 Rotor Blade Construction .............................................................................12
Figure 22 BIS...............................................................................................................13
Figure 23 Blade Repair ................................................................................................13
Figure 24 BIM..............................................................................................................14
Figure 25 Composite Blade Contruction .......................................................................15
Figure 26 Blade Construction ......................................................................................15
Figure 27 Fibreglass Spar ............................................................................................16
Figure 28 Metal spar ....................................................................................................17
Figure 29 Composite Blade ..........................................................................................17
Figure 30 Blade Damage ..............................................................................................18
Due to the variations of wood, most blades are in matched pairs, meaning that one blade
cannot be changed by itself. During construction each blade is matched to a master
blade and then matched to the pair. At least one manufacturer has a system of matching
blades of different pairs.
The two ways the integrity of the blade will be affected are deterioration and damage.
Deterioration is usually a very slow process of exposure to the elements. It leads to
problems with the covering, attachment point, and the butt area of the blade.
Damage to the blade may occur either while the blade is static or rotating. The latter is
the more serious damage, because the force of the impact may be transmitted through
the blade causing additional damage elsewhere. Since the blade is covered, it is often
difficult to detect damage at a point other than where the strike occurred. This type of
damage can often be discovered by observing bulges or buckles in the cover, especially
when flexing the blade. For these reasons, visual inspection of the leading edge is
important. Impact in that area will have the most transmitted force. If the impact is great
enough to stop the rotor, a special inspection of the helicopter will be required, and a
possible rotor system replacement.
Normal maintenance of the wooden rotor blade consists of inspection and blade cleaning.
The blades may be washed with soap and water. A soap quite often used for this purpose
is flax soap. It is quite mild and will not corrode the blade. Any caustic solution or
solvent may harm the blade and should be avoided. The blades are often waxed after
washing. An abrasive cleaner type wax should not be used because this will be
detrimental to the finish.
Other maintenance may include the replacement of trim tabs, stainless steel leading edge
repairs, cover, and wood repairs. if damage is extensive, the blades are sent to a repair
facility. Often exchange units are used if the repairs are extensive, depending on the time
available.
Like any other metal component exposed to stresses induced in flight, the blade must be
time life limited. This is a disadvantage compared to the wooden blade that has no finite
life limitations.
The disadvantage to this type of construction is the inability to re-bond the structure in
the field.
These are sometimes referred to as midspan weights and are attached at manufacture of
the blade The midspan weight should not be disturbed for field balancing.
This particular blade is also equipped with an integral inspection system (BIS). This
system consists of an electronic detector unit with a memory and crack detection
circuits. The detector is activated by a centrifugally operated mercury switch when the
main rotor is turning, or by depressing the test button on the detector unit. During
testing, a flashing red light indicates a satisfactory condition, and a steady red light
indicates a possible blade crack, requiring a more detailed blade inspection.
Figure 22 BIS
Another type of metal blade construction is shown in the figure. This blade is
constructed of one spar that serves as the structural support and the leading edge of the
blade. Bonded to this main spar are sections of airfoil referred to as pockets. The butt
section of the blade is quite unique because a steel cuff section is bolted to the spar. This
type of blade also makes use of a blade crack indicator system. This system is referred to
as BIM, or Blade Inspection Method. The spar is pressurized with an inert gas. An
indicator is placed at the blade root. This indicator is nothing more than a pressure
switch that moves a striped tube up and down with changes in pressure. A normal
indication is shown in Fig. If a crack should occur in the spar, the pressure will be lost
and the colour of the indicator will change.
BIM Indication
This type of blade also makes use of a blade crack indicator system. This system is
referred to as BIM, or Blade Inspection Method. The spar is pressurized with an inert
gas. An indicator is placed at the blade root. This indicator is nothing more than a
pressure switch that moves a striped tube up and down with changes in pressure. A
normal indication is shown in Fig. 5-38. If a crack should occur in the spar, the pressure
will be lost and the colour of the indicator will change.
Figure 24 BIM
Fibreglass Spar
A typical fiberglass spar blade is used on Bell 412 helicopter. Each main rotor blade
consists of a fiberglass main spar assembly, a Nomex honeycomb core, fiberglass skins,
and a stainless steel tip cap. The main structural member is the spar assembly. This
assembly is made up of two forward (upper and lower) and two aft spar caps and a nose
block. The spar caps are fabricated from spanwise-oriented unidirectional glass fibers
that wrap around the two bolt holes in the blade root and extend to the steel tip cap. An
abrasion strip, made of stainless steel outboard and titanium inboard, protects the
leading edge.
Each blade has a stainless steel leading edge abrasion strip with a nickel cap to protect
against erosion. The nickel cap, can be removed and replaced without removing the
stainless steel strip. Trim tabs are bonded to a sacrificial fiberglass strip so the tab can
be replaced in the field without damaging the blade skin. Provisions are made for track
and balance adjustments after repairs with access to the balance weight through the
blade tip. Balance weight pocket covers on the upper surface have been eliminated to
reduce corrosion and to enhance aerodynamics.
Metal Spar
Sikorsky S-76 main rotor blade is used as an example to explain metal spar composite
blade. The primary structural member of the main rotor blade in S-76 is the welded
titanium spar which provides the majority of the flatwise, torsional, and centrifugal load-
carrying ability. The spar is made from titanium sheet that is cold-formed into a cylinder,
then seam-welded into a tube. Holes with bushings for four through-bolts are at the root
end for attachment of the blade to the spindle. A cover skin is made from cross-plied
woven fiberglass with graphite trailing edge reinforcing strips. Wire mesh impregnated in
the cover skin provides lightning protection. The leading edge of the cover is protected
from erosion by a titanium nosepiece.
The outer portion of the blade radius is protected by a nickel erosion strip over the
titatium leading edge. A Nomex honeycomb core supports the cover skin aft of the spar.
Reinforced damper attachment lugs are an integral part of the root end trailing edge of
the blade. Balance weights made from Fiberglass and lead rod are bonded to the spar
leading edge, for chordwise balance. At the spar tip end, spanwise and chordwise shim
weights are attached to the spar, inside the tip cap for final blade balance during
manufacture of the blade. A field replaceable Kevlar tip cap with a swept leading and
trailing edge is attached to the blade with flush-head screws. This increases blade
performance and reduces tip noise in forward flight.