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GEO-SEQUESTRATION
4. CO2 transport
5. CO2 storage
9. Conclusion
10. Reference
INTRODUCTION :
The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was
produced by volcanic activity; this was essential for a warm and stable climate
conducive to life. Now, a days volcanic releases are about 1% only of the amount of
of it released since 1945. Burning fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum is the
cause. Around 24,000 million tons of CO2 are released per year worldwide,
equivalent to about 6,500 million tons of carbon. Various techniques have been
proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in carbon
dioxide sinks. A carbon dioxide sink is a carbon reservoir that is increasing in size,
and is the opposite of a carbon "source". This concept of CO2 sinks has become
more widely known because the Kyoto Protocol allows the use of carbon dioxide
processes that remove carbon from the atmosphere. To help mitigate global
CO2 in the atmosphere tend to enhance the greenhouse effect and thus
from major industrial sources such as: fossil fuel-fired power stations, oil and
natural gas processing, cement manufacture, iron and steel manufacture and the
greenhouse gas emissions while using fossil fuels and retaining our existing energy-
distribution infrastructure.
General Process Description:
1. hot flue gas passes through the scrubber tower, where it is cooled with cooling
water
2. before being fed to the absorber tower. The gas enters near the bottom of the
absorber tower and flows upwards through the internal packing
3.coming into contact with the solvent, which enters near the top of the tower, as
the solvent cascades down through the tower. As the flue gas rises through the
tower the carbon dioxide level is progressively reduced as it is absorbed by the
solvent meaning the treated gas vented from the absorber is virtually free of CO2.
4.From the bottom of the absorber tower the CO2-rich solvent is pumped through
the lean-rich exchanger.
5. to pre-heat the solvent before it enters the regenerator tower. In the
regenerator the solvent is heated via the reboiler
6. to reverse the absorption reaction. As the solvent cascades down through the
tower, CO2 is gradually desorbed from the solvent
7. By the time the solvent reaches the bottom of the tower virtually all the
absorbed CO2 has been released and the CO2-lean solvent is cooled and pumped
back to the top of the absorber tower to repeat the process .
8.The desorbed CO2 exits the regenerator tower as a pure, water saturated gas
from where it is cooled
9.and then passes through the reflux accumulator to remove excess water . The
pure carbon dioxide product gas is then ready for direct use or further processing.
CO2 capture methods:
Capturing CO2 can be applied to large point sources, such as large fossil fuel or
biomass energy facilities, major CO2 emitting industries, natural gas production,
synthetic fuel plants and fossil fuel-based hydrogen production plants. Broadly,
three different types of technologies exist:
1.Post-combustion:
In post-combustion, the CO2 is removed after combustion of the fossil fuel. This
is the scheme that would be applied to conventional power plants. Here, carbon
dioxide is captured from flue gases at power stations (in the case of coal, this is
sometimes known as "clean coal"). The technology is well understood and is
currently used in niche markets.
2.Pre-combustion:
After capture, the CO2 must be transported to suitable storage sites. Those
storage sites are not necessarily located in the same area as the CO2 emitting
plants. Hence, transportation remains issue and pipelines, which are generally the
cheapest form of transport, or ships (when no pipelines are available) are required
for CO2 transportation. Note that both methods are currently used for
transporting CO2 for other applications. In order for CO2 transportation to be
economically viable, especially for the huge volumes produced by emitting plants,
CO2 would need to be compressed and liquefied. According to the Fraunhofer
Institute, the liquefaction of CO2 from atmospheric pressure to 110 bar would
require 0,12 kWh per tonne of CO2.
CO2 storage:
Various forms of more or less permanent storage of CO2 isolated from the
atmosphere have been conceived. These are storage in various deep geological
formations (including saline formations and exhausted gas fields), ocean storage,
and reaction of CO2 with metal oxides to produce stable carbonates. As of 2005,
it is estimated that saline formations would offer storage capacities for approx.
50-100 years. However, tectonic movements may have significant impacts on the
usability and durability of those storage sites. Also, the geographical location of
some saline formations may make transportation of CO2 difficult – or even
impossible.
I. Geological storage:
To keep the cost of storage acceptable the geophysical exploration may be limited,
resulting in larger uncertainty about the aquifer structure. Unlike storage in oil
fields or coal beds no side product will offset the storage cost. Leakage of CO2
back into the atmosphere may be a problem in saline aquifer storage. However,
current research shows that several trapping mechanisms immobilize the CO2
underground, reducing the risk of leakage.
