GRINDING

Definition

Grinding is the process of removing metal by means of an abrasive wheel. The results which may

easily be obtained, with the proper wheel in a well-made machine intelligently operated, are

extreme accuracy, fine finish, and rapid production. The work may be of any size or shape within

the capacity of the machine, and of practically any of the material, hard or soft, used in machine

construction. The grinding machine is the standard machine tool for the accurate sizing of hardened

pieces. The grinding machines are used primarily for finishing surfaces that have previously been

roughed out in another machine. Thus its value lies not in the amount of metal removed in a given

time but in the accuracy of its product and in the ease by which this accuracy may be obtained. A

surface properly ground is beautifully smooth and free from feed marks, scratches, or chatter

marks. Before explaining the different operations performed on the grinding machines certain

definitions are given, and factors of wheel speeds, work speeds, and arc of contact as they enter in

to the successful practice of grinding are described. The selection, mounting and truing of the

wheel, and the setup of the job are discussed in detail.

 Types of Grinder

1. Bench Grinder

Bench grinders are generally an electric motor mount on a fit base and have rotor shaft

extensive as of all side. Grinding wheel is mounting on both end of shaft. One wheel is

generally a coarse free cutting wheel for roughing while other is a fine-grained wheel use to

provide a smooth flat surface to the tool bit or drill being ground.

2. Pedestal Grinder

Pedestal grinder is approximately like to bench grinder. Pedestal grinder or floor type grinder

is generally had a grinding wheel and both end or a shaft which extend during an electric

motor. Grinder is use for sharpen tools with for other all-purpose grinding.
 Classification of Grinders

There is an extensive variety of grinding machines use in mechanical and other engineering

work-shops. The main classifications of grinders are as below:

1. Tool and cutter grinder

2. Surface grinder

3. Universal cylindrical grinder

4. Thread grinder

5. Plain cylindrical grinder

1. Tool and cutter grinder.

Tool grinder is also known as Cutter grinder, are used lathe shaped with planer tool

bit is sharpening on stand tool grinder by hand. Used for sharpen tools and cutters by

exact angles with tip clearances tool and cutter grinder is use. Tables have tool cutter

head on which the cutter is mounting for sharpen. The wheel head has dual wheel

rising of requisite shape and diameter. Dry and wet grind is feasible. Generally high

speed steel cutters are sharpening dry.

2. Surface grinder

Surface grinders are uses while cylindrical and that surfaces need extra face finish

with exactness the grinding process is perform. While flat surfaces are to be over

surface grinder is use. Smooth rectangular table has longitudinal movement on which

work piece is clamp below grinding wheel. Metallic work piece are straight held on

magnetic bench.
 3. Universal cylindrical grinder.

Universal cylindrical grinders are used for grinding outside with inside cylindrical

face of work piece. Other holding process is like to that of plain cylindrical grinder.

Wheel head has dual ends for rising wheel for outside grinding at one end with

internal grinding wheel and other end.

4. Thread grinder.

Thread grinder is a particular machine use to grind the threads on machine parts

requires extra precision and smoothness. Threads of tap, Die, Chaser and threads on

spindle end of a micrometer are ground on machine.

5. Plain cylindrical grinder.

Plain cylindrical grinders are used for outside grinding of plain cylindrical work

pieces precisely. Work-piece is held among grindings in work head and turn at

preferred speed. Grinding wheel of appropriate abrasive grains is mounting on spindle

end of wheel head. Wheel is revolving at the preferred speed with fed besides

revolving work piece.

Speed of Grinder

Greatest working speed depend on job material kind of abrasive and type of bond use in wheel

manufacturing the speed ranges as of 4500 SFPM to 16000 SFPM.

Grinding Wheels Material

Grinding wheels are containing out of abrasive with bond in a proper shape and size. Abrasive is

some material which has capability to wear away other material. Abrasives can be alienated into

two categories.
 a) Natural abrasives

Natural abrasives for example sandstone garnet flint emery quartz with corundum are use

former to the early part of 20th century.

b) Artificial/Manufactured Abrasives.

Artificial Abrasive is also known as Manufactured Abrasive, use expansively as their grain

size, shape and cleanliness can be strictly controlled. This equality of grain size and shape

which make certain that each ruin does its share of work is not feasible by natural abrasive.

There is numerous type of manufactured abrasives.

1. Aluminum oxide

2. Silicon carbide

3. Boron carbide

4. Cubic boron nitride

5. Manufactured diamond

Grinding Wheels Care

The following are suggestions originally made by well-known grinding wheel and machine

manufacturers. If generally adopted, these, procedures should do much to eliminate grinding

accidents.

1. Handle all wheels with the greatest care in storing and delivery. Wheels are frequently

cracked by rough usage long before they are ever placed on a grinding machine.

2. Wheels should be placed in a dry lace.

3. Before a wheel is placed on the spindle, it should be sounded for cracks. Whew tapped by

a non-metallic object, a solid wheel gives off a dull ringing sound. A cracked wheel gives

off a dull thudding sound.

4. Make sure that the grinding wheel is equipped with blotting-paper gaskets on each side.

5. Never crowd a wheel on the spindle; the whole in the wheel should be 0.076 to 0.127 mm

(0.003 to 0.005 in.) oversize to permit it to slide easily on the spindle and squarely against

the flange.

6. Never mount a wheel without flanges, which should be properly relieved and of suitable

proportions.

7. Dont screw the wheel nut too tight. The nut should be set up only tight enough so that the

flanges hold the wheel firmly.

8. Keep the wheel clean and true by frequent dressing, but dont remove any more stock than

is necessary to put the wheel in proper condition.

9. If the wheel vibrates excessively after it has been properly trued, that is something wrong.

Stop the machine and call your instructor or in charge.

10. Large wheels, that is, wheel aver 304.8 mm (12 in.), require special balancing. Dont

attempt to balance them yourself and do not use the wheel until it is balanced.

Grinding Wheels Operating Faults

There are two common faults occur with grinding wheels.

