1.

Infra

infra adjective
below; later in the text. The term infra is legal shorthand to indicate that a particular reference will be
further discussed or cited later in a document.
See infra note 117 and accompanying text.

2. Supra

The abbreviations inf. and sup. stand for the words infra and supra, which translate as below and
above respectively. They are used to indicate that information will be more fully explained or cited
elsewhere. If the information has already appeared in an earlier note, sup. is used. If the information
will appear in a later note (where a more complete citation or explanation is perhaps more
appropriate), inf. is used. In general, you can replace both of these abbreviations with see below
and see above without any change in meaning.

supra adverb
as referred to previously
The termination of this Agreement pursuant to Subparagraph a., supra, shall operate to release both parties
from any claims for lost business opportunities.

3. Ibid

Ibid. (abbreviation for the Latin Ibidem, meaning "The same").

Refers to the same author and source (e.g., book, journal) in the immediately preceding reference.

Where Ibid. appears,

the source is listed in the immediately preceding reference.
For reference # 5 in the list above, the source is listed in # 4 (Poirer, "Learning Physics").

ibid. Latin phrase

meaning in the same text or source is used to refer to a source that has been mentioned in a previous reference
in the same text
 The confidential, redacted portions have been filed separately with the SEC. (9) Ibid. (10) Ibid. (11) Ibid. (12)
Ibid. (13) Ibid. (14) Ibid. (15) Ibid.

4. Id
The abbreviation ibid. stands for the Latin word ibidem, which means in the same place. It is used
in endnotes or footnotes when you cite the same source and page number(s) two or more times. If
you cite the same source but a different page number, you can use ibid. followed by a comma and
the page number(s). Also, note that ibid. is capitalized when it begins a note. For example:

1. Barsby, 99-101.
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid., 97.

Although it is becoming less common, you may encounter the abbreviation id. used in a way similar
to ibid. The abbreviation id. stands for idem, which means the same person. It is used in place of
ibid. when the same author is cited but not the same page number. In such instances, ibid. is only
used to repeat the preceding citation exactly. For example:

1. Barsby, 99-101.
2. Ibid.
3. Id., 97.

idem (id.) adverb

used when quoting from a text to indicate an author, word, or a source that has just been mentioned.
The term is similar in use to ibid., and is often used in legal texts.
Id. at 225.
5. Op cit
op. cit. (abbreviation for the Latin opus citatum, meaning "the work cited").
Refers to the reference listed earlier by the same author.
Where op. cit. appears,
the source is listed in the previous reference by the same author.
For reference # 8 in the list above, the author is Eliot and reference # 6 is by Eliot so the source is
"Astrophysics".

op. cit. abbreviation

 a Latin phrase meaning in the work already cited, used when referring to a text, especially a legal, academic, or
otherwise authoritative text
33 The Dictionary of Real Estate Appraisal, 2nd ed., op. cit., p. 265.

6. Loc cit
The abbreviations loc. cit. and op. cit. are old forms used in bibliographic citations similar to ibid. and
id. above. The abbreviation loc. cit. stands for loco citato, which translates as in the place cited,
whereas op. cit. stands for opere citato which translates as in the work cited. Generally, loc. cit. is
used to refer to the same work and page number(s) as the previous citation, while op. cit. refers only
to the same work and may or may not be followed by page numbers. In all modern style manuals,
ibid. is preferred to loc. cit. and op. cit.

1. e.g.

E.G. AND I.E.

These are the two most often misused and confused Latin abbreviations-and for good reason. In any
given sentence, its often not immediately clear how i.e. and e.g. are different. Both appear inside
parentheses and offer extra information that helps explain whats come before. There is, however, a
very important and useful difference between these two abbreviations.

The abbreviation e.g. stands for exempli gratia, which translates literally as for the sake of an
example-but you can really just cut out the stuff in the middle and read it as for example. It is used
to give an example or set of examples to help clarify the preceding idea. In general, if you use e.g.,
you should provide one or two short examples. More can be used, but only if they are simple and
can be expressed in a single word or short phrase. It isnt necessary to use etc. at the end of a list
following e.g.; its understood that there are more examples than those that youve given. You should
not list all of the possible examples.

