Definitions of Computers:

A computer is a programmable machine that receives input, stores and manipulates data, and provides
output in a useful format. A machine for performing calculations automatically. Calculator: an expert at
calculation (or at operating calculating machines). A computer is a device that accepts information (in the
form of digitalized data) and manipulates it for some result based on a program or sequence of instructions
on how the data is to be processed. Complex computers also include the means for storing data (including
the program, which is also a form of data) for some necessary duration. A program may be invariable and
built into the computer (and called logic circuitry as it is on microprocessors) or different programs may be
provided to the computer (loaded into its storage and then started by an administrator or user).

CHARACTERISTICS:
Speed: It takes only few seconds for calculations that we take hours to complete. Computer can perform
millions (1,000,000) of instructions and even more per second.
Accuracy: The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is performed with the
same accuracy. The errors in computer are due to human and inaccurate data.
Diligence: A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can work for hours
without creating any error.
Versatility: It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work. You may use your
computer to prepare payroll slips. Next moment you may use it for inventory management or to prepare
electric bills.
Power of Remembering: Any information can be stored and recalled as long as you require it, for
any numbers of years.
No IQ: Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction from the user.
No Feeling: It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and experience.
Storage: The Computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large
amount of data. You can also store data in secondary storage devices

The Benefits and Limitations of Computers

A computer is a complex calculating device. It receives instructions from programs (software) and
performs calculations on the data stored in its memory based on these instructions.While computers can
operate very quickly, they can only perform tasks based on the information and instructions they are given.
Benefits of Computers
• Many of the advantages of computers stem from the fact that they can handle and manipulate vast
quantities of data. They can handle data so quickly that it would it be impractical for people to do
the same work.
• Computers are electrical machines so by sending electrical signals they are able to communicate at
extremely high speeds with other electrical machines. Computers are therefore ideally suited to
control a wide range of electrical devices from robotic assembly lines to telephone systems.
• A huge range of software has been written for computers, which means they can be used in a wide
range of roles.
• Compared to the wage costs of people, computers are generally very cheap. They also have the
advantage that the company owns their computers, unlike their employees, and they can work 24
hours a day.
Disadvantages of computers:
• Computers can make the mind lazy. You get used to not reading a book, or researching something
at the library... Just a few key-strokes and you have your answer.
• It takes one away from socializing with others in person.
• Spending too much time playing online games or chatting over the computer instead of reading
books, taking walks, and doing homework.
• Being on a computer too much can also lead to anti-social behavior and depression.
• UNEMPLOYMENT

The Five Generations of Computers

The history of computer development is often referred to in reference to the different generations
of computing devices. Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological
development that fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly
smaller, cheaper, more powerful and more efficient and reliable devices
First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes
The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were
often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to
using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of
malfunctions. First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level
programming language understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only
solve one problem at a time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was
displayed on printouts. The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation
computing devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business
client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.
Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistors
Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The
transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 1950s.
The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller,
faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors.
Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage,
it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still relied on
punched cards for input and printouts for output. Second-generation computers moved from
cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed
programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level programming languages were also
being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also
the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic
drum to magnetic core technology. The first computers of this generation were developed for the
atomic energy industry.
Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits
The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers.
Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which
drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers. Instead of punched cards and
printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards and monitors and
interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many different applications
at one time with a central program that monitored the memory. Computers for the first time
became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their
predecessors.
Fourth Generation (1971-Present) Microprocessors
The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated
circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room
could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the
components of the computer—from the central processing unit and memory to input/output
controls—on a single chip. In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in
1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop
computers and into many areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use
microprocessors. As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked
together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth
generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.
Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence
Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development,
though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use
of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality.
Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of
computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that
respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.
CPU - CPU may also be classified as :

a) CU (Control Unit) - The CU controls and directs the operations of the entire computer system. The
control unit retrieves computer instructions in proper sequence, interprets each instruction and then directs
the other parts of the computer system for the execution. The Control Register ( CU ) transfers the opcode
into the ALU for decoding. The data is already fed to the ALU through its registers. The opcode describes
how to manipulate this data. A register is the lowest level of data storage in a computer. Registers also
have the lowest read/write time of all types of memory in your computer, making them idea to perform
small, repeated calculations.

