Discipline course -1

Semester -1
Paper Mathematical Physics I
Lesson- Vector Algebra
Lesson Developer: Ranjit Kumar
College /Department: Dyal Singh College (M)
University of Delhi

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 Table of Contents

Chapter: Vector Algebra

1. Introduction

2. Vector Operations

2.1 Addition of Vectors

2.2 Vector Product
2.2.1 Multiplication by Scalar
2.2.2 Product of Two Vectors

3. Vectors in Component Form

4. Triple Product

5. Reciprocal Vectors

6. Transformation of Vectors

6.1 Transformation of Vectors under Rotation

6.2 Transformation of Vectors under Translation
6.3 Transformation of Vectors under Coordinate Inversion

7. Axial and Polar Vector

8. Axial and Polar Vector

9. Vector and Scalar Field

Summary

Exercise/ Practice

References/ Bibliography/ Further Reading

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 VECTOR ALGEBRA

1 Introduction
The term vector derives from the Latin word vectus meaning to carry. A vector is a physical
quantity having both magnitude and direction. Velocity, acceleration, momentum, force, electric
field, magnetic field, etc., are some of the examples of vectors. One can analyze vectors either with
geometry or with algebra. Geometrically, a vector can be represented as arrows. The length of the
arrow represents its magnitude. On the other hand, the algebraic approach describe how vectors
transform under the change of coordinate system.

Geometric Approach: Geometrically, a vector is represented by a directed line segment drawn

from an arbitrary initial point P to a point Q, called its terminal point, with P and Q being
distinct points. The vector is denoted by P~Q. Its magnitude is the length of the line segment,
denoted by |P~Q|, and its direction is the same as that of the directed line segment. There are two
kinds of vectors:

(i) Free Vector: A geometric vector is determined only by its magnitude and its direction.
Thus the initial point of the vector is arbitrary and parallel translation does not change
it. Such vectors are also known as free vector (having magnitude and direction but no
location). In other words, free vectors are those vectors which can be represented by infinite
numbers of line segment. Also, two free vectors are equal if and only if they are parallel,
point in the same direction, and have equal length.

(ii) Bound or Fixed Vector: There is also a second kind of vector for which a unique point
of application is specified. For example, torque produced in a system depend on the point
of application of force. Thus a bound vector is characterized by its magnitude, direction as
well as the point of application. Angular momentum is another example of bound vector.
Bound vectors are also known as fixed vector.

~ . Vectors are also denoted

We shall denote vectors by writing a letter with arrow above it, i.e., A
by boldface letters A. The magnitude of vector A ~ will be denoted by |A~ |. The magnitude of the
vector is also called the norm or length of the vector.

Note: Vector analysis was mostly developed by Josiah Willard Gibbs and Olivier Heaviside to-
ward the end of nineteenth century.
~ we can also construct a vector
Unit Vector and the Zero Vector: For a given vector, A

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 Figure 1: Addition of two vectors

~ , represented
of unit magnitude and is known as unit vector. Unit vector of a non-zero vector A
~ by its magnitude, i.e.,
by A is obtained by dividing the vector A
~
A
A =
~|
|A
Thus we have, |A| = 1. The zero vector is just a point, and it is denoted by ~0. Length of the zero
vector is 0 and its direction is indeterminate.

Scalars: Quantities that have magnitude but not direction are called scalars. Density, charge,
mass, temperature, etc. are some of the examples of scalar. The magnitude of a vector is a scalar
quantity.

2 Vector Operations
Vector operations are the rules of combining two vectors or a vector with a scalar. Vector addi-
tion, subtraction, multiplication are some of the examples. There are various ways of combining
them. We define four kinds of vector operations: one addition and three kinds of product or
multiplications.

2.1 Addition of Vectors

When we place the tail of vector B ~ on the head of the vector A
~ , then the sum C
~ =A
~+B
~ is the
~ to the tip of the vector B
vector from tail of the vector A ~.

Properties of the Vector Addition:

(i) Addition of two vector is commutative, i.e., order of the sum does not matter (see Fig. 1)
~+B
A ~ =B ~ +A ~

Note: Some of the physical quantities have both magnitude and direction but they do not
satisfy the commutative law of vector addition. For example, the addition of two or more

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 Figure 2: Multiplication of vector by scalar

finite angular displacements is not, in general, commutative. But, if the angular displace-
ment is infinitesimal then they do satisfy the commutative law of vector addition. This topic
will be discussed in mechanics course.

(ii) Addition of vectors is associative, i.e.,

A ~ +C
~ + (B ~ ) = (A
~+B
~) + C
~

Subtraction of Vectors
~ from vector A
To subtract a vector B ~ , simply reverse the direction of vector B
~ and add to the
~ , i.e., A
vector A ~+B
~ =A ~ ). The vector B
~ + (B ~ by 180 .
~ is obtained by rotating the vector B

2.2 Vector Product

A vector can be multiplied by a scalar or a vector with a vector. The later operation is subdivided
into a scalar product and a vector product. Thus an ordinary vector can multiply in three ways.

2.2.1 Multiplication by a Scalar

If we multiply a vector by a scalar then we get another vector. For example, if we multiply a
vector A~ by a scalar k, then we get another vector B ~ = kA ~ . Scalar product of a vector is also
defined as scaling of a vector. Scaling a vector means changing its length by a scale factor. For
example, multiplying a vector A ~ by a scalar 5, scales the vector 5 times the original vector A
~ . If
k is positive then the vectors B~ and A~ are in the same direction and if k is negative then, the
~ will be opposite to A
direction of the vector B ~ (see Fig. 2). Also, scalar product is distributive,
i.e.,
~+B
k(A ~ ) = aA~ + aB~

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 ~ and B
Figure 3: Dot product of two vectors A ~

2.2.2 Product of Two Vectors

There are two different ways in which we can multiply two vectors: the scalar product and the
vector product.