The abbreviation i.e. stands for id est, which translates literally as that is. Sometimes it might be
more useful, however, to translate it as what that means is or that is to say. This abbreviation is
used to clarify the preceding idea by restating it more simply or in different terms. Strictly speaking,
what follows i.e. in parentheses should be equivalent to what comes before-you should be able to
switch them without changing the meaning of the sentence. If this involves making a list, you should
include all of the elements that make up that list. It might be useful to think of i.e. as representing an
equal sign (=). This will help you remember that i.e. stands for a strict equivalence.

Lets look at some examples of how to use i.e. and e.g. correctly:

YES

The rocky planets (e.g., Mercury) are closest to our sun.

 NO

The rocky planets (i.e., Mercury) are closest to our sun.

Mercury is not equivalent to the rocky planets-theyre not the same thing. Mercury is just one
example of a rocky planet, therefore e.g. is appropriate.

YES

The rocky planets (i.e., Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars) are closest to our sun.

YES

Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars (i.e., the rocky planets) are closest to our sun.

NO

The rocky planets (e.g., Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars) are closest to our sun.

Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are all of the examples of rocky planets in our solar system (they
are a full and complete list, not just a few examples), so e.g. should not be used. Instead, use i.e. to
show that the list of four planets is equivalent to the rocky planets-they refer to the same thing.
Notice that switching the rocky planets and Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars doesnt change the
meaning of the sentence.

In some instances, i.e. and e.g. may both be acceptable, but using one or the other will drastically
change the meaning of the sentence. For example:

Farmer Brown sells his produce (e.g., apples, oranges, carrots) at the market.
Farmer Brown sells his produce (i.e., apples, oranges, carrots) at the market.

In the first sentence, the use of e.g. tells the reader that Farmer Brown sells many different types of
produce, including apples oranges and carrots. The information contained in the parentheses
provides a few examples to help clarify the meaning of produce. In the second sentence, the use of
i.e. tells the reader that Farmer Brown sells only apples, oranges and carrots -nothing else. The
information contained in the parentheses tells the reader that, as far as Farmer Brown is concerned,
apples, oranges and carrots are what constitute produce-they are equivalent.

2. accord
3. see
4. see also
5. cf

CF.
The abbreviation cf. stands for the Latin word confer which means compare. It is primarily used in
endnotes or footnotes to point the reader to works that offer an argument which contradicts or is
otherwise different from the authors argument. Therefore, it might be more useful to read cf. as but
compare this to. It is generally preceded by citations of works that agree with the authors argument
and then followed by one or two examples of works that disagree with or somehow differ from the
argument. Although it is not strictly necessary to explain how these works are different, you might
find it useful to include a short phrase for the benefit of your reader.

Example:
2. Jones 1992, Smith 2003; cf. on methodology Harris 2005.

6. contra
7. but see
8. but cf
 What Are Introductory Signals?
Introductory signals appear at the beginning of citation sentences. Signals are important
because they indicate how a cited authority relates to the text. This relation can be
supportive, comparative, or contradictory. Signals can also inform a reader what
inferential degree exists between the text and cited source.
A reader can thus determine if a cited source supports or contradicts an author's
assertion and whether it is necessary to take an inferential step between a cited source
and the text simply by looking at the signal used.
Law Review Typeface: Italics

Supporting Signals
Bluebook Rule (19th): 1.2(a)
Signals indicating that the cited work is supportive of the author's text are the most
commonly used type of signal. There are six supporting signals:

1. [no signal]
2. E.g.,
3. Accord
4. See
5. See also
6. Cf.

The most frequently used are probably [no signal], E.g., See, and See Also.
[no signal]
No signal is necessary if a cited authority:

1. directly states the proposition;

2. identifies the source of a direct quotation; or
3. identifies the source referred to in the text.