For well-selected, designed and managed geological storage sites, IPCC estimates
that CO2 could be trapped for millions of years, and the sites are likely to retain
over 99% of the injected CO2 over 1,000 years.
Another proposed form of carbon storage is in the oceans. The following two
main concepts exist:
• The dissolution type injects CO2 by ship or pipeline into the water column at
depths of 1,000 meters or more, and the CO2 subsequently dissolves.
• The lake type deposits CO2 directly onto the sea floor at depths greater
than 3,000 meters, where CO2 is denser than water and is expected to form
a 'lake' that would delay dissolution of CO2 into the environment. A third
concept is to convert the CO2 to bicarbonates (using limestone) or hydrates.
Mineral storage aims to trap carbon in stable minerals, and CO2 would be
forever trapped. In this process, CO2 is reacted with (abundantly available)
metal oxides, which produces stable carbonates. This process occurs naturally
and is responsible for much of the surface limestone. However, the natural
reaction is very slow and has to be enhanced by pre-treatment of the
minerals, which is very energy intensive. The IPCC estimates that a power
plant equipped with CCS using mineral storage will need 60-180% more energy
than a power plant without CCS. Mineral sequestration
Mineral sequestration aims to trap carbon in the form of solid carbonate salts.
This process occurs slowly in nature and is responsible for the deposition and
accumulation of limestone (calcium carbonate) over geologic time. Carbonic acid in
groundwater slowly reacts with complex silicates to dissolve calcium, magnesium,
alkalis and silica and leave a residue of clay minerals. The dissolved calcium and
magnesium react with bicarbonate to precipitate calcium and magnesium
carbonates, a process that organisms use to make shells. When the organisms die,
their shells are deposited as sediment and eventually turn into limestone.
Limestones have accumulated over billions of years of geologic time and contain
much of Earth's carbon. Ongoing research aims to speed up similar reactions
involving alkali carbonates
One proposed reaction is that of the olivine-rich rock dunite, or its hydrated
equivalent serpentinite with carbon dioxide to form the carbonate mineral
magnesite, plus silica and iron oxide (magnetite).
Serpentinite reactions
Reaction 1
Mg-Olivine + Carbon dioxide → Magnesite + Silica
Reaction 2
Serpentine + carbon dioxide → Magnesite + silica + water
Reaction 4
Fe-Olivine + Water → Magnetite + Silica + Hydrogen
CO2 re-use:
Making Jet fuel by scrubbing CO2 from the air would allow aviation to continue in a
low carbon economy
Carbon dioxide scrubbing variants exist based on potassium carbonate which can be
used to create liquid fuels. Although the creation of fuel from atmospheric CO2 is
not a geoengineering technique, nor does it actually function as greenhouse gas
remediation, it nevertheless is potentially very useful in the creation of a low
carbon economy, as transport fuels, especially aviation fuel, are currently hard to
make other than by using fossil fuels. Whilst electric car technology is widely
available, and can be used with renewable energy for carbon neutral driving, there
are no electric jet airliners available, nor are there likely to be in the foreseeable
future.
If CO2 is heated to 2400°C, it splits into carbon monoxide and oxygen. The
Fischer-Tropsch process can then be used to convert the CO into hydrocarbons.
The required temperature can be achieved by using a chamber containing a mirror
to focus sunlight on the gas. There are a couple of rival teams developing such
chambers, at Solarec and at Sandia National Laboratories, both based in New
Mexico. According to Sandia these chambers could provide enough fuel to power
100% of domestic vehicles using 5800 km², but unlike biofuels this would not take
fertile land away from crops but would be land that is not being used for anything
else. James May, the British TV presenter, visited a demonstration plant in a
recent programme in his 'Big Ideas' series
Ocean and land-based sites together contain an enormous capacity for storage of
CO2. The world’s oceans have by far the largest capacity for carbon storage.
Note: Worldwide total anthropogenic carbon emissions are ~7 GtC per year (1 GtC
= 1 billion metric tons of carbon equivalent).
Types of Geosequestration Process:
1. Pre-combustion solvent absorption
Advanced power generation technologies are under development that can make
much cleaner and more efficient use of fossil fuels such as coal. Integrated
Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) is one such technique, converting coal to a
combustible gas known as syngas (containing hydrogen, carbon monoxide and carbon
dioxide) at high temperature and pressure. IGCC uses a gas turbine followed by
a steam turbine to generate electricity.