1. Loading

Loading is when the inter-spaces between the abrasive grains become clogged with

particles of the material being ground, with the effect that eventually the cutting edges do

not project sufficiently to do their work. In the grinding of so materials such as brass,

bronze, aluminum, and even soft steel, there is a tendency for the chips to wedge in between
 the cutting point .of the wheel in the same way that a file is loaded. This is especially true

when the wheel has too dense a structure or is too hard, or when the work is running too

slowly. Loading may also be caused by forcing the cut too fast or too deep to allow the

chips to be carried away or by using the wheel to grind materials softer than for which it is

suited. Fine grained and soft bonded wheels do not load as readily as their opposites and

an increased in speed may help to affect a cure. The remedy is to do one or more of the

following: Select a softer wheel or one with more open structure; increase the work speed;

decrease the amount of chip and perhaps the amount of table feed if the width of the cut

seems to cause the work diving belt slip.

2. Glazing

Glazing occurs when grains which have lost their sharpness are still retained the bond. It

is caused either by using a wheel which is too hard, grain too fine, wheel speed too fast,

work speed too slow or wheel loaded with chips. It may be reduced by increasing the work

speed and reducing the cut to promote more rapid disintegration of the wheel. When a

wheel becomes loaded or glazed, it should be trimmed or dressed immediately, and if the

fault persists speed and wheel should be checked up with a view to effecting a cure. A fault

the opposite of loading and glazing is that of excessive wheel wastage. This may be reduced

by reducing the work speed and increasing the cut.

Safety Rules for Cutter Grinding

1. Always wear goggles on all cutter-grinder work.

2. Under no circumstances is the machine to be started unless the grinding, wheel is

adequately guarded.

3. In mounting wheels on cutter grinders, use standard wheel bushings and safety washers on

large wheels.

4. When hand-dressing wheels, be careful to allow ample hand clearance between the wheel

and the table or other parts of the machine.

5. Hand-dressing operations should be performed with a light pressure, especially when

dressing thin wheels. A slip of the hand or a broken wheel may cause severe lacerations.

6. Any changes of guards, dogs, centers, setup, tooth rests, or other parts of a machine are not

to be made while the machine is running.

7. When grinding spot-facers, counter-bores, and so forth in a draw collets, use a special,

automatic safety guard, or shut the machine down to remove the work.

8. In backing off drills, spiral reamers, and so forth, see that the tooth rest is properly adjusted

in relation to the wheel and work, to prevent slippage and consequent spinning of stock.

9. Care should be taken in handling sharp tools such as reamers, drills, cutters, and counter-

bores.

10. Towel or cloth or waste cotton is not to be used to hold small tools such as spot-facers,

counter-bores, and similar tools, which become warm while grinding.

11. Exhaust hoods are supplied as a safe-guard for the health of grinder operators See that they

are properly adjusted at all times and that they are not abused.
 Safety on the Grinder

In the operating of any type of grinder, the personal safety precautions listed here should be

observed.

1. Wear safety goggles when performing any operation on any grinding machine.

2. See that all safety guards and hoods are in place.

3. In off-hand grinding keep the work rest adjusted close to the wheel. A maximum

distance of 1/16 in. is recommended to prevent the work from being caught between the

wheel and the rest.

4. Securely clamp the work rest after each adjustment.

5. Avoid personal contact with the moving wheel or work.

6. Keep shirt sleeves rolled up.

7. Do not wear a tie.

8. Keep your shirt inside your trousers. Any loose portion of your shirt may get caught

between the fast-moving wheel and the work and draw you in to the machine.

9. Wear a cap Long, curly hair is dangerous.

10. No "fooling around" or "horseplay" is in order. Remember that there are other

people working near and around you. Their safety must be considered.

11. After starting the machine, always step back from the rotating wheel.

12. Remove your watch before using a magnetic chuck' to .prevent it from becoming

magnetized.
The following safety measures should be practiced as for as the Grinding Machine and wheels

are concerned.

1. Make sure that the work is securely and properly clamped.

2. Make sure that the wheel is properly mounted on the machine.

3. Make sure that the wheel is "sound'" that is, that the wheel has no fractures or

'breaks in it before mounting.

4. Use the proper wheel specified for the job.

5. Be sure that you know the safe operating speed of the wheel you are using. Always

ask your foreman or instructor if you are not sure about the speed.

6. Do not feed the wheel too fast otherwise, the work-piece may be forced from

between centers.

7. When shoulder grinding, do not permit the side of the wheel to press too hard

against the work. The work may be forced from between centers or the wheel may break

from excessive side pressure.

8. Stop all motors before making adjustments to the machine.

9. When dressing the wheel, make sure the diamond' is securely locked in position.

10. Never hand gauge or measure the work while the machine is running.

11. When mounted or removing work, back the wheel far enough away to provide

adequate clearance for your hand.

12. When leaving the grinder for an indefinite period, stop the machine.
 Factors in Successful Grinding

The beginner in grinding is quite likely to think that too much emphasis is put on the wheel.

It may see that a great deal of time is taken to explain about the making of wheel, the

selection of the wheel for the job, the care of the wheel, and the action of the wheel. In

grinding, think of wheel and the grain, grade, and structure, is very important. In any

grinding operation, the rapidly revolving abrasive wheel is the cutting tool. The surface

speed of the wheel, in feet or meter per minute, is called the wheel speed. In external

cylindrical or taper grinding, and in a large number of internal jobs, the work revolves, and

in most surface grinding the, work passes under the wheel. The speed, in feet or meter per

minute, that the surface of the work is being ground, is called the work speed. It should be

made clear that the best wheel acts best only when the total of wheel, wheel speed, work

speed, and cut (feed) is right. In production grinding, the wheel of known classification,

the wheel speed, and the work speed are decided upon" the setup is made, and production

goes forward. In general machine work and tool making, the man on the machine must

know how to select the wheel, mount it on the machine spindle, dress it properly, set up

the job, and grind the given surface. In addition to its shape arid size, the factors to be

considered in the selection of a grinding wheel and the setup for a given job are:

1. The kind of wheel (the bond) to use.

1. The kind of material to be ground; whether to use a wheel made of aluminum oxide or

silicon carbide.

2. The arc or area of contact, for example whether external, internal, or surface grinding.

3. Material being removed by grinding.

4. The finish desired. On these factors depend:

(i) The grain

(ii) The grade

(iii) And structure of the wheel.

5. Inspection of wheel crack and balance.

6. Getting the wheel ready, setting up, and starting to grind, the considerations are:

(i) Mounting the wheel.