E.g.,
"E.g.," is the abbreviation for the Latin phrase "exempli gratia," and can loosely be
translated to mean "good example." "E.g." is used when the cited authority states the
proposition and when citation to other authorities also stating the proposition would be
unhelpful or unnecessary.
NOTE: "E.g." can be combined with other signals, such as "See." When communed with
another signal, the other signal should be given first, separated by an italicized comma
but ending with a non-italicized comma:
See, e.g.,
See
See is probably the most frequently used (and abused) introductory signal. It is used
when the cited authority clearly supports a proposition but there is an inferential step
between the proposition as stated and the cited authority. Although not a catch-all
signal, it is often inappropriately used as such.
See also
"See also" is used to cite to additional materials and authority that supports a
proposition but when other authority has already been cited to using either See or [no
signal]. An explanatory parenthetical stating the relevance of the additional material is
strongly encouraged.
NOTE: It is not appropriate to use See Also for general background-reading materials;
in that case, the signal "See generally" should be used (rule 1.2(d)). Again an
explanatory parenthetical explaining the relevance of the material is strongly
encouraged.

Comparison Signals
Bluebook Rule (19th): 1.2(a),(b)
Two introductory signals may be used to suggest a useful comparison: "Cf."
and "Compare."
"Cf." is the abbreviation of the Latin word "confer," literally meaning "compare," but
proper use of the two signals does vary in several key ways.
First, "Cf." is classified as as signal indicating support (in rule 1.2(a)) rather than one of
comparison. This distinction is important when determining the order of signals and
authorities, explained below.
Second, "Compare" "must be used in conjunction with 'with'" and used to offer a
comparison between two or more cited authorities while "Cf." may be used to compare
a single authority with the textual proposition.
Stated another way, "Cf." is used when a comparison between the textual assertion and
the cited source would support the proposition by analogy, while "Compare" is used
when the comparison between two or more sources will tend to support or illustrate the
proposition.
When using "Compare" as a signal, "Compare," "with," and the conjunction "and" should
all be italicised and both "with" and "and" should be preceded by a comma:
Compare A, with B, and C.
Once again, the use of an explanatory parenthetical with either "Cf." and "Compare" is
strongly encouraged.

Contradictory Signals
Bluebook Rule (19th): 1.2(c)
There are three signals for conveying negative or contradictory support:
 1. Contra;
2. But see; and
3. But cf.

"Contra" is used whenever the cited authority directly states a contradictory proposition
and so is essentially the contradictory form of [no signal].
"But see" is used when the citation clearly supports a proposition contradictory to the
textual assertion, and authority signaled by "But cf." is analogously contradictory to the
textual assertion.
NOTE: There is a sort of double-negative rule for contradictory signals - if another
contradictory signal has already been used, omit the "But" from either But See or But cf.

Order of Signals
Bluebook Rule (19th): 1.3

Law Review Typeface: Italics

Bluebook rule 1.3 proscribes the appropriate order when multiple signals are
used. Essentially the order of signals is supporting, comparative, contradictory, and
general background. Within each general class of signal, signals are arranged in order
of greatest to least direct relation to the assertion - so a signal indicating a direct quote
would come before one indicating an inferential step.
NOTE: With the exception of "See generally," which would always be last if used, the
order of signals as laid out in this guide is the appropriate order under rule 1.3.

About short form citations

In certain circumstances, it is permissible to use a shortened citation to a previously
cited authority. These citations are referred to as "short form" citations.
This page will discuss some general rules to follow for short form citations but note that
different types of documents will have specific rules governing appropriate short form
citations. In this guide, these special short form rules are covered with other rules
relevant to each type of document.
Although not technically a short form, it is confusing that the Bluebook doesn't treat infra
in the same section.

Specific short form rules

Below is a table listing authority types covered in this guide, cross-referenced with the
corresponding bluebook rule.