Solvent absorption is the current industry method for removing carbon dioxide
(CO2) from syngas. Liquid chemicals are used to absorb the CO2 and then release
it at an elevated temperature in another vessel.
After the gasification of the coal and various gas cleaning steps, the gas enters
the absorption column. There it comes into contact with the solvent which absorbs
the CO2. The other gases leave the absorption column, and the “rich” solvent
containing the CO2 is then pumped to another column called a stripping column. The
“rich” solvent is then heated to about 120°C, causing the CO2 to be released from
the solvent.
The CO2 emerges at the top of the stripper column where it is cooled, allowing the
removal of water and traces of solvents. The liquid is returned to the top of the
stripper column and the “lean” solvent is pumped from the bottom back to the
absorber.
On the way, the hot, lean solvent passes through a heat exchanger, along with the
rich solvent leaving the absorber column. This cools the lean solvent, ready for
more CO2 absorption, and heats the rich solvent on its way to the stripper column.
The solvent can be used over and over again to perform the separation of CO2.
Membrane technologies:
A membrane can be used with a solvent to capture the CO2. The CO2
diffuses between the pores in the membrane and is then absorbed by the
solvent. The membrane maintains the surface area between gas and liquid
phases. This type of membrane is useful when the CO2 has a low partial
pressure, such as in flue gases, because the driving force for gas separation
is small.
In the diagram above, the porous membrane allows gases to come into contact with
the solvent. Only CO2 is absorbed because of the selectivity of the solvent. The
membrane itself does not separate the CO2 from other gases, but rather
maintains a barrier between the liquid and gas with permeability through the pores.
In a traditional solvent absorption process, the liquid and the gas are together,
which leads to flow problems such as foaming and channelling. The physical
separation of the gas flow from the liquid flow in a membrane absorber eliminates
these problems.
Using a compact membrane can reduce the size of the equipment required to
absorb the CO2. Research is focused on developing appropriate materials that
ensure that solvent does not penetrate the membrane pores.
Solvent absorption:
Solvent absorption is currently the preferred option for removing carbon dioxide
(CO2) from industrial waste gas and for purifying natural gas. It is the method
involves passing the flue gas through liquid chemicals that absorb CO2 and then
release it at an elevated temperature in another vessel. The same chemical can be
used over and over again to separate CO2.
Note:
Solvents used in carbon dioxide capture are either chemical solvents or physical
solvents:
Chemical solvents:
With chemical solvents, the absorption primarily depends on chemical reactions
between the solvent and CO2 . Post capture, heat is required to release the CO2
and regenerate the solvent.
Physical solvents:
Absorption in a physical solvent relies on the solubility of CO2 in the solvent rather
than a chemical reaction with the solvent. The solvent is regenerated by changing
pressure or temperature.
Examples: methanol, dimethyl ethers of polyethylene glycol and N - methyl - 2 -
pyrrolidone (NMP).
Advantages and Disadvantages:
Advantages:
CO2 is sometimes injected into declining oil fields to increased oil recovery.
Approximately 30 to 50 million metric tonnes of CO2 are injected annually in the
United States into declining oil fields. This option is attractive because the geology
of hydrocarbon reservoirs are generally well understood and storage costs may be
partly offset by the sale of additional oil that is recovered. Disadvantages of old
oil fields are their geographic distribution and their limited capacity, as well as
that the subsequent burning of the additional oil so recovered will offset much or
all of the reduction in CO2 emissions.
2. Enhanced Coal Bed Methane:
Unminable coal seams can be used to store CO2 because CO2 adsorbs to the
surface of coal. However, the technical feasibility depends on the permeability of
the coal bed. In the process of absorption the coal releases previously absorbed
methane, and the methane can be recovered (enhanced coal bed methane
recovery). The sale of the methane can be used to offset a portion of the cost of
the CO2 storage. However, burning the resultant methane would produce CO2,
which would negate some of the benefit of sequestering the original CO2.
3. Cold/Soft Drinks:
4. CO2 Reduction:
About 80-90% CO2 emission can be cut from large CO2 emitter plants and
thus reduce the risk of Global Warming/ Cimate change.
Disadvantages:
The environmental effects of oceanic storage are generally negative, but poorly
understood. Large concentrations of CO2 kills ocean organisms, but another
problem is that dissolved CO2 would eventually equilibrate with the atmosphere, so
the storage would not be permanent. Also, as part of the CO2 reacts with the
water to form carbonic acid, H2CO3, the acidity of the ocean water increases.