(ii) Dressing the wheel.

(iii) Setting the wheel speed.

(iv) Setting the work speed.

(v) Setting the amount of cross-feed.

(vi) Setting the table traverse (long feed).

(vii) Setting the table-reverse dogs.

(viii) Roughing or finishing cut.

(ix) Setting the depth of cut.

(x) Care of wheel loading and glazing.

These factors may appear involved but they are not difficult to understand if one enters,

step by step.
 Surface Grinding Operation

Surface grinding produces an accurate flat surface on a pan. This type of grinding is accomplished

by fastening the work to the table of the machine and causing it to fed under the revolving grinding

wheel. The following procedure should be followed to produce a surface that is as free as possible

from waviness.

1. Select and mount a suitable grinding wheel.

2. True and dress the wheel with a diamond dressing tool.

3. Mount the work holding device. If a magnetic chuck is to be mounted to the

machine, it should first be ground-in to assure a surface true and parallel with table travel.

This should be done each time the chuck is remounted on the machine.

4. Check the coolant system to see that it is operating satisfactorily.

5. Locate the work and energize the chuck. If the work is already ground on one

surface, protect it and the chuck surface by fitting a piece of oiled paper between them

before energizing the chuck.

6. Adjust the table stops.

7. Check the holding power of the chuck by trying to move the work.

8. Turn on the coolant, spindle and hydraulic system pump motors.

9. Down feed the wheel until it just touches the highest point on the work surface the

grinding wheel can be set to the approximate position by down feeding it until it just "grab"

a piece of paper placed between the wheel and the work-piece surface. This should be done

before performing operation No, 8.

10. Set the cross-feed to move the table in or out about 0.020 in at the end of each cycle.
11. With the wheel clear of the work, down-feed about 0.001 to 0.003 in for average

roughing cuts per pass of the work.

12. Use light cuts of 0.0001 in for finishing the surface. It is wise to redress the, wheel

for finishing cuts.

13. When the work surface has been ground to the desired dimension and finish, use

the following procedure to-turn off the machine:

(a) Move the grinding Wheel clear of the work.

(b) Turn off table travel.

(c) Turn off coolant.

(d) Let the grinding wheel run for a bit after the coolant has been turned off to permit the

wheel to free itself of all traces of the fluid, otherwise, the wheel will absorb some of the

fluid and become out of balance.

(e) Use a sequence to remove excess coolant from the work. De-energize the chuck and

remove the work. Be careful of the sharp edges on the work.

(f) Clean the machine. Put a light coating of oil on the surface of the chuck to prevent

possible rusting.

(g) Replace all tools.

 Cylindrical, Grinding, Operation

Cylindrical grinding produces a cylindrical or conical shape on a work-piece. The work-

piece is mounted between centers or in a chuck, and the face of the grinding wheel passes

over the external surface of the revolving piece. Straight, taper, and form grinding is

possible using this technique. Cylindrical grinding is done on either plain or universal

cylindrical grinding machines.

The modem cylindrical grinder is economical practicable to machine hardened steel parts

to tolerances of 1/1 00000 (0.00001) in. or 0.000204 mm with extremely fine surface

finishes. Two variations of cylindrical grinding are:

1. Traverse Grinding

A fixed, amount of material is removed from the rotating work as it moves past the

revolving grinding wheel. Work wider than the face of the grinding wheel can be ground

2. Plunge Grinding

In this technique the work still rotates. However, it is not necessary to give it a reciprocating

motion because the surface being ground is no wider than the face of a grinding wheel.

Grinding wheel in feed is continuous rather than incremental minute changes made of

regular intervals.
 Internal Grinding Operation

Internal grinding produces a smooth and accurate surface in a cylindrical hole. The surface may

be straight, tapered, or irregular. Internal grinding is a form of cylindrical grinding. This type of

grinding may be done on universal grinding machines, internal grinding machines, and with tool

post grinders mounted on lathe.

In this grinding operation, the work is mounted in a chuck and rotates. During the grinding

operation the revolving grinding wheel moves in and out of the hole. A special grinding machine

which finishes holes in pieces too large to be rotated by the conventional machine. The hole,

diameter is controlled by regulating the diameter of the circle in which the grinding head moves.

Procedure for a Straight Cylinder

1. Obtain the work-piece and a suitable chuck.

2. Mount the chuck on the headstock spindle.

3. Determine the desirable work-piece rpm and make the necessary adjustments.

4. Determine the desirable wheel rpm and make the necessary adjustments.

5. Determine the desirable rate of table travel, if any. Make adjustments accordingly.

6. Position the internal grinding spindle, and clamp or bolt securely.

7. Mount the flat belt from the motor to the internal grinding spindle drive pulley.

8. On machines equipped with a motor selector knob, turn the knob to the internal

position, so that the internal grinding motor will be operative.

9. On machines equipped with an internal-external grinding selector knob, turn the

knob to the internal grinding position.

 Centerless Grinding Operation

Center-less grinding is a form of cylindrical grinding. It produces accurately: ground parts

without requiring them to be mounted between centers. Parts are held in position on a

work-rest blade which is located between a grinding wheel and a regulating wheel. The

regulating wheel rotates the work which rests on the work-rest blade. At the same time, the

grinding wheel grinds the surface. Straight or tapered objects may be ground in this

manner.

Lathe centers, piston pins, roller bearings, and similar objects without center, holes are

examples of objects ground by the center-less grinding method.

In Center-less grinding the work passes between the wheels, one a grinding wheel and other

the regulating wheel. The grinding wheel rotates at high speed. Its purpose is to grind

material off the surface of the cylindrically shaped work-piece. The regulating wheel is

opposite the grinding wheel and it rotates at a low speed. The regulating wheel has three

functions: (1) to rotate the work so the grinding wheel can grind over the entire surface, (2)

to support the work against the horizontal thrust of the grinding wheel, and (3) to feed the

work between the grinding and regulating wheels as it rests on the work rest blade.