Scalar Product: The scalar product of two vectors (also known as dot product or inner product)
is one way of multiplying two vectors. The output is a scalar. The scalar product of two vectors
is defined by
~B
A ~ |A ~ | cos
~ ||B
~ | cos is scalar projection of B
Here |B ~ along the direction of A ~ . Geometrically, the dot product
between two vectors A ~ and B~ equals the magnitude of vector A ~ times the projection of the vector
~ onto the direction of A
B ~ or vice versa. If one of the vectors, (say B ~ ) is unit vector, then the
expression
A ~ ||B | cos = |A
~ B = |A ~ | cos
~ in the direction of vector B . In general, dot product can also
is equal to the projection of vector A
be written as
A~B~ = ABA ,
~ on A
where BA is projection of vector B ~ . It is also equal to BAB , where AB is the projection of
~ on B
vector A ~.

Properties of Dot Product:

(i) Dot product is commutative, i.e.,

~B
A ~ =B
~ A
~

(ii) Dot product is distributive, i.e.,

~ (B
A ~ +C
~) = A
~B
~ +A
~C
~

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(iii) If two vectors are perpendicular then

~B
A ~ =0

~ and B
where A ~ are non-zero vector.

(iv) If two vectors are parallel then

~B
A ~ = |A
~ ||B
~|

~ with itself give the square of the length of the vector,

(v) Dot product of a vector A

~A
A ~ = |A
~ |2

In physics, work done by force is an example of dot product. The work done by a force is defined
as
W = F~ d~r = |F~ ||d~r| cos
where d~r is the displacement of the particle in the direction of force. If the angle between
displacement d~r and force F~ is 90 , then the work done is zero. Thus the component of force
perpendicular to the displacement does no work.

Example: Using the definition of dot product, show that

|A ~ | |A
~ B ~ ||B
~| (1)

This relation is also known as Cauchy-Schwarz inequality.

Solution: We have
~B
A ~ = |A ~ | cos
~ ||B

Then
~ B
|A ~ | = |A ~ || cos |
~ ||B

Since | cos | 1, we have

|A ~ | |A
~ B ~ ||B
~|

Question: Prove the triangle inequality

|A ~ | |A
~ +B ~ | + |B
~|

Geometrically, the triangle inequality states that for any triangle, the sum of the lengths of any
two sides must be greater than the length of the remaining side.

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 ~ in the direction of unit vector u.
Figure 4: Orthogonal projection of vector A

Figure 5: Component of vector O~Q = B

~ in the direction O~A = A
~.

Components and Pro jection: If A ~ is a vector and u is unit vector then the component of
~ in the direction of u is A
A ~ u. Thus the component is a scalar. Now

~ ||u| cos = |A
~ u = |A
A ~ | cos

Geometrically this is the length of the leg of the right triangle with hypotenuse A ~ and one leg
parallel to u. We also call the leg parallel to u, the orthogonal projection of A~ on u (see Fig. 4).
For non-unit vector, component of A ~ in the direction of B~ is simply the component of A ~ in the
direction of unit vector u = B~ /|B
~ |. Here u is the unit vector in the same direction as B
~.

~ along and perpendicular to vector A

Example: Find the component of a vector B ~?

Solution: Let A ~ be two vectors represented by O~A and O~Q and be the angle between A
~ and B ~
~ . Then draw QM perpendicular to OA (see Fig. 5). In 4OQM :
and B

O~Q = O~M + M~Q

Or
~ = O~M + M~Q
B (2)

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Here O~M is component of B
~ along A
~ and M~Q is component of B
~ perpendicular to A
~ . Now

O~M = (OM )A = (OQ cos )A

~ ~ ~ ~
~ | cos A = |B|(A B) A
= |B
~ ||B
|A ~ | |A
~|
~ B
(A ~)A~
=
~ |2
|A
~ on A
This is the expression for vector projection of B ~ . Now using expression (2), we have

~ ~ ~
M~Q = B ~ O~M = B~ (A B)A
~ |2
|A
~ perpendicular to A
This equation gives the component of B ~.

Example: Let A ~ and B ~ be two non-zero orthogonal vectors. If C

~ is the vector in the plane
~ and B
spanned by A ~ , such that
C~ = A~ + B
~

where and are scalars. Use the inner product to determine and .

Solution: We have

A~C~ = A ~ + B
~ (A ~)
= (A~ A~ ) + (A
~ B
~)
~ and B
Since A ~ are orthogonal, we have A
~B
~ = 0. Thus

A~ C
~ ~ C
A ~
= =
~A
A ~ |A~ |2

Similarly,
~ C
B ~ ~ C
B ~
= =
~ B
B ~ |B~ |2

Thus A
~ is projection of the vector C ~ and B
~ along A ~ is its projection along the vector B
~.

Vector Product of Two Vectors: The vector product of two vectors is also known as the
~ and B
cross product between the two vectors. Cross product of two vectors A ~ is defined as

~B
A ~ = |A ~ | sin n
~ ||B

where n is a unit vector, i.e., vector of magnitude one, and its direction is perpendicular to the
~ and B
plane of A ~ . But there are two directions perpendicular to any plane: up and down. We can

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 ~ and B
Figure 6: Cross product of two vectors A ~

Figure 7: Right hand thumb rule

resolve this ambiguity by using the right hand rule: if the four fingers of right hand points in the
~ and rotate toward the second vector B
direction of first vector A ~ , then our thumb points in the
direction of n.

Properties of Cross Product:

(i) Cross product of two vectors is again a vector.