Authority Type Bluebook Rule Guide Link

Administrative Material rule 14.4 Link
Books, Reports, & Treatises rule 15.10 Link
Court Cases rule 10.9 Link
Constitutions rule 11 Link
Digital Materials rule 18 Link
Legislation rule 13.8 Link
Periodicals rule 16.9 Link
Statutes rule 12.10 Link
Id.
Bluebook Rule (19th): 4.1
Law Review Typeface: Italics (including the period)

"Id." is an all purpose short form citation that may be used for any cited
authority except internal cross references.
"Id." always refers to the immediately proceeding cited authority, either in the same
footnote or the previous footnote so long as it is the only authority cited in the
proceeding footnote.
Sweatt v. Painter, 339 U.S. 629, 632 (1950).
Id.
NOTE: Sources cited in explanatory parentheticals or phrases or as part of case prior or
subsequent history are not counted as intervening authorities preventing the use of "Id."
Any change in what is being cited, such as page numbers, needs to be indicated after
"Id."
Id. at 45.

Supra
Bluebook Rule (19th): 4.2(a)
Law Review Typeface: Italics
"Supra" may be used to refer to certain types of previously cited materials as well as
internal cross references. Rule 4.2 contains a complete, detailed list of which materials
may and may not be cited to using "Supra." Note, however, that in general most forms
of primary legal authority (cases, statutes, etc.) should not be referred to using "Supra."
NOTE: This is also true for materials such as restatements, legislative documents (other
than hearings), and model codes which typically have similar citation formats.
"Supra" citations are most commonly used for secondary authority, such as books and
periodicals. Therefore, the most common format for a Supra short form citation consists
of the author's last name followed "supra," offset by a comma. Immediately after
"supra" is the word "note" in ordinary type, followed by the number of the footnote in
which the authority was first cited in full:
15. PHILIP D. O'NEILL, JR., VERIFICATION IN AN AGE OF INSECURITY: THE FUTURE OF ARMS
CONTROL COMPLIANCE 45 (2010).
25. O'NEIL, supra note 15.
A pincite offset by a comma should indicate changes in what portion of the authority is
being cited. An "at" is typically necessary to avoid confusion:
28. O'NEIL, supra note 15, at 52.
If a work has an institutional author, use the complete institutional name; works without
an author may be cited to by the title, while unsigned student authored law journal
works should be cited by the appropriate designation such as "Note" or "Comment."
NOTE: The typeface convention from the original source should be used for the author
name or title in a "supra" citation.

Hereinafter
Bluebook Rule (19th): 4.2(b)
Law Review Typeface: Varies by source
The term 'hereinafter" is used when using another short form would be impractical,
cumbersome, or confusing.
Two typical circumstances where a "hereinafter" is appropriate are when an author
name or title is long and unwieldy for a normal "supra" short form citation and to
distinguish between two or more authorities cited originally in the same footnote which
could easily confused with each other.
To use "hereinafter," at the end of the first full citation and enclosed in square brackets,
but before any explanatory parenthetical, and write "hereinafter" followed by a
shortened form of the authority, typically a paraphrase of the title or designation of the
type of document as long as unambiguous.
NOTE: The shortened hereinafter form should be in the same typeface as the original.
Subsequent citations to the authority will function as supra citations but will use the
hereinafter designation in place of the full author or title.

Internal cross references

Bluebook Rule (19th): 3.5
Law Review Typeface: Italics
Internal cross-references are used to cite to text and notes within the same
work. Internal cross references may point the reader to specific pages, designate parts
and sections, paragraphs, or footnotes, as well as figures, charts, and graphs. The
rules for appropriate citation to this material is discussed in greater detail in elsewhere
in this guide at "Pages, paragraphs, and pincites".
Internal cross-references begin with the signal "See."
"Supra" is used to cite to prior material while "infra" is used to cite to subsequent
material. Exact wording for internal cross references, however, is flexible. Both terms
must be written in italics but they may be used either as an introductory signal combined
with "See" or in a textual phrase directing the reader to specific material.
Some examples of permissible uses of internal cross-reference citations follow:
See supra notes 35-38 and accompanying text.
See cases cited infra note 121.
See discussion supra Part III.A.
See supra pp. 94-97.
See infra Figure 5.