Through feed is obtained by setting the regulating wheel at a slight angle. The action of

grinding wheel exerts a pressure on the work down against the work-rest and regulating

wheel. The regulating wheel, which is actually a rubber bonded abrasive wheel, rotates in

a clockwise direction: the same as the grinding wheel causing the work to revolve in a

counter clockwise direction and feeds the work through the machine. The grinding wheel
operates at about 6000 s.f.p.m. where the regulating wheel can be operated at from 50 to

200 feet per minute or 12 to 300-rpm, To get the best rounding action, the work rest should

be adjusted so that be center of the work is located one half (1/2) the work diameter above

the centerline of the two wheels. Classes or Variations of Center-less Grinding. These

center-less grinding principles lend themselves to almost unlimited applications through

the use of machine setups involving special relationships between the grinding wheel, the

regulating wheel, and the work-rest blade, combined with various types of work guides and

feeding mechanism.

1. Through Feed Grinding this method can be only be used to produce simple cylindrical

shapes. Work, is fed continuously by hand, or from a feed hopper, into the gap between the

grinding wheel and the regulating wheel. The pieces drop off the work support blade when

the grinding operation is completed.

2. In-feed Grinding

Work is fed into the wheel gap until it reaches a stop in this centerless technique. The piece

is ejected at the completion of the grinding operation. Work diameter is controlled by

regulating the width of the gap between regulating wheel and grinding wheel. Work with

a shoulder can be ground using this method.

3. End Feed Grinding

This form of center-less grinding is ideally suited for grinding short taper and spherical

shapes. Both wheels are dressed the required taper or shape and the work is fed in from the

side of the wheel to an end stop. The finished piece is ejected automatically. Center less

grinding is used when large quantities of the same part are required. Production is high
 and costs are relative because there is no need to drills center holes or to mount the work

in a holding device. Almost any material can be ground using this technique.

Grinding of Milling Cutters

Tool and cutter grinding involves the grinding of milling cutters, drills, counter-bores, reamers,

and many other kinds of cutting tools. This type of grinding normally is done on a tool and cutter

grinder. The universal cutter grinder can grind cutters of various shapes by using special

attachments and specially formed grinding wheels. Generally the flaring cup, plain or disk, and

dish or saucer wheels are used on cutter grinders. The flaring cup wheel is used to grind clearance

on teeth with wide lands, and to gum out slitting saws and the pacing between the teeth of milling

cutters. The plain or disk wheel is used to grind the clearance on cutters with narrow lands on the

teeth. The dish or saucer wheel is used to grind formed cutters. For general purpose cutter grinding,

select a soft, free- cutting wheel and take very light cuts so that the temper is not drawn from the

cutting edge. Generally speaking, wheels of grain size 30 to 60 and J or K bond are best adapter

for high-speed cutters. The shape of the wheel depends on the shape of the cutter to be sharpened.

Plain milling cutters with straight teeth can be ground on plain or, universal grinder. Milling cutters

are sharpened by using either the outer edge of a disk wheel or the face of a cup wheel. Form

relieved cutters, Such as gear and radius cutters, are sharpened by grinding the face of each tooth

with a saucer-shaped wheel. In actual practice, the grinding wheel revolves downward toward the

cutting edge, so that the action of the wheel forces the tooth against the tooth rest. This results in

a burr or wire edges being left on the tooth, which should be oils-stoned off.
A keener cutting edge, free from burr, is obtained if the cuter to be sharpened is reversed. The

disadvantage is that it is more difficult to maintain the tooth rest in position because the rotation

of the grinding wheel tends to carry the cutter sound.

 Procedure for Sharpening a Drill by Hand

Sharpening drills by hand on the off-hand grinding machine is a common operation in many

shops. Many hand sharpening techniques have been developed. The following is suggested:

1. Put on goggles. Do this even when the wheel is protected with a shield.

2. Examine the grinding wheel to make sure the face is straight and true. If it is not

dress it with a wheel dresser.

3. If a coolant is used, see that there is sufficient liquid in the reservoir then start the

machine.

4. Examine the angle at which the drill was last ground. Check with a drill point gauge.

5. Assuming the angle is correct, hold the drill shank with the right hand and the rest

of the drill with the left hand.

6. Place the fingers of the left hand that are supporting the drill on the grinder tool

rest. The tool rest should be slightly below center (about 1 in. on a 7. in. wheel)

7. Stand so the centerline of the drill will be at a 59 angle with relation to the center

line of the wheel and lightly touch the drill lip to the wheel in approximately a horizontal

position.

8. Use the left hand as a pivot and slowly lower the shank with the right hand. Increase

pressure as the heel, is reached to insure proper clearance.

9. Repeat the operation on each lip, until the drill is sharpened. Do not quench high

speed steel drills in water to cool. Let them cool in calm air.

10. Check the drill tip frequently with the drill point gauge to assure a correctly

sharpened drill. Secure a drill that is properly sharpened and run through the motions of
 sharpening it. When you have acquired sufficient skill, sharpen a dull drill. To test, drill, a

hole in soft metal and observe the chip formation. When properly sharpened, the chips will

come out of the flutes in curled spirals of equal size and length. The tightness of the chip

spiral is governed by the Rake Angle. The standard drill point has a tendency to stick in

the hole when it is used to drill brass. When brass is to be drill, the, drill should be

sharpened.

Grinding of Drills

A properly sharpened drill is very important. A drill that is not properly ground requires

considerable effort to force into the metal, and it may produce an oversize hole with a rough wall.

An improperly ground drill cuts slowly does poor work becomes overheated and may break. Drills

that mare often used require frequent grinding to keep them in shape.

Drills can be machine or hand ground. Both methods produce satisfactory results. However,

grinding drills by hand requires a great deal of practice.

Whether a drill is ground by hand or machine three things must be considered:

(1) Lip clearance,

(2) Length and angle of the lips

(3) Location of the dead center on the central axis of the drill.

Lip clearance angle is the relief given the cutting edge of the drill so that metal behind them will

not rub against the bottom of hole. The angle and length of the lips or cutting edges must be ground

equal. Then the dead center will automatically be where it belongs on the axis. The drill point

gauge is used to check the angle and length of the lips. Grinding machines made especially for

drill sharpening are produced by many manufacturers. One need only follow the simple directions

provided with these machines to quickly obtain properly sharpened drill points. Drill grinding
attachments for utility grinders, are a low cost alternative, and generally give good drill points.