(ii) The cross product is distributive,

A ~ +C
~ (B ~ ) = (A
~B
~ ) + (A
~C
~)

(iii) Cross product is not commutative,

A ~ = B
~B ~ A
~

From here we see that

~A
A ~=0

(iv) Cross product is non-associative:

~ B
(A ~) C
~=A
~ (B
~ C
~)

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 Figure 8: Area of a parallelogram

(v) Geometrically, |A~B ~ | represent the area of parallelogram. The area of the parallelogram
given in Fig. 8 is equal to the product of base A times the height h. But, h = B sin , so

Area = Ah = AB sin = |A
~B ~|
~B
Thus the area of the parallelogram is equal to the magnitude of A ~ and its direction is
normal to the plane of this parallelogram.

~B
(vi) Lagrange Identity: The magnitude of |A ~ | can be written in terms of |A
~ |, |B
~ |, and
~B
A ~ through the equation

~B
|A ~ |2 = |A ~ |2 (A
~ |2 |B ~B
~ )2

Lagrange identity is the relation between dot and cross product. This relation can be proved
as follows:
2
~B
|A ~ |2 = ~ | sin
~ ||B
|A ~ |2 (1 cos2 )
~ |2 |B
= |A
~ |2 |A
~ |2 |B
= |A ~ |2 cos2
~ |2 |B
= |A ~ |2 (A
~ |2 |B ~B ~ )2

The cross product has many applications in physics. For example, if a charged particle is moving
~ with velocity ~v , then the force that acts on the charge particle is given by
in a magnetic field B

F~ = e(~v B
~)

~.
According to right hand thumb rule, force is perpendicular to the plane formed by ~v and B
Another example of cross product is torque , defined as

= ~r F~

where ~r is a vector from the axis about which the torque is evaluated to the point of application
of the force F~ . Another example of cross product is: angular momentum ~ L and angular velocity
~ .

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3 Vectors in Component Form
So far we have defined vectors as an geometrical object (represented by an arrow), having magni-
tude and direction. Now we are going to discuss the algebraic description of vectors. To do this, we
introduce a coordinate system. Since vectors are treated as geometrical objects, it is independent
of any coordinate system. Thus, the magnitude and direction of the vector is independent of the
coordinate system. We can use any coordinate system to describe a vector. Let us first use the
Cartesian coordinates to express vectors. In Cartesian coordinate, we can write a vector A ~ as
~ = Ax i + Ay j + Az k
A (3)

where i, j, k are unit vectors parallel to x, y, z axes, respectively. The unit vectors i, j, k are also
known as basis vector and they are orthonormal, i.e.,

i i = j j = k k = 1
i j = j k = k i = 0 (4)

~ . Thus once we are given the orthonormal basis

In Eq. (3), Ax , Ay , Az , are called components of A
we can specify the vector by just giving three numbers (Ax , Ay , Az ). Component of the vector A ~
can be obtained by projecting it along one of the axis. For example,

~ i = (Ax i + Ay j + Az k) i
A
= Ax (i i) + Ay (i j) + Az (i k) = Ax
Similarly,
~ j = Ay ,
A ~ k = Az
A
Thus, we can also write Eq. (3) as

~ = (A
A ~ i)i + (A
~ j)j + (A
~ k)k

The advantage of algebraic description of vectors is that, we can extent it to space of dimension
more than three and also we can use any system of coordinate to describe a vector. In n-dimension,
a vector is represented by an ordered n-tuple of real numbers (A1 , A2 , . . . , An ). In component form,
we can redefine the vector operation of addition, substraction and multiplication as follows:
(i) Vector Addition: Addition of two vectors A ~ and B
~ is defined as

~+B
A ~ = (Ax i + Ay j + Az k) + (Bxi + By j + Bz k)
= (Ax + Bx )i + (Ay + By )j + (Az + Bz )k

Thus the rule of vector addition is that like components add.

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 Figure 9: i, j, k are unit vectors along x, y, z axis, respectively.

~ by a scalar then
(ii) Multiplication by Scalar: If we multiply a vector A
~ = (aAx )i + (aAy )j + (aAz )k
aA

Thus each component of the vector multiply by a scalar.

(iii) Dot Product: In component form, dot product of two vectors is defined as
~B
A ~ = (Ax i + Ay j + Az k) (Bxi + By j + Bz k)
= (Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz )

where we have used the Eq. (4). Thus the like component multiply in dot product. Also the
length of the vector is given by
~A
A ~ = A2x + A2y + A2z
q
A = A2x + A2y + A2z

~.
Here A is the length of the vector A

(iv) Cross Product: The cross product of two vectors in component form can be written as,
A~B ~ = (Ax i + Ay j + Az k) (Bxi + By j + Bz k)

The cross product of basis vector is given by

i i = j j = k k = 0
and

i j = j i = k
j k = k j = i
k i = i k = j

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 Therefore,

~ = i(Ay Bz Az By ) j(Ax Bz Az Bx ) + k(Ax By Ay Bx )

~B
A

This expression can also be expressed in determinant form as

i j k
~B
A ~ = A xA yAz
Bx Bx Bz
A y A z Ax Az Ax Ay
= i j + k
By Bz Bx Bz Bx By
= i(Ay Bz Az By ) j(Ax Bz Az Bx ) + k(Ax By Ay Bx )

Example: Using the determinant definition of cross product, show that

~B
|A ~ | = |A ~ | sin ,
~ ||B 0

Solution: We have

~B
|A ~ |2 = (A
~B
~ ) (A
~ B
~)
= (Ay Bz Az By )2 + (Ax Bz Az Bx )2 + (Ax By Ay Bx )2

which can be written as

~ |2 = (A2x + A2y + A2z )(B 2x + B 2y + B 2z) (Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz )2

~B
|A
= |A ~ |2 (A
~ |2 |B ~B~ )2
~ |2 |A
~ |2 |B
= |A ~ |2 cos2
~ |2 |B
~ |2 sin2
~ |2 |B
= |A

Finally taking the square root on both sides, we obtain

~B
|A ~ | = |A ~ | sin
~ ||B

~B
From here we also obtain the Lagrange identity |A ~ |2 = |A ~ |2 (A
~ |2 |B ~B
~ )2 .

