SCH4U: Review (Goncalves)

Unit 1
The Four Laws of Chemistry
1. Law of Conservation of Mass: mass is neither created nor destroyed
2. Law of Conservation of Energy: energy is neither created nor destroyed
3. Law of Constant Composition: any given compound contains the same proportion of ele-
ments by mass (this is shown in percentage composition)
4. Law of Multiple Proportions: when two elements form a series of compounds, the ratio of
the masses of the second element that combines with 1g of the first can be reduce to whole
numbers

Laws versus Theories

A law is a pattern in nature that is constant and unchanged.
e.g. if a ball is thrown, it will come down.
A theory is an attempt to explain a certain phenomenon.
e.g. Gravity

THE HISTORY OF THE ATOM The Law of Multiple

1. John Daltons Atomic Theory Proportions
Dalton made use of laws 1, 3 and 4 to attempt this theory:
Postulates: i) all matter is made up of tiny parts (atoms)
ii) all atoms of a particular element are identical
iii) all atoms of different elements have different properties
iv) in chemical reactions, atoms join/separate without being destroyed
v) atoms combine in whole number ratios to form compound atoms
He still could not explain: a) the discovery of charged particles
b) isotopes
c) bonding
2. Thomsons Model of the Atom (The Plum Pudding Theory)
During Thomsons time, protons have been discovered through radioactive decay, and
Thomson himself discovered the electron.
Model: *The sphere was chosen because spheres require the least amount of energy for na-
ture to form.* It was believed that the proton made up the entirety of the atom (aside from
the electron) and existed as a gelatinous form in a diffuse positive sphere.
He still could not explain: a) the discovery of charged particles
b) isotopes
c) bonding
 SCH4U: Review (Goncalves)

3. Rutherfords Gold Foil Experiment (1911)

The following experiment was performed in order to provide evidence for Thomsons model:

Expectations: i) Most particles should travel straight through the atom

ii) Some deflection will occur
Observations: i) Most particles went straight through the gold foil
ii) Some deflected to the sides
iii) A few reflected back!
Rutherford concluded that the following must be true:
i) Atoms are made mostly of empty space
ii) Deflections are due to particles being repelled by positive mass (protons)
iii) Reflections must be due to particles hitting something dense
He still could not explain: a) Why only protons constitute the nucleus if they repel each other
b) Why the electrons dont collapse into the nucleus
c) Isotopes
d) Bonding

3.5. Chadwick and the Neutron

Chadwick, a student of Rutherford discovered that the mass of the nucleus in an atom
did not equal the mass of the protons (which were thought to be the only constituents of the
nucleus). He hypothesized that another particle, the neutron, must be present in the nucleus.
4. Max Planck and Quantum Theory
Planck worked on determining a mathematical relationship for energy being released
by an object when it was heated to a white hot stage (named black bodies because they emit
back all the energy given to them).
Before Planck, it was believed that as energy gets greater, then the higher energy
light (and all waves to that point) are emitted.

What Planck expected What Planck saw

After Plancks work, it was theorized that there had to be a smallest amount possible of energy
that could not be divided further: a quantum. Multiple quanta form a photon.
Planck could not explain: a) Bonding
b) Why electrons do not collapse into the nucleus
 SCH4U: Review (Goncalves)

5. Niels Bohr
Bohr knew that photons existed, Rutherfords model and line spectra (the energy an atom
emits is very specific and will show single line on a spectrum).
With this knowledge, Bohr concluded that electrons must live on specific energy levels such that they
emit specific amounts of energy when they move from one to the other.
Bohr concluded that electrons prefer to orbit in ground state, or energy level one. When excited, they
will rise to a higher energy level. Additionally, he proposed that if an electron jumps from one level to
another, it may produce a line on a spectrum, or energy in the ultraviolet or infrared form.

Bohrs models problems:

i) It explained the H2 spectrum, but did not explain much
for other elements.
ii) bonding remains unexplained

Bohr also developed the rule for filling shells:

#e-= 2n2

SPDF Notation
We cannot know the exact location of an electron, but
we can estimate the most possible location: an orbital
is the volume of space where one is most likely to find
an electron. There are four orbitals are S, P, D and F.