The V-block holder on the attachment centers the drill and holds it in place. A special lip stop and

micrometer feed insures accurate grinding of both lip.

 Form Grinding operation

Form grinding produces a smooth and accurate surface of a special shape. It is done with a grinding

wheel which is usually is shaped to conform to the contour of the surface it is designed to

produce. An example of form grinding is the grinding of a thread form solid stock. A form or

template is used to guide the cemented demand practice wheel as it dress the wheel which grinds

the required thread shape. The grinding of fillets, round or irregular shapes is an oilier example.

Form grinding may be performed with various types of grinding machines. Including surface

grinders, cylindrical grinders, internal grinders, and special grinding machines.

 External Grinding with Shoulder Work

If the work must be ground to a shoulder, locate the grinding wheel up against the shoulder before

starting to grind and then, by plunge clit grinding, grind the surface to the required diameter. This

method will leave the finished diameter with a fairly sharp and square comer at the shoulder. After

the job has been ground to size at the shoulder, the balance of it may be ground by traversing the

table. The following outline is a typical analysis of the procedures in external grinding with

Shoulder work.

1. Check all diameters for sufficient grind stock.

2. Check work centers to see that they are free from dirt and nicks:

3. Dress grinding wheel for roughing cut.

4. Mount a grinding dog of correct size on the work.

5. Set footstock to function for correct length of work.

6. Mount the 'York in the machine and properly adjust the drive pin to the dog.

7. Feed the grinding wheel to 'diameter 'A' and take a cleanup cut, seeing that the

wheel closely follows the work.

8. Check diameter A for straightness, make a necessary table adjustments, take a

trial cut, and recheck the work for straightness.

9. With the wheel cutting straight, plunge-cut diameter A at the shoulder and rough

grind, leaving 0.003 to 0.005 in for finishing. Repeat this operation on 'A', B, B', and 'C'

in the order stated, then has the job inspected.

10. Dress the grinding wheel for finishing and, with the machine cutting straight,

finish-'grind A, A', B, B', and C in that order.

 11. Have all dimensions on work inspected.

Procedure for Slight Tapers. Taper up to 8, usually are ground by swivelling the worktable

1. Unclamp the swivel table by releasing the bolts at each end

2. Swivel the table to the position required.

3. Fasten it by tightening the clamping bolts at each end.

4. Grinding may proceed in the same manner as for cylindrical grinding.

Procedure for Steep Tapers

Steep tapers may be ground by using several different kinds of setups. One common

method involves swivelling the wheel spindle head on its base to the required angle. This

method works well if the surface to be ground is not wider than the wheel face. A second

common method is to swivel the wheel spindle head 900 and, in addition, swivel the wheel

stand slide base to the angle of the taper. A third method involves mounting the work on

the headstock spindle with a chuck or other suitable device. The headstock then is,

swivelled to the desire angle of taper. The later method also may be employed for face

grinding a work-piece however; the headstock must then be swivelled 90.

Important steps in cylindrical grinding

1. Check the work for size to make sure grinding stock has been allowed, and the same

time note any tapering of the work.

2. Inspect the work centers to see that they are clean and true. Select machine centers

of suitable diameters to fill the work's centers properly. The footstock center should be cut

away enough to permit the grinding wheel to clear the end of the work; a center of this type

is known as a one-half-full, or a three quarter full, centre.

3. Attach the grinding dog on the end of the job, making sure that the dog does not

damage such part of the work as threads and keyways; then lubricate the machine centers.

4. Set the table traverse for the length of the work, allowing for overrun of the end and

the space occupied by the grinder dog.

5. If necessary, mount the steady rests and adjust the shoes to the work.

6. Dress the grinding wheel, passing the diamond across the wheel-face quickly to

make the wheel fast cutting. Set the work speed at the correct surface speed in feet per

minute. Plunge-cut grinding

7. Feed the wheel to the Work by hand and take a light cut, noting, that the wheel

starts to cut approximately at the high point of the work.

8. Check the work for size and taper and-make any table adjustments necessary to

ensure that the work will be straight.

9. Rough grind the job to the rough size. If several pieces are to be done, set the S top

on the ratchet and proceeds as before, roughing the balance of the pieces.

10. After the pieces have been roughed out, place the dog on the rough-ground end of

the work and grind the unfinished end. If this end is shorter than the width of the wheel

face, it may be plunge-cut ground. Make sure that the grinding, wheel is kept sharp and

clean by frequent dressing.

11. To finish-grind, set the machine for fast work speed and slow traverse and dress the

wheel by passing the diamond slowly across the wheel face.

12. Insert the piece to be finish-ground and take alight trial cut. Check it for size and

make any corrections necessary for removal of taper" if steady rests are used, keep them

adjusts to the work.

13. After the first piece has been ground to finished size, reset the stop on the feed

ratchet so that the in feed will produce the required size and. then set the shoes ' on the

steady rests for the finished diameter.

14. Finish-grind the remaining pieces. This outline pertains to grinding a plain cylinder.

If the work to be ground has shoulders; keyways, or slots, some deviations from the outline

must be made, If the work to be ground has a keyway, open at each end, or spines, and

steady rests are to be used, the slot must be filled with key stock or other suitable material

to prevent the steady-rest shoes from catching on the work.

Grinding Problems

There are many problems peculiar to precision' surface grinding. A few of the more

common problems, with suggestions for solution, are as follows:

1. Irregular table movement or non-table movement (Hydraulic type machines) It may be

caused by' clogged hydraulic lines" insufficient hydraulic fluid hydraulic pump not

functioning properly or inadequate table lubrication. A cold hydraulic system may also

cause these symptoms. Let the machine warm up for at least fifteen minutes before use.

Air in the hydraulic lines can cause erratic table movement.

2. Irregular scratches. It is caused by a dirty coolant system, or by particles becoming

loosened in the wheel guard. This could also mean that the grinding wheel is too soft, and

the abrasive particles .are carried to the wheel by the 'coolant system.'

3. Waviness on the work surface. It can be caused by a wheel being out of round and can

be corrected by truing the wheel.

4. Chatter or vibration marks. It may he caused by a glazed or loaded grinding wheel. There

is a slipping action between the wheel and the work surface the wheel cuts until the glazed,

section comes into position and slides, rather than cuts, over the work. Correct by

redressing the grinding wheel. The same effect can also be caused by a grinding machine

that is not mounted solidly or by a wheel that is loose on the spindle. Check for these

conditions and make corrections if necessary.