*************************************************************************************
Note: Animations describing various operations of vectors are given below. Clicking on the link
will open the animations.
1. Addition of Two Vectors:
http://faraday.physics.utoronto.ca/PVB/Harrison/Flash/Vectors/Add2Vectors.html

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2. Addition of Three Vectors:
http://faraday.physics.utoronto.ca/PVB/Harrison/Flash/Vectors/Add3Vectors.html
3. Subtraction of Two Vectors:
http://faraday.physics.utoronto.ca/PVB/Harrison/Flash/Vectors/Subtract2Vectors.html
4. Addition of Two Vectors Numerically using Components:
http://www.upscale.utoronto.ca/GeneralInterest/Harrison/Flash/Vectors/VectorAddComponents.
html
5. Unit vectors and the Addition of Vectors using Unit Vectors:
http://faraday.physics.utoronto.ca/PVB/Harrison/Flash/Vectors/UnitVectors/UnitVectors.
html
6. Dot or Scalar Product:
http://faraday.physics.utoronto.ca/PVB/Harrison/Flash/Vectors/DotProduct/DotProduct.
html
7. Right Hand Screw Rule for Direction of Angular Velocity:
http://faraday.physics.utoronto.ca/PVB/Harrison/Flash/ClassMechanics/RightHandRule/
RightHandRule.html
8. Cross or Vector Product:
http://faraday.physics.utoronto.ca/PVB/Harrison/Flash/Vectors/CrossProduct/CrossProduct.
html

Credits: These animations were written by David M. Harrison, Dept. of Physics, Univ. of Toronto,
david.harrison@utoronto.ca (http://www.upscale.utoronto.ca/~harrison/). They are Copy-
right c 2002 - 2011 David M. Harrison.

4 Triple Product
Triple product is product between three vectors A ~, B
~ and C~ . We know that product between
two vectors produces scalar or vector. Now we can multiply the third vector with scalar, or third
vector with the vector to produce three different kind of product between the three vectors
(i) Let us first take the dot product between two vectors A ~ and B~ to produce the scalar and
~ , we obtain
then multiply this scalar by third vector C

~B
(A ~ )C
~

This is the product between scalar (A ~ ) and vector C

~B ~.

~B
(ii) The second type of product is scalar product between vectors A ~ and C
~ . This product

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 ~, B
Figure 10: Scalar triple product of A ~ and C
~.

is also called the scalar triple product. Here we have

~ B
(A ~) C
~

~B
Geometrically, |(A ~) C~ | is the volume of the parallelepiped generated by A
~, B
~ , and C
~.
From the definition of scalar product, we have
~ B
(A ~) C
~ = |(A
~B ~ | cos
~ )||C (5)

where is angle between vectors A ~ B~ and C~ . Now from the definition of vector product, we
know that |A ~B ~ | represents the area of the parallelogram formed by the vectors A ~ and B
~.
Further, the quantity h = |C ~ | cos represents numerically the altitude of the parallelepiped
relative to the base formed by the vectors A ~ and B
~ . Since the volume of a parallelepiped is
equal to the product of a base area and its altitude, it follows that the numerical value of
(5) represent the volume of the parallelepiped.
~ = Ax i + Ay j + Az k, B
If A ~ = Bxi + By j + Bz k and C
~ = Cxi + Cy j + Cz k, then in terms of
components of the vectors, we have
~B
A ~ = i(Ay Bz Az By ) j(Ax Bz Az Bx ) + k(Ax By Ay Bx )

and
~ B
(A ~ = (i(Ay Bz Az By ) j(Ax Bz Az Bx ) +
~) C
k(Ax By Ay Bx )) (Cx i + Cy j + Cz k)
= Cx (Ay Bz Az By ) Cy (Ax Bz Az Bx ) + Cz (Ax By Ay Bx )

which in the determinant form can be written as

Ax Ay Az
~ ~ ~
(A B ) C = Bx By Bz (6)
Cx Cy Cz

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Since the determinant of a matrix changes sign whenever any two of its rows are interchanged,
we see that if we interchange in (6) the first row and the second row, and then the second
row and the third row, the determinant remains the same. Thus, we obtain
Bx By Bz
~ ~ ~ ~ C
(A B ) C = Cx Cy Cz = (B ~) A
~ (7)

Ax Ay Az
Similarly, in Eq. (7) interchange the first row and the second row, and then the second row
and the third row, we obtain

Cx Cy Cz
~ ~ ~
(B C ) A = A xA
~ ~ ~
yAz = (C A) B
Bx By Bz
Therefore, the scalar triple product of three vectors has the property
~ B
(A ~) C
~ = (B
~ C
~) A
~ = (C
~ A
~) B
~ (8)

Thus scalar triple product is invariant under cyclic permutation of the vectors A ~, B
~ and
~ . Since this expression also represent the volume of the parallelepiped, expression (8)
C
~, B
represents the same figure. Also scalar triple product vanishes if two of the vectors A ~ and
~ are identical.
C
(A~ B~) A
~ = (A~B ~) B
~ = (A
~A ~) B
~ =0

Coplanar Vectors: The scalar triple product provides a convenient way for determining
whether or not three given vectors are coplanar; that is, the vectors lying on the same plane.
Three vectors are coplanar if and only if

Ax Ay Az
~ ~ ~
(A B ) C = Bx By B z = 0

Cx Cy Cz
This implies that C ~ is orthogonal to A~B ~ . Since A~B ~ itself is orthogonal to A~ and B
~,
we deduce that C ~ lies on the plane determined by A~ and B~ . Thus the vectors A ~, B
~ and C~
are coplanar. Coplanar vectors are also linearly dependent, i.e., we can express one vector as
linear combination of the other two vectors. Suppose C ~ is linear combination of the vectors
A~ and B~ , i.e.,
~ = A
C ~ + B~

where and are non-zero scalars. Now,

~ (A
C ~ B ~ + B
~ ) = (A ~ ) (A
~B ~)
= (A
~ (A
~B ~ )) + (B
~ (A ~ )) = (0) + (0) = 0
~ B

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 showing that the vectors A~, B
~ and C~ are in the same plane. Thus the three non-zero vectors
are linearly dependent if and only if they are coplanar.