About 10%-40% more energy consumption in industry with ccs than industry
without ccs and thus also increase in economy loss. Additional energy is required for
CO2 capture, and this means that substantially more fuel has to be used, depending on the
plant type. For new supercritical pulverized coal (PC) plants using current technology, the
extra energy requirements range from 24-40%, while for natural gas combined cycle
(NGCC) plants the range is 11-22% and for coal-based gasification combined cycle (IGCC)
systems it is 14-25% [IPCC, 2005
2. Leakage problem:
CO2 in soil: die-off of vegetated areas,root anoxia ,microbes in soils are affected.
This ccs method can’t be used to trap CO2 emitted from small sources such as
vehicles and domestic which accounts for 24% of total emissions.
Summery:
The major merit of CCS systems is the reduction of CO2 emissions, which is
typically on the order of 90%, depending on plant type. The substantial extra
amounts of energy required for CO2 capture means that more fuel has to be
used, how much depends on the plant type. For new supercritical pulverized coal
plants using current technology, the extra energy requirements range from 24-
40%, while for natural gas combined cycle (NGCC) plants the range is 11-22% and
for coal-based gasification combined cycle (IGCC) systems it is 14-25%, according
to IPCC. Obviously, fuel use and environmental problems arising from mining and
extraction of coal or gas increase accordingly.
IPCC has provided estimates of air emissions from various CCS plant designs (see
table here under). While CO2 is drastically reduced (though never completely
captured), emissions of air pollutants increase significantly, generally due to the
energy penalty of capture. Hence, the use of CCS entails some sacrifice of air
quality.
Based on Table 3.5 in [IPCC, 2005]. Between brackets the increase or decrease compared to a similar plant without CCS.
THE REPORTS
CANBERRA:
Officials opened a plant in southern Victoria state on Wednesday, which they said
would capture and compress 1,00,000 tonne of carbon dioxide and then inject it two km
The process is known a geosequestration. “The project has a very important role in
and the world and preparing the way for its widespread application,” Peter Cook, the
The Australian scheme was developed with federal and state government support
Since 1996, about one million tonne of carbon dioxide a year has been injected
under the North Sea and about the same amount trapped under Algeria’s In Salah gas
fields for the past two years.
The process uses technology similar to that used at about 144 sites in the U.S.
But the risks around the long-term storage of millions of cubic metres
of carbon dioxide in depleted gas and oil fields has met with some concern, not
least because of the possibility of some of the gas escaping and being released
back to the atmosphere. Until now, researchers couldn't be sure how the gas would
be securely trapped underground.
They found that underground water is the major carbon dioxide sink
in these gas fields and has been for millions of years.
Dr. Stuart Gilfillan, the lead researcher who completed the project at
the University of Edinburgh said: "We've turned the old technique of using
computer models on its head and looked at natural carbon dioxide gas fields which
have trapped carbon dioxide for a very long time."
The researchers found that the depth from which a coal sample is taken reflects
the average methane content, with much deeper seams containing less methane.
However, the study provides only a preliminary assessment of the possibilities. The
key question is whether methane can be tapped from the unmineable coal seams
and replaced permanently with huge quantities of carbon dioxide; if so, such coal
seams could represent a vast sink for CO2 produced by industry. The researchers
point out that worldwide, there are almost 3 trillions tonnes of storage capacity
for CO2 in such deep coal seams.
Preliminary results obtained from Pittsburgh No. 8 coal indicate that the
permeability decreases (from micro-darcies to nano-darcies or extremely low flow
properties) with increasing CO2 pressure, with an increase in strain associated
with the triaxial confining pressures restricting the ability of the coal to swell.
The already existing low pore volume of the coal is decreased, reducing the flow of
CO2, measured as permeability. This is a potential problem that will have to be
overcome if coal seam sequestration is to be widely used.
The research team has also investigated some of the possible side-effects of
sequestering CO2 in coal mines. They tested a high volatility bituminous coal with
produced water and gaseous carbon dioxide at 40 Celsius and 50 times atmospheric
pressure. They used microscopes and X-ray diffraction to analyze the coal after
the reaction was complete. They found that some toxic metals originally trapped in
the coal were released by the process, contaminating the water used in the
reaction.
"Changes in water chemistry and the potential for mobilizing toxic trace elements
from coal beds are potentially important factors to be considered when evaluating
deep, unmineable coal seams for CO2 sequestration, though it is also possible that,
considering the depth of the injection, that such effects might be harmless" the
researchers say.