5. Burning or checking of the work surface. This may be caused by insufficient cooling

reaching the work surface a wheel that is too hard, or a wheel with grain that is too fine.

Make corrections 'as indicated by inspection.

6. Wheel glazing or loading. Often indicates that the-wrong coolant is being used. A dull

diamond on the wheel dresser can also cause this condition.

7. Deep irregular marks. These marks on the work surface may be caused by loose grinding

wheel.

8. Work not flat. It may be caused by insufficient coolant, a nicked or dirty chuck surface

or a wheel that is too hard. Check and make necessary corrections.

9. Work that is not parallel. This is frequently caused by a chuck that has not been "ground

in" the last time it 'was mounted on the machine. A nicked or dirty chuck can also cause

the same condition. Insufficient coolant may allow the work to expand in the center of the

cut permitting more material to be removed in the center than at each end. As the piece

cools, the center is depressed. Correct by directing more fluid to the cutting surface.
 Wheel Truing and Dressing

As soon as a fresh wheel has been fitted it will be necessary to true its face and probably

its sides for a short distance down. Truing and dressing is also necessary from time to time

during the course of working to correct for uneven wear and to open up the face of the

wheel so as to obtain efficient cutting conditions. The two terms have by no means the

same significance as; whilst truing usually implies rendering the wheel face (or sides)

perfectly true, dressing is a process of cleaning and opening up the face although not

necessarily rendering it true.

Truing is carried out with a diamond which has a shearing action on the abrasive grains

and the bond, and so removes dulled or irregular groups of grains. It is able to do this

because it is harder than the abrasive, although not much harder than silicon carbide which

wears it more than alumina. The diamonds most commonly used are South African Brown

Bort Stones. The grey Bort and the Ballas although superior in hardness, are more

expensive and only used on large wheels where their increased hardness gives longer life

against the additional wear. A diamond must be mounted in a holder. This is done by

penning, brazing or securing the diamond by casting a low melting point metal round it,

leaving sufficient of the stone protruding for it to act as a cutting edge.

By Adding lead

1. Remove some of the abrasive material beneath the flanges on the light side of the

wheel. Avoid remover too much material in one spot. It is better to make two or three

small cavities rather than one large one. Cavities should be placed a. short distance apart

so as to distribute the added weight.

2. Fill the holes thus made with melted lead.

3. Remove excess lead so that the flanges will fit properly against the sides of the

wheel.

4. Mount the wheel on a tapered mandrel. Then place the mandrel on a support 20.

Locate the mandrel midway of the Support.

5. Give the wheel a slight push, and allow it to roll back and forth until it come to

rest, which it will do with the heavy portion of the wheel at the bottom.

6. Continue adding or removing weight until the wheel is balanced. This will be

evident when the wheel rolls to a gentle stop with no apparent tendency to roll backward.

Using Balancing Segments

1. Mount the wheel on a tapered mandrel; then place the mandrel on a support such

as illustrated in. Locate the mandrel about midway of the support:

2. Give the wheel a very slight push, and allow it to roll back and forth until it comes

to rest, which it will do with the heavy portion of the wheel at the bottom.

3. Move the balancing segments in the direction of the light side of the wheel then test

as before.

4. Continue adjusting the balancing segments until the wheel is balanced. This will be

evident when the wheel rolls to gentle stop with no apparent tendency to roll backward.

Note: Lack of balance, if serious, will involve the risk of the wheel bursting due to the

stresses set up, but on precision grinding operation small out of balance effects on the

accuracy of the surface and the finish produced.

 Inspection Methods of Grinding Wheel

As soon as grinding wheels are received, they should be closely inspected to make sure

they have not been injured in handling or shipping. Cracks can be detected by tapping the

wheel gently with the handle of a screwdriver while the wheel is suspended. If the wheel

sounds cracked, it should not be used. All wheels do not produce the same tone when rung;

nor does a low tone signify a cracked wheel. Vitrified and silicate wheels emit a clear

metallic ring; organic bonded wheels give a less clear sound, but the sound of a cracked

wheel will be perfectly apparent. Oil or water-soaked wheels do not ring clearly. The

wheels must be dry and free from sawdust when the test is applied. Otherwise the sound

will be deadened.

Speed Testing Wheels

152.4 mm (6 in.) in diameter and larger are given a speed test. Then are run, under a hood,

at a rate of at least one and a half times the recommended speed. This gives a stress of more

than double that which is given in actual practice.

Checking the Grade.

This is commonly done by hand, by slightly twisted a short screw-drive-like tool into the

side of the wheel. The resistance offered, compared with the resistance of the bond in a

wheel of known grade, indicate the grade.

Wheel Balancing

The point which deserves attention on all grinding Operations except the very roughest is

the balance of the wheel, and before mounting, the wheel should, if possible, be tested for
 balance. This can be carried out with the wheel mounted at the center of a perfectly straight

and round spindle, assembly then being, rested on level knife-edge ways or on a lathe bed.

For the test to be really satisfactory the wheel should be mounted on its own spindle and

the test made after truing up the wheel face. Balance maybe achieved by:

1. Adding weight in t form of lead to the light side. This may be accomplished by removing

small amounts of the wheel beneath the flanges and, then filling the holes thus made with

lead.

2. On some wheel units, balanced is achieved by adjustment of segments attached to the

inner sleeve flange.

Selection of Grinding Wheel

The following factors must be taken into consideration in recommending and selecting a wheel

for a particular job.

1. Type of grinding operation: offhand grinding, surface grinding, tool grinding,

cylindrical grinding. Internal grinding, etc.

2. Material to be ground.

3. Type of abrasive and bond to be used.

4. Amount of stock to be removed.

5. Finish required.

6. Area of wheel in contact with work: a wide wheel face may require a soft grade

wheel.
7. Wheel speed, rate of feed or grinding pressure.