(iii) The third and last case of triple product is the vector triple product. In this case we first
take the cross product between two vectors B ~ and C
~ and then we take the cross product
~ . The vector triple product is written as
with the third vector A

A ~ C
~ (B ~) (9)

In the component form, A = Ax i + Ay j + Az k, B = Bx i + By j + Bz k and C = Cx i + Cy j + Cz k,

Eq. (9) becomes

i j k
~ (B
A ~ C
~ ) = (Ax i + Ay j + Az k) Bx By Bz
Cx Cy Cz
= (Ax i + Ay j + Az k)[i(By Cz Bz Cy ) j(Bx Cz Bz Cx ) +
k(Bx Cy By Cx )]
i j k
= Ax Ay Az
By Cz Bz Cy Bz Cx Bx Cz Bx Cy By Cx
= i(Ay Bx Cy Ay By Cx Az Bz Cx + Az Bx Cz ) j(Ax Bx Cy Ax By Cx
Az By Cz + Az Bz Cy ) + k(Ax Bz Cx Ax Bx Cz Ay By Cz + Ay Bz Cy )

Also

~ (A
B ~) C
~C ~ (A ~ ) = (Bxi + By j + Bz k)(Ax Cx + Ay Cy + Az Cz ) (Cx i + Cy j + Cz k)
~B
(Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz )
= i(Ay Bx Cy Ay By Cx Az Bz Cx + Az Bx Cz )
j(Ax Bx Cy Ax By Cx Az By Cz + Az Bz Cy ) +
k(Ax Bz Cx Ax Bx Cz Ay By Cz + Ay Bz Cy )
Thus we have
~ (B
A ~ C
~) = B
~ (A ~) C
~C ~ (A
~B
~) (10)
From here we can see that A ~ (B
~ C ~ ) is linear combination of vectors B ~ and C~ . To see
~ (B
this, note that the vector A ~ C~ ) is orthogonal to vectors A ~ and B ~ C ~ and B
~ C ~ is
~ and C
in turn orthogonal to the vectors B ~ , it follows that A
~ (B
~ C ~ ), B
~ , and C
~ are copla-
nar or linearly dependent. Hence, we can express the vector A ~ (B
~ C~ ) in terms of B
~ and C~.

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Example: Prove that
~ B
(A ~) C
~=B
~ (A ~) A
~C ~ (B
~ C
~) (11)

Solution: We have
~ B
(A ~ = C
~) C ~ (A
~B ~ ) = [C
~ (A ~) B
~B ~ (C
~ A
~ )]
~ (C
= B ~) C
~ A ~ (A
~B~)

~ (B
Comparing Eqs. (10) and (11), we conclude that A ~ C
~ ) = (A
~B
~) C
~.

Example: Evaluate the vector product

~ B
(A ~ ) (C
~ D
~) (12)

Solution: To simplify this expression, let us assume that P~ = A ~B~ . Then the expression (12)
becomes
P~ (C
~ D ~) =C ~)D
~ (P~ D ~ (P~ C
~)

which in turn becomes

~ B
(A ~ ) (C
~ D
~) = C
~ ((A~ B ~)D
~) D ~ ((A~ B ~) C
~)
~ (A
= C ~ (B
~ D ~ )) D
~ (A~ (B
~ C ~ ))

Example: Prove the Jacobi identity

~ (B
A ~ C
~) + B
~ (C
~ A
~) + C
~ (A
~ B
~) = 0 (13)

Solution: We know that

~ (B
A ~ C
~) = B
~ (C ~) C
~ A ~ (A
~B~)
~ (C
B ~ A
~) = C
~ (B ~) A
~ A ~ (B
~ C
~)
~ (A
C ~B~) = A
~ (C ~) B
~ B ~ (C
~ A
~)

Adding these three equations, we obtain the Jacobi identity. From here one can see that under
certain condition, we can also have
A~ (B
~ C
~ ) = (A
~ B~) C~ (14)

To prove this, let us write expression (13) as

~ (B
A ~ ) (A
~ C ~ B ~ = B
~) C ~ (C
~ A
~) = A
~ (B ~) C
~ C ~ (A
~B
~) (15)

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To prove the relation (14), right hand side of (15) must be equal to zero, i.e.,
~ (B
A ~) C
~ C ~ (A
~B
~) = 0

~ is parallel to C
Now right hand side of this equation is zero when either (i) A ~ or (ii) B
~ C
~ =B
~ A~ = 0,
~ is perpendicular to A
i.e., B ~ and C~.