Of course, each CPU has a limited number of registers, so they can only be used for very short term data
storage while that data is being processed.

b) A.L.U. (Arithmetic & Logic Unit) - The ALU actually carries out Arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction etc. and Logic operations like comparison of values etc.
c) Main Memory - Memory is the mind of the computer. It may be classified as:-
i) RAM (Random Access Memory) - It is a temporary memory used for storing data or instructions
during processing. Any storage location can be directly accessed using its address. RAM loses its
contents when the power is turned off and hence is also known as Volatile Memory. While the
computer is on, information can be written onto the RAM chips and read from them.
ii) ROM (Read Only Memory) - It is a permanent memory which contains basic information the CPU
needs when you first turn on the computer as well as at other times during the operation of the
computer. This information is written onto the chip during manufacture. Information can only be read,
and no new information can be written onto the ROM. There is also some kind of ROM:-
a) PROM: PROM stands for Programmable Read-Only Memory. It was invented by Wen Tsing
Chow in 1956. Unlike a ROM chip, a PROM chip comes from the manufacturers devoid of any
programming. Programming is done by the end user or the makers of electronic devices which require
a permanent data storage device. Since it is cheaper than a ROM chip, it is also useful for making
experimental programming test runs. Successful programming can later on be applied to a ROM chip at
manufacture.
b) EPROM : An EPROM, or erasable programmable read only memory, is a type of memory
chip that retains its data when its power supply is switched off. In other words, it is non-volatile. It is
an array of floating-gate transistors individually programmed by an electronic device that supplies
higher voltages than those normally used in digital circuits. Once programmed, an EPROM can be
erased by exposing it to strong ultraviolet light from a mercury-vapor light source. EPROMs are easily
recognizable by the transparent fused quartz window in the top of the package, through which the
silicon chip is visible, and which permits exposure to UV light during erasing.
c) EEPROM: EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory,
and is pronounced double-ee-prom or e-e-prom. It's a long name for a small chip that holds bits of data
code that can be rewritten and erased by an electrical charge, one byte at a time. EEPROM data cannot
be selectively rewritten; the entire chip must be erased and rewritten to update its contents. While
Random Access Memory (RAM) loses its data every time you power down your computer, EEPROM
 does not require a power source to maintain its data. For this reason EEPROM is commonly used by
many BIOS chips to save system settings.

Liquid crystal display (LCD):

A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat electronic visual display that uses the light modulating
properties of liquid crystals (LCs). LCs do not emit light directly.
They are used in a wide range of applications including: computer monitors, television, instrument panels,
aircraft cockpit displays, signage, etc. They are common in consumer devices such as video players,
gaming devices, clocks, watches, calculators, and telephones. LCDs have displaced cathode ray tube(CRT)
displays in most applications. They are usually more compact, lightweight, portable, less expensive, more
reliable, and easier on the eyes. They are available in a wider range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma
displays, and since they do not use phosphors, they cannot suffer image burn-in.
LCDs are more energy efficient and offer safer disposal than CRTs. Its low electrical power consumption
enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment. It is an electronically-modulated optical
device made up of any number of pixels filled with liquid crystals and arrayed in front of a light source
(backlight) or reflector to produce images in colour or monochrome. The earliest discovery leading to the
development of LCD technology, the discovery of liquid crystals, dates from 1888.[1] By 2008, worldwide
sales of televisions with LCD screens had surpassed the sale of CRT units.
The Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube containing an electron gun (a source of electrons) and a
fluorescent screen, with internal or external means to accelerate and deflect the electron beam, used to
create images in the form of light emitted from the fluorescent screen. The image may represent electrical
waveforms (oscilloscope), pictures (television, computer monitor), radar targets and others.The CRT uses
an evacuated glass envelope which is large, deep, heavy, and relatively fragile.

What is a computer virus?

A computer virus is a computer program that can copy itself and infect a computer. A true virus can spread
from one computer to another (in some form of executable code) when its host is taken to the target
computer; for instance because a user sent it over a network or the Internet, or carried it on a removable
medium such as a floppy disk, CD, DVD, or USB drive

Symptoms of a computer virus

If you suspect or confirm that your computer is infected with a computer virus, obtain the current antivirus
software. The following are some primary indicators that a computer may be infected:
• The computer runs slower than usual.
• The computer stops responding, or it locks up frequently.
• The computer crashes, and then it restarts every few minutes.
• The computer restarts on its own. Additionally, the computer does not run as usual.
• Applications on the computer do not work correctly.
• Disks or disk drives are inaccessible.
• You cannot print items correctly.
• You see unusual error messages.
• You see distorted menus and dialog boxes.
• There is a double extension on an attachment that you recently opened, such as a .jpg, .vbs, .gif,
or .exe. extension.
• An antivirus program is disabled for no reason. Additionally, the antivirus program cannot be
restarted.
• An antivirus program cannot be installed on the computer, or the antivirus program will not run.
• New icons appear on the desktop that you did not put there, or the icons are not associated with any
recently installed programs.
• Strange sounds or music plays from the speakers unexpectedly.
• A program disappears from the computer even though you did not intentionally remove the
program.