8. Work speed: for surface grinding and cylindrical grinding.

9. Whether grinding is wet or dry.

10. Machine condition: capacity and rigidity.

11. Abrasive grain size, grade, and structure.

12. The knowledge and skill of the machine operator.

The nature of the material to be ground affects the selection of the wheel because, generally

speaking, hard, dense materials require wheels possessing a soft bond with silicon carbide

abrasive soft and tough materials require a hard bond with aluminum oxide abrasive. The

amount of material to be removed is important in selecting a grinding wheel because, when

a considerable amount of material is to be removed, the grains of a wide-spaced coarse-

grain wheel will, take a bigger, deeper cut without heating the work, but, with a slight

sacrifice as to surface finish. When the amount of stock to be removed is slight, a wheel of

fine grain and narrow spacing will take a smaller bite and give a good finish.

Bonds

Definition

Bond is the material in a grinding wheel that holds the abrasive grain particles in the form

of a wheel. As the grains get dull, pressure on the wheel causes the bond to break down

and release the dull grains. Thus exposing new sharp grains. The bond holds the individual

grain in much the same manner as a tool holder holds a tool bit. Five principal bond types

used in the manufacture of grinding wheels are:

1. Vitrified Bond

The vitrified bond is used in about 75% of all grinding wheels. The reason for this is the

fact that it forms a very uniform wheel which is not affected by .oils, acids, water, heat or

cold. Wheels of this bond can be made dense or porous, and in considerable less time than

other kinds. These wheels are free from hard and soft spots. The recommended speed for

these wheels is 1677 MPM or 5500 FPM with a maximum speed of 1982 MPM

or6500FPM.

2. Silicate Bond

In this bond, Silicate soda is used. Silicate wheels are milder acting than those made by

other processes, and wear away more rapidly. They are suitable for grinding edged tools

(such as drills, reamers, milling cutters etc.) where the heat must be kept to a minimum.

Silicate wheels can be made in larger diameters than vitrified wheels since they have little

tendency to crack or wrap in the baking process. The hardness of the wheel is controlled

by the amount of silicate of soda used, and the amount of taming given the material in the

mold.

3. Shellac Bond

Shellac-bonded wheels are used for grinding job which required a huffed or high polish or

burnished surface, such as mill rolls, camshafts and cutlery. Other uses are sharpening large

saws, cutting off operations and finishing large rolls. This bond is adapted to thin wheels

as it is very strong and has some elasticity.

4. Rubber Bond

Rubber bonded wheels are used for grinding mill rolls and bearings where a high luster

finish is required. Very thin wheels can be made by this bond because of the elasticity of

the material. Wheels of this bond are used for high speed grinding operations and because

of their high safety factor, can be made very thin and makes them ideal for cutting off

purposes when coolant is used.

5. Resinoid Bond

Resinoid bonded wheels are specially suit d for heavy duty grinding such as snagging,

castings, steel billets, and so forth, and for cutting-off stock. When used for snagging

purposes they may be operated as fast as 2896meter per minute or 9500 surface feet per

minute. When installed in proper equipment they may be run as fast as 4878 MPM or

16,000 SFPM for cutting-off operations. Resinoid bonded wheels can be made in various

structures from hard, dense, coarse wheels to soft, open, fine wheels.

Bonding Methods

Bond is the material which holds the abrasive grains together to form the grinding wheel.

There are five basic types of bond used in grinding wheels: vitrified, silicate, shellac, rubber

and resinoid. Here we explain the different bonding methods/processes which are used to

manufacture the grinding wheels by using the above mentioned bonds.

1. Vitrified Process/Method

In the vitrified process, glass, flint or other ceramic substances are mixed with the abrasive

and subjected to heat, which causes the bond to form a glass like structure between each

abrasive particle. In the paddling process sufficient water is added to form a thick smooth
 mixture. It is then poured into a steel mould and allowed to form thick smooth mixture and

to dry for several days in a room with controlled temperature. The dry press process

requires the addition of little water. In this case the wheels are shaped in metal moulds

under a hydraulic press. The time for burning varies with the wheels size, being anywhere

from 2 tol4 days. The process is similar to burning tiles or pottery.

2. Silicate Process/Method

In this process silicate of soda is mixed with the abrasive grin sand the mixture is tempted

in metal molds. After drying several hours the wheels are baked at 500F from one to three

days.

3. Shellac Process/Method Shellac-bonded wheels are made by mixing the abrasive and bond

in a heated machine which mixes and completely coats the abrasive with the bonding

material. The material is then placed in heated steel moulds and rolled or pressed. Finally,

the wheels are baked a few hours at a temperature around 300F.

4. Rubber Process Method In this process; pure rubber with sulphur (sulphur) as a vulcanizing

agent is mixes with the abrasive by running the material between heated mixing rolls. After

it is finally rolled to thickness, the wheels are cut out with proper shaped dies and then

vulcanized under pressure.

5. Resinoid Process Method Resinoid-bonded wheels are made by mixing powder (synthetic-

resin powder) with the abrasive particles and then adding a plastic substance so that the

wheels can be molded .The mould is then placed in an electric oven and heated at

approximately 300F for a period ranging from a few hours to 3 or 4 days, depending on

the size of the wheel Upon cooling the wheel becomes very hard. resinoid, metal, and
 vitrified. Each gives the wheel unique characteristics. The diamond wheel with the resinoid

bond has a very cool and fast cutting action.

6. Diamond Wheels Bonded

Diamonds wheels are made in three kinds of bonds: The metal bonded wheel has unusual

durability and a high resistance to grooving. The vitrified-bonded diamond wheel has the

fast cutting action of the resinoid bonded wheel and the durability of the metal-bonded

wheel.

Classification of Synthetic/Artificial Abrasives

Three common synthetic/artificial abrasives include silicon carbide, aluminum oxide, and

boron carbide oxide and boron carbide.

1. Silicon Carbide

It is made by heating a mixture of powdered sand, coke, sawdust, and common salt in an

electric furnace. It comes from the furnace in masses of beautiful bluish crystals like

diamonds. The crystals are crushed into fine abrasive grains which are used in making

grinding wheels, abrasive stones and coated abrasives (abrasive cloth).