Example: Prove that

(A ~ ) [(B
~ B ~ C
~ ) (C
~ A
~ )] = (A
~ (B
~ C
~ ))2 (16)

Solution: Let us define P~ = B

~ C~ . Then
(B~ C ~ ) (C
~ A~ ) = P~ (C ~ A ~)
= C ~) A
~ (P~ A ~ (P~ C
~)
= C ~ (B~ C ~ A~) A ~ (B
~ C~ C
~)
= C ~ (A~B ~ C~) A ~ (B
~ C
~ C~) = C
~ (A
~B
~ C
~)

Then from Eq. (16), we obtain

~ B
(A ~ ) [(B
~ C
~ ) (C
~ A
~ )] = (A
~B
~) C
~ (A
~B~ C
~)
~B
= (A ~ C~ )(A
~ B
~ C
~ ) = (A
~B
~ C
~ )2

Question: Consider the vector equation A ~B ~ =C ~ . Then show that

(i) A~C
~ = 0 and
~ = C~ A~ + A
(ii) B ~ is a solution of the given equation for any scalar .
|A~ |2

5 Reciprocal Vectors
The set of vectors ~a, ~b, ~c and a~0 , ~b0 , c~0 are reciprocal vectors if they satisfy the following conditions:

~a a~0 = ~b ~b0 = ~c c~0 = 1

a~0 ~b = a~0 ~c = b~0 ~a = b~0 ~c = c~0 ~a = c~0 ~b = 0

Reciprocal set of vectors are defined as

~b ~c
a~0 =
~a ~b ~c
~b0 = ~c ~a
~a ~b ~c
~
~c0 = ~a b
~a ~b ~c

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From this definition, we can verify the above set of conditions, i.e.,

~a ~b ~c
~a a~0 = =1
~a ~b ~c

Similarly we can show that ~b ~b0 = ~c ~c0 = 1 and

~b ~b ~c ~b ~b ~c
a~0 ~b = = =0
~a ~b ~c ~a ~b ~c

Similarly we can verify the other conditions. Now we know that the scalar triple product ~a ~b ~c
is the volume V , we can write
~ ~
a~0 = b ~c , ~b0 = ~c ~a , ~c0 = ~a b
V V V
Then the volume formed by reciprocal vectors is given by
~ ~c) (~c ~a) (~a b)~
(b
a~0 ~b0 ~c0 =
V3
(~a ~b ~c)2 V2 1
= = = using (16)
V3 V3 V
Thus the volume formed by the reciprocal set of vectors is reciprocal to the volume formed by the
vectors ~a, ~b and ~c.

6 Transformation of Vectors
When we say some quantity behaves like vector, we mean that it has both magnitude and direction
and its components add like vectors. But this definition is not satisfactory. There are quantities
which behaves like vectors but they are not vectors. For example, let us say we have two box: in
one box we have Ax apples, Ay oranges and Az bananas and in other box we have Bx apples, By
oranges and Bz bananas. Thus in both the boxes we have a quantity which has three components.
Then the combined number of fruits in both the boxes are: (Ax + Bx ) apples, (Ay + By ) oranges
and (Az + Bz ) bananas. So the fruits in both the boxes add like vector. But, it is not a vector
because it does not have direction.

6.1 Transformation of Vectors under Rotation

To define a vector, we have to see how a vector transform when we go from one coordinate system
to another. The coordinate frame we use to describe positions in space is entirely arbitrary, but
there is a specific geometrical transformation law for converting vector components from one frame
to another. We are going to discuss coordinate transformations in two dimensions. Thus consider

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 Figure 11: Rotation of (x0 , y 0 ) coordinate with respect to (x, y) coordinate

two Cartesian coordinate system (x, y) and (x0 , y 0 ) with common origin O (see Fig. 11). The (x, y 0 )
coordinate is rotated by an angle with respect to the (x, y) coordinate system. Let us assume
that (i, j) be unit vectors in the (x, y) coordinate and vectors are denoted by

~r = xi + yj

and those in the primed coordinate are denoted by

~r = x0 i0 + y 0 j0

Since (i, j) and (i0 , j0 ) are unit vectors in coordinate frame (x, y) and (x0 , y, ), respectively, they
must satisfy the relation
2 2
i2 = j 2 = 1, i0 = j0 = 1
i j = 0, i0 j0 = 0

and

i i0 = j j0 = cos

i j0 = cos + = sin (17)
2

i0 j = cos = sin
2
Since, the vector ~r is geometrical object and hence it is same in both the coordinate system. Thus

~r = xi + yj = x0 i0 + y 0 j0

Taking the dot products first with i0 and then with j0 we get

x0 = x(i i0 ) + y(j i0 )
y 0 = x(i j0 ) + y(j j0 )

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and hence, using Eq. (17), we get

x0 = x cos + y sin
y 0 = x sin + y cos

~ = Ax i + Ay j + Az k in coordinate system (x, y, z), the components of the

For an arbitrary vector A
same vector in coordinate system (x0 , y 0 , z 0 , ) which is rotated with respect to the (x, y, z) system
by an angle about z = z 0 axis is given by

A0x = Ax cos + Ay sin

A0y = Ax sin + Ay cos

In matrix notation, we can write the above two expressions as

! ! !
Ax0 cos sin Ax
=
Ay0 sin cos Ay

In general, we can write above expression as

X
A0i = Rij Aj
j

Where Rij is rotation matrix. Also for two dimensional rotation, j = 2 and for three dimensional
rotation j = 3. In general j can take any finite value depending on the dimension of space. Thus
any quantity whose component transform like vector is actually a vector. Also one can see from
above that when we go from one coordinate system to another then the components of the vector
get mixed, i.e., A0x depends on both Ax and Ay and similarly A0y depends on both Ax and Ay . Thus
from here one see that set of fruits does not transform like vector because when we go from one
coordinate system to another then some of the apples will be converted into banana or oranges
into apple, which is not possible.