TYPE OF VIRUSES:
Boot Virus
This type of virus affects the boot sector of a floppy or hard disk. This is a crucial part of a disk, in which
information on the disk itself is stored together with a program that makes it possible to boot (start) the
computer from the disk. The best way of avoiding boot viruses is to ensure that floppy disks are write-
protected and never start your computer with an unknown floppy disk in the disk drive. Examples of boot
viruses include: Polyboot.B, AntiEXE.
Resident Viruses
This type of virus is a permanent which dwells in the RAM memory. From there it can overcome and
interrupt all of the operations executed by the system: corrupting files and programs that are opened,
closed, copied, renamed etc. Examples include: Randex, CMJ, Meve, and MrKlunky.
Worms
A worm is a program very similar to a virus; it has the ability to self-replicate, and can lead to negative
effects on your system and most importantly they are detected and eliminated by antiviruses.
Trojans or Trojan Horses
Another unsavory breed of malicious code are Trojans or Trojan horses, which unlike viruses do not
reproduce by infecting other files, nor do they self-replicate like worms.
Logic Bombs
They are not considered viruses because they do not replicate. They are not even programs in their own
right but rather camouflaged segments of other programs.

Computer Software
A computer program (also a software program, or just a program) is a sequence of instructions written to
perform a specified task for a computer.[1] A computer requires programs to function, typically executing
the program's instructions in a central processor.[2] The program has an executable form that the computer
can use directly to execute the instructions. The same program in its human-readable source code form,
from which executable programs are derived (e.g., compiled), enables a programmer to study and develop
its algorithms.

Operating System Functions

What is an Operating System
The operating system is the core software component of your computer. It performs many functions and is,
in very basic terms, an interface between your computer and the outside world. In the section about
hardware, a computer is described as consisting of several component parts including your monitor,
keyboard, mouse, and other parts. The operating system provides an interface to these parts using what is
referred to as "drivers". This is why sometimes when you install a new printer or other piece of hardware,
your system will ask you to install more software called a driver.

Operating System Types

There are many types of operating systems. The most common is the Microsoft suite of operating systems.
They include from most recent to the oldest:
• Windows XP Professional Edition - A version used by many businesses on workstations. It has the
ability to become a member of a corporate domain.
• Windows XP Home Edition - A lower cost version of Windows XP which is for home use only and
should not be used at a business.
• Windows 2000 - A better version of the Windows NT operating system which works well both at
home and as a workstation at a business. It includes technologies which allow hardware to be
automatically detected and other enhancements over Windows NT.
• Windows ME - A upgraded version from windows 98 but it has been historically plagued with
programming errors which may be frustrating for home users.
• Windows 98 - This was produced in two main versions. The first Windows 98 version was plagued
with programming errors but the Windows 98 Second Edition which came out later was much
better with many errors resolved.
• Windows NT - A version of Windows made specifically for businesses offering better control over
workstation capabilities to help network administrators.
 • Windows 95 - The first version of Windows after the older Windows 3.x versions offering a better
interface and better library functions for programs.
There are other worthwhile types of operating systems not made by Microsoft. The greatest problem
with these operating systems lies in the fact that not as many application programs are written for them.
However if you can get the type of application programs you are looking for, one of the systems listed
below may be a good choice.
• Unix - A system that has been around for many years and it is very stable. It is primary used to be a
server rather than a workstation and should not be used by anyone who does not understand the
system. It can be difficult to learn. Unix must normally run an a computer made by the same
company that produces the software.
• Linux - Linux is similar to Unix in operation but it is free. It also should not be used by anyone who
does not understand the system and can be difficult to learn.
• Apple MacIntosh - Most recent versions are based on Unix but it has a good graphical interface so
it is both stable (does not crash often or have as many software problems as other systems may
have) and easy to learn. One drawback to this system is that it can only be run on Apple produced
hardware.

Different Types of Application Software:

Word Processing Software: This software enables the users to create and edit documents. The most
popular examples of this type of software are MS-Word, WordPad, Notepad and some other text editors.
Database Software: Database is a structured collection of data. A computer database relies on database
software to organize the data and enable the database users to achieve database operations. Database
software allows the users to store and retrieve data from databases. Examples are Oracle, MSAccess, etc.

Spreadsheet Software: Excel, Lotus 1-2-3 and Apple Numbers are some examples of spreadsheet
software. Spreadsheet software allows users to perform calculations. They simulate paper worksheets by
displaying multiple cells that make up a grid.
Multimedia Software: They allow the users to create and play audio and video media. They are capable
of playing media files. Audio converters, players, burners, video encoders and decoders are some forms of
multimedia software. Examples of this type of software include Real Player and Media Player.
Presentation Software: The software that is used to display information in the form of a slide show is
known as presentation software. This type of software includes three functions, namely, editing that allows
insertion and formatting of text, methods to include graphics in the text and a functionality of executing the
slide shows. Microsoft PowerPoint is the best example of presentation software.