Silicon carbide is harder and more brittle than aluminum oxide abrasive. It is hard enough

to cut aluminum oxide. It is generally used for polishing or grinding materials of low tensile

strength, including the following: cast iron, aluminum, bronze, tungsten carbide, copper,

rubber, marble, glass, ceramics pottery, magnesium, plastics, and fiber. Silicon carbide is

known by trade names such as Carborundum,

2. Aluminum Oxide. It is produced by heating bauxite ore in an electric furnace an extremely,

high temperatures. With the addition of small amounts of titanium greater toughness can

be imparted to the aluminum oxide. The center of the solid mass formed in the furnace is

aluminum oxide. It is broken up and crushed into the grains for making grinding wheels,

abrasive stones and coated abrasives.

Aluminum oxide has properties somewhat different than silicon carbide. It is not as hard,

but it is tougher and does not fracture easily. Aluminum oxide abrasives are recommended

for grinding and polishing materials of high tensile strength, including the following:

carbon steels, alloy steels, hard or soft steels, and malleable iron, wrought iron, and tough

bronze. Approximately 75% of all grinding wheels in use today are made of aluminum

oxide. Aluminum oxide is known by trade names such as Alundum, Aloxite, Borolon,

Exolon, and Lionite.

3. Boron Carbide

It is produced from coke and boric acid in an electric, furnace. It is known by the trade

name Norbide, produced by the Norton Company It is harder than either aluminum oxide

or silicon carbide and can cut either of them. However, it is not as hard as diamond. It is

used in stick form to dress or true grinding wheels 10 in. or less in diameter. It is also used

in powder form, instead of diamond dust, for lapping hardened steel or other very hard

materials.
 Classification of Natural Abrasives

The following are some common natural abrasive:

1. Flint: It comes from the mineral quartz a crystalline rocklike material. It is used, in

making the familiar yellowish coloured abrasive paper called Sandpaper. It is one

of the oldest kinds of abrasive paper and is used in woodworking

2. Garnet: It is radish coloured glasslike mineral which is crushed into fin abrasive

grains. It is harder and sharper than flint and is widely used for woodworking.

3. Emery: Emery is one of the oldest kinds of natural abrasives used for

metalworking. It is black in colour and is composed of a combination of corundum

and iron oxide. Corundum is aluminum oxide, A1203. Emery, used for making an

emery cloth for polishing metals, is about 60 % corundum. Emery grains are not as

sharp as artificial abrasives. The cutting action of emery is slight; therefore, it is

used largely as a polishing abrasive.

4. Crocus: It is a fine, soft, red abrasive of iron oxide, or iron rust. It may be produced

artificially or naturally and is used to clean and polish metal surfaces to a high glass.

It is available in the form of Crocus Cloth or as a polishing compound.

5. Diamond: It is the hardest substance known. It is used in the form of abrasive grains

which are bonded together to form a thin layer of abrasive. The layer of abrasive is

bonded to a wheel, thus forming a grinding wheel. Diamond grinding wheels are

used for grinding very hard materials, such as cemented-carbide cutting tools,

ceramic cutting tools, glass, and stone. The diamonds used for this purpose are

industrial diamonds in the form of chips or grains. They are much less expensive

than the diamonds used for jewelryx. A diamonds chips may be brazed on the end
 of a soft steel bar to make tool for dressing or truing softer grinding wheels.

Diamonds used in industry have been produced artificially during recent years.

However, they are still almost as expensive as natural diamonds. Fine diamond dust

is also used in lapping compound for lapping hardened steel and other very hard

materials.

Difference between Natural and Synthetic Abrasives

Natural Abrasives

Natural abrasives generally are minerals which come from nature. They occur either in the

form of grains, like sand or in the form of large rocklike chunks. The large chunks must be

ground or crushed into small abrasive grains. Emery and corundum are two natural

abrasives which were commonly used in industry for the purposes of sharpening edged

tools. They occur .as mineral deposit in the earths crust. These abrasives formed into

wheels, were superior to the old grindstones in that they were capable of faster cutting and

could be made coarser or fine. Inspite of this, they could not meet the demands of industry

because they contained impurities which were difficult to extract and because the

percentage of important cutting elements, aluminum oxide, was not constant. The only

other element known to be harder than emery or corundum is the diamond, but its cost was

prohibitive for industrial usage.

Synthetic/Manufactured Artificial Abrasives

The artificial man-made abrasives are also called as synthetic or manufactured abrasives

With the exception of diamond, artificial or synthetic abrasives are harder thin the natural

abrasives. Diamond is the hardest abrasive material. About the same time that Dr. Acheson
 Was experimentally producing Silicon Carbide, Charles P. Jacobs was attempting to

produce a better grade of emery. He used a small electric furnace to extract the impurities

of sand, iron, and titanium oxides from clay deposits rich in aluminum oxide. The result

was a product that consisted of about 95percnt pure Aluminum Oxide (chemical symbol

A1203).

An Abrasive

Definition

Abrasive comes from the word ABRADE which means to rub off. An abrasive substance is a

very hard, tough material which has many sharp edges or cutting points, when crushed and ground

into grains like sand. An abrasive is any material that can wear away substance softer than itself.

Sand and sandstone are perhaps the oldest abrasives known to mankind. Prehistoric man used sand

and sandstone to form or shape edges of tools. As tools became more and more important for

preservation of life, he became more dependent on natural abrasives for the maintenance of sharp

tools.
Abrasives must possess three common properties:

(1) Hardness

(2) Fracture resistance

(3) Wear resistance

Grinding Wheel

Definition

Grinding like milling, drilling, sawing, planning and turning, is a cutting operation. However,

instead of having one, two or a multiple of cutting edges working, grinding makes use of an

abrasive tool composed of thousands of cutting edges.

The grinding wheel might be compared to a many toothed milling cutter as each of the abrasive

particles is .actually separate cutting edge. Take any grinding wheel and examine it, with a
magnifying glass. It will be observed that the wheel is made up of a great many particles of abrasive

bounded together. There are various materials used to hold. The crystals of abrasives together.

They are called Bonds. Some wheels are much coarser than others, the size of the p partials of

abrasive determines the coarseness or fineness of the wheel, as similarly, the size of the tooth

determines the coarseness or fineness of a file.

To do a good job of grinding, one must understand abrasives and grinding wheels, Here natural

and here natural and manufactured/synthetic abrasives are described and the bonds and abrasives

used in making grinding wheels, the different grades and shapes or grinding wheels, and the

selection of the proper grinding wheel for different types of work.

Reference:

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