Remark: Vector is a quantity whose component changes when we go from one coordinate system
to another, while scalar is a quantity which remains same in every coordinate system. As an
example, we know that dot product of two vectors A ~ and B~ is a scalar. Thus when we go from
one coordinate system to another then A~B~ remains invariant. We have

A0 B 0 = A0x Bx0 + A0y By0

= (Ax cos + Ay sin )(Bx cos + By sin ) + (Ax sin + Ay cos )(Bx sin + By cos )
= Ax Bx cos2 + (Ax By + Ay Bx ) cos sin + Ay By sin2 +
Ax Bx sin2 (Ax By + Ay Bx ) cos sin + Ay By cos2
= Ax Bx + Ay By = A~B~

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 ~ | = (A
From here we can see that length of the vector |A ~A
~ )1/2 remains invariant under coordinate
transformation.

Example: Newtons second law of motion remains invariant under rotation of axes. To prove
this let us assume that we have two coordinate system S and S 0 and S 0 is rotated with respect to
the S coordinate by an angle . The coordinates of S 0 are given by

x0 = x cos + y sin
y 0 = x sin + y cos (18)
z0 = z
Let the force acting on the particle in coordinate S is F~ and the components of force in this
coordinate is (Fx , Fy , Fz ). Then the components of force in coordinate system S 0 is

F x0 = Fx cos + Fy sin
F y0 = Fx sin + Fy cos (19)
F z0 = Fz

Now the force acting on the particle in coordinate S is

F~ = m~a
which in component form can be written as

d2 x
m = Fx
dt2
d2 y
m 2 = Fy (20)
dt
d2 z
m = Fz
dt2
The force acting on the particle in coordinate S 0 is

d2 x0
m = F x0
dt2
d2 y 0
m 2 = F y0 (21)
dt
d2 z 0
m 2 = F z0
dt
where we assume that mass m, of the particle is same in both the coordinate system S and S 0 .
Now multiply Eq. (18) by m and differentiate twice with respect to time, assuming the angle to

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be constant. This gives
d2 x0 d2 x d2 y
m = m cos + m sin
dt2 dt2 dt2
d2 y 0 d2 x d2 y
m 2 = m sin + m cos (22)
dt dt2 dt2
d2 z 0 d2 z
m 2 = m 2
dt dt
We calculate the right hand side of Eq. (21) by substituting (20) into Eq. (19). This gives
d2 x d2 y
Fx0 = m cos + m sin
dt2 dt2
d2 x d2 y
F y0 = m sin + m cos (23)
dt2 dt2
d2 z
Fz0 = m 2
dt
Thus right sides of Eqs. (22) and (23) are identical, so Newtons law are valid in both the coordinate
system S and S 0 .

6.2 Transformation of Vectors under Translation

So far we have discussed the transformation of vectors under rotation of coordinate system. Now
we are going to discuss how vectors transform under translation of coordinate system. Let us
consider two coordinate system S and S 0 and the coordinate system S 0 is translated along x axis
by constant amount a. Then the coordinates of S 0 in terms of coordinate of S are given by

x0 = x a, y 0 = y, z0 = z

~ , i.e.,
Then in the new coordinate system there is no change in components of A

A0x = Ax , Ay0 = Ay , A0z = Az

Similarly, Newtons second law of motion remains invariant under the translation of coordinate
system. Since a is constant, we can write
dx0 d dx da
= (x a) =
dt dt dt dt
Since a is constant, its derivative with respect to time is zero and hence we can write
dx0 dx
=
dt dt
and therefore
d2 x0 d2 x
=
dt2 dt2

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and hence
d2 x0 d2 x
m = m
dt2 dt2
Therefore, Newtons second law of motion remains invariant under the translation of coordinate
system.

6.3 Transformation of Vectors under Coordinate Inversion

Vectors also transform under the inversion of coordinate system. For example, if we have a
coordinate system S, with cartesian coordinate x, y, z. Then under coordinate inversion, we have

x0 = x, y 0 = y, z 0 = z

~ transform as
Then under coordinate inversion, the vector A

A0x = Ax , Ay0 = Ay , Az0 = Az

Geometrically, coordinate inversion represent the mirror reflection of the vector.

7 Axial and Polar Vector

Under coordinate inversion we know that vector changes its sign. There are certain vectors which
changes sign under coordinate inversion and these vectors are known as polar vectors. Force,
velocity, acceleration, etc. are examples of polar vector. Certain vector does not change sign
under coordinate inversion and these vectors are known as axial vector. For example, cross product
between two polar vectors, A ~ and B ~ is an example of axial vector. Under coordinate inversion
~ A
A ~ and B~ B ~ , but their cross product remains same, i.e.,

A ~ (A
~B ~ ) (B
~) = A
~B
~

Other examples of axial vectors are: torque = ~r F~ , angular momentum L ~ = ~r p~, angular
velocity
~ = (~r ~v )/|~r|2 . Thus, under reflection cross product of two vectors does not behaves like
a vector because it does not change sign. Thus, axial vectors are also known as pseudo vector. In
other words, if the vector is reflected in a mirror perpendicular to itself and the reflection preserves
the direction of vector, then the vector is axial and if reflection does not preserve the direction then
the vector is polar (see Fig. 12). Thus we have two different kind of vectors: one that changes sign
under coordinate reflection and the other which does not changes sign under coordinate reflection.
From here one can show that cross product of two polar vector is an axial vector, cross product of
two axial vector is axial vector, and the cross product of axial and polar vector is a polar vector.
On the other hand, dot product of two polar vector is invariant under coordinate inversion.
For example, let us take the dot product of force F~ and displacement ~r, then under coordinate

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 Figure 12: (a) Polar vector (b) Axial vector

inversion F~ F~ , ~r ~r, leaving the product F~ ~r invariant. But if we consider the dot product
of polar vector with an axial vector, then under coordinate inversion, their product changes sign,
but it remains invariant under rotation. For example, let us consider the scalar triple product

~ (A
C ~ B
~)

Then under reflection of coordinate, we have

~ C
C ~, (A ~ ) (A
~ B ~B
~)

Hence the dot product C ~ (A

~B ~ ) changes sign under coordinate reflection. We therefore also
distinguish between two classes of scalars, those which do not and those which do change sign
under reflections. The former are called scalars, whereas the latter are called pseudo-scalars.
Thus scalar triple product is an example of pseudo-scalar.

