7.

2 Physical Methods of Control 203

there is no water, there is virtually no life. Many
nonperishable foods (such as cereals, rice, and
sugar) in the kitchen pantry represent such shelf-
stable products.
Preservation by salting is based upon the prin-
ciple of osmotic pressure. When food is salted
(usually sodium chloride), water diffuses out of
microorganisms toward the higher salt concen-
tration and lower water concentration in the sur-
rounding environment. This flow of water, called
osmosis, leaves the microorganisms dehydrated,
and they die. The same phenomenon occurs in
highly sugared foods (usually sucrose) such as
syrups, jams, and jellies. However, fungal con-
tamination (molds and yeasts) and growth at the
surface may occur because they can tolerate low
water and high sugar concentrations.
Low temperatures found in the refrigerator
their rate of growth (see Chapter 5). Spoilage is
not totally eliminated in cold foods, however, and
many psychrotrophs remain alive, even at freezer
temperatures. These organisms multiply rapidly
when food thaws, which is why prompt cooking
is recommended. Osmotic pressure:
Note in these examples that there are signifi- The pressure applied
to a solution to stop the
cant differences between killing microorganisms, inward diffusion (osmosis)
holding them in check, and reducing their num- of a solvent through a semi-
bers. The preservation methods are described as permeable membrane.
bacteriostatic because they prevent the further
multiplication of food-borne pathogens such as
Salmonella and Clostridium. A more complete dis-
cussion of food preservation as it relates to public
health is presented in Chapter 25. TABLE 7.1 and
FIGURE 7.12 summarize the physical agents used
for controlling microorganisms.
CONCEPT AND REASONING CHECKS

and freezer retard spoilage by lowering the meta- 7.8 Explain how salting foods acts as a preservation
bolic rate of microorganisms and thereby reducing method.

TABLE

7.1 A Summary of Physical Agents Used to Control Microorganisms

Physical Object of Examples
Method Conditions Instrument Treatment of Uses Comment
Incineration A few seconds Flame All microorganisms Laboratory Object must be
instruments disposable or
heat-resistant
Hot air 160C for 2 hr Oven Bacterial spores Glassware Not useful for fluid
Po

Powders materials
m
m
er
vi

Oily substances
lle
,J
ef
fre

Boiling water 100C for 10 min Vegetative Wide variety of Total immersion and
y
C
,a

microorganisms objects precleaning

nd
I.
Ed

100C for 2 hr+ Bacterial spores necessary

w
ar
d
Al

Pressurized steam 121C for 15 min Autoclave Bacterial spores Instruments Broad application
cam
o.

at 15 lb/in2 Surgical materials in microbiology

20
11
.A

Solutions and media

lc
am
o

Fractional 30 min/day for Sterilizer Bacterial spores Materials not Long process
s
Fu
nd
am

sterilization 3 successive days sterilized by Sterilization

en
ta

other methods not assured

ls
of
M
ic

Pasteurization Holding method Pasteurizer Pathogenic Dairy products Sterilization

ro
bi
ol
og

Flash method microorganisms Beverages achieved with UHT

y.
Su
db

UHT method
ur
y,
M
as

Filtration Entrapment in pores Membrane filter All microorganisms Fluids Many adaptations
s.
:J
on

HEPA filter Air

es
an
d
Ba

Ultraviolet light 265 nm energy Generator All microorganisms Surface and air Not useful in fluids
rtl
et
tP

sterilization
ub
lis
he

X rays Short wave-length Generator All microorganisms Heat-sensitive Extending food

rs
.

Gamma rays energy materials shelf life

Dehydration Osmotic conditions All microorganisms Salted and Food preservation
sugared foods
Refrigeration/ 5C/10C Refrigerator/ All microorganisms Numerous foods Spoilage/Food
Freezing Freezer preservation

62582_CH07_189_221.pdf 203 2/4/10 2:22 PM

 204 CHAPTER 7 Control of Microorganisms: Physical and Chemical Methods

Physical Methods
of Control

which include

Heat Po Filtration Radiant Energy Low Temperature

m
m
which can be in the in the
er
using a that includes
vi
form of form of
lle
,J
ef
fre
y
C
,a
nd
I.
Ed
w
ar
d
Dry heat Moist Heat Membrane filter HEPA filter UV light Ionizing radiations Refrigeration Freezing
Al
ca
m
o.
20
using by to sterilize
11
.A
lc
am in the form of
o
s
Liquids Air X rays Gamma rays
Fu
nd
am
en
ta
sl
Hot air oven Incineration
of
M
ic
obr
io
through
l
og
y
.S
ud
bu
ry
Direct flame Boiling water Steam Pasteurization
,M
as
s.
:J
on
es
under pressure an
using that can be
d
that
Ba
carried out by
rtl
accomplishes
et
Autoclave
tP
ub
lis
he
not under Flash method
rs
Prevacuum Elimination of
.

autoclave pressure using pathogens and

inhibition of growth
Holding
and division
Fractional method
that sterilization
accomplishes Ultrahigh
temperature
(UHT) method
Sterilization

FIGURE 7.12 A Concept Map Summarizing the Physical Methods of Microbial Control. Note that some methods sterilize while others tend to inhibit
growth and division. What is common to most of the sterilization methods?

7.3 General Principles of Chemical Control

Sanitation and disinfection methods are not
unique to the modern era. The Bible refers often
to cleanliness and prescribes certain dietary laws
to prevent consumption of what was believed to
be contaminated food. Egyptians used resins and
aromatics for embalming, and ancient peoples
burned sulfur for deodorizing and sanitary pur-
poses. Arabian physicians first suggested using
mercury to treat syphilis. Over the centuries,
spices were used as preservatives as well as masks
for foul odors, making Marco Polos trips to Asia
for new spices a necessity as well as an adventure.

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