8 Vector and Scalar Field

So far we have talked about constant vectors and scalars. But, most of the cases vectors are not
constant. For example, if the position vector ~r depends on time then we obtain velocity vector ~v ,
by differentiating ~r with time. The second differentiation with time gives the acceleration vector
~a. Also, vectors can be function of position (x, y, z), in space. Such quantities which depends
on (x, y, z) are known as field. In this course we will discuss both scalar and vector field. In
general, vectors and scalars may depend on both space and time. If the vector and scalar field are
continuous function of (x, y, z), then we can differentiate the corresponding field.
We get a scalar field if we attach a value for the scalar to each point in space. Scalar fields
are independent of the coordinate system used to describe the physical system. Thus, when we
go from one coordinate system (x, y, z) to another coordinate system (x0 , y 0 , z 0 ), then the scalar
field remains the same. Examples of the scalar field are: the temperature at each point of space
T (x, y, z), pressure distribution in fluid p(x, y, z), the density of molecules at each point in space
(x, y, z), gravitational potential, electrostatic potential, etc. A scalar field is characterized by
single value at each point in space. In mathematics a scalar field F of three variable, such as

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 Figure 13: Graph of vector field

F (x, y, z) = constant

represents the equation of a surface. For example,

x2 + y2 + z 2 = r2

is an equation of spherical surface.

Similarly, we obtain a vector field if we attach a vector to each point of our space. A vector field
is characterized by its magnitude and direction at each point in space (such as the wind velocity
or the strength of the electric or magnetic field). Mathematically a vector field is simply a vector
function, each of its three components depends on the coordinates of the point (see Fig. 13).

~ = Ax (x, y, z)i + Ay (x, y, z)j + Az (x, y, z)k

A

The field may also dependent on time, such as the electric and field in the electromagnetic wave.
Components of vector field at a point change when we go from one coordinate system to another.
For example, in a rotated system, the three components of the vector associated with one and
the same point will change in numerical value. It is also possible to derive one kind of field from
another. Thus we can obtain vector field using scalar field, scalar field using vector field and vector
field using vector field. This topic will be discussed in next lesson.

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 Figure 14: Triangle inscribed in a semicircle.

Exercises

1. Use the dot product to derive the law of cosines,

C 2 = A2 + B 2 2AB cos

2. Thales theorem states that the angle inscribed in a semicircle is /2 (see Fig. 14). Prove this
statement.

3. Find the values of for which the two vectors given by A

~ = i j k and B
~ = 2i 5j + 2k,
are perpendicular.

4. Show that the diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular to each other.

5. Find the area of the parallelogram spanned by the vectors 3i j + k and 5i k.

6. Find the work done in moving an object along a straight line from (3, 2, 1) to (2, 1, 4)
in a force field given by F~ = 4i 3j + 2k.
~ = 4i j + 3k and B
7. If A ~ = 2i + j 2k, find a unit vector perpendicular to both A
~ and B
~.

~ j) k is zero, what can you say about the vector A

8. If the triple product (A ~?

9. Evaluate the given vector product

~ (B
A ~ (C
~ D
~ ))

10. Prove that

~ B
(A ~ ) (C
~ D
~ ) + (B
~ C
~ ) (A
~ D
~ ) + (C
~ A
~ ) (B
~ D
~) =0

11. Prove the general form of Lagrange identity

~ B
(A ~ ) (C
~ D
~ ) = (A
~C
~ )(B ~ ) (A
~ D ~D
~ )(B
~ C
~)

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 ~ of a particle is given by L
12. The orbital angular momentum L ~ = ~r p~ = m~r ~v , where p~ is the
linear momentum and relation between linear and angular velocity is given by ~v = ~ ~r, show
that
~ = mr2 [~ r(r )],
L
where r is a unit vector in the direction of ~r. For r ~ = mr 2
~ = 0, this reduces to L ~ = I ~ , where
2
I = mr is the moment of inertia.

13. The cross and dot product between two vectors is given by the relation
~B
A ~ =C~, ~B
A ~ = k,

~ in terms of A
where k is a scalar. Express B ~, C
~ , |A
~ | and k.

14. Expand the triple product, ~a = ~ ~r). If ~r is perpendicular to ~ , show that ~a = 2~r.
~ (

15. Show that any vector ~r can be expressed in terms of reciprocal vectors as

~r = (~r a~0 )~a + (~r b~0 )~b + (~r c~0 )~c

*************************************************************************************

Bibliography/ References / Glossary

1. Mathematical Methods for Physicists, G. B. Arfken and H. J. Weber, 6th Edn., Elsevier.
2. Mathematical Methods in the Physical Sciences, Mary L. Boas, 2nd Edn., John Wiley & Sons.
3. Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Erwin Kreyszig, 9th Edn., Wiley India.
4. Introduction to Electrodynamics, David J. Griffiths, 3rd Edn., 1998, Prentice Hall
(see Chapter 1).
5. Schaums Outline of Theory and Problems of Vector Analysis and an Introduction to Tensor
Analysis, Murray R. Spiegel.
6. Mathematical Methods for Engineers and Scientists (Vol 2), K. T. Tang, Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg 2007.
7. MIT OPENCOURSEWARE on Multivariable Calculus by Denis Auroux (http://ocw.mit.
edu/courses/mathematics/18-02-multivariable-calculus-fall-2007/video-lectures/)

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