Energy Level Diagrams/Configuration

Energy level diagrams are written in order to show the order of electrons being filled in orbitals.
Another way of showing electron filling is
through electron level configuration.
The configuration for phosphorus is:
1s22s22p63s23p3
Quantum Numbers
1. Principal Quantum Number (n): Bohrs energy
level (1-7)
2. Secondary Quantum Number (l): sublevels
(SPDF, where S=0)
3. Magnetic Quantum Number (ml ): sub-sublevel
(only visible when magnetic field present). To
find, use whole numbers starting from l.
4. Spin Number (mn ): spin of electron due to
magnetic field created by moving electrons.
Either .
Quantum Number: 3, 1, 0, +
 SCH4U: Review (Goncalves)

Ferromagnetism & Paramagnetism

Because of an electrons spin, elements can exhibit magnetism at
the atomic level (paramagnetism). S0me elements can exhibit
magnetism on a macroscopic scale (ferromagnetism). IN ORDER
TO BE PARAMAGNETIC, AN ELEMENT NEEDS AT LEAST ONE
LONE ELECTRON.
Ferromagnetic elements (Mn, Cr, Fe, Co, Ni) form domains: sec-
tions where the poles of electrons face the same direction.
Not Ferromagnetic
Lewis Theory of Bonding
Lewis was the first chemist to create a comprehensive bonding theory.
IONIC COVALENT

Sidgwick, another chemist, explained that not all atoms had to donate an electron; some could donate
two to put into a bond.
RULES FOR DRAWING LEWIS DIAGRAMS
1. Place least electronegative atom in the center.
2. Add number of valence electrons (and charge).
3. Place bonding electrons first.
4. Ensure outer electrons have perfect octet.
5. Remaining electrons go to central atom.
6. If central atom still partially empty, donate elec-
trons from other atoms to make a multiple bond.
7. Draw any resonant structures.

Valence Bond Theory and Hybridization

The valence bond theory (VBT) states that when forming compounds, atomic orbitals (or hybrids) will
overlap in order to form a new bonding orbital of lower energy in which electron pairs will be placed.
The VBT, however, encountered a problem when applied to carbon. This element would form 4 bonds
when only 2 electrons were available for bonding, and the bonding angles were significantly different
than what the VBT proposed. Thus, the VBT was expanded to include hybridization, a process by which
S and P (and sometimes D) orbitals create a new energy level.
When hybridizing for a compound with double or triple bonds, one must take into account sigma
bonds () and pi bonds (). Sigma bonds form with FULL OVERLAP of atomic/hybrid orbitals, and set
the structure of the compound. Pi bonds compose the extra set(s) of bonds, and are formed by partial
overlap of P orbitals.
HOW TO ILLUSTRATE BONDING WITH VBT AND HYBRIDIZATION
1. Draw a Lewis structure.
2. Draw the energy level diagrams for the elements in the compounds.
3. If number of lone electrons in the energy level diagrams is consistent with the number of bonds made
by the element in question, draw the atomic orbitals overlapping first partially, then the final bonding
orbital diagram.
4. If the number of lone electrons in the energy level diagrams is NOT consistent with the number of
bonds made by the element in question, the inconsistent element must be hybridized to fit the NUM-
BER OF SIGMA BONDS (i.e. 3 bonds, hybridized to sp2). Follow step 3 to illustrate final diagrams.
 SCH4U: Review (Goncalves)

VSEPR Theory
The Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR) aids chemists in determining the shapes of
compounds.
VSEPR SUMMARY TABLE
Bonding Lone Pairs Total Hybrid Electron Pair Arrange- Molecular Geometry
Pairs of of Elec- Pairs of Orbitals ment
Electrons trons Electrons
2 0 2 sp Linear Linear (1800)
3 0 3 sp2 Trigonal planar Trigonal Planar (1200)
3
4 0 4 sp Tetrahedral Tetrahedral
3 1 4 sp3 Tetrahedral Trigonal Pyramidal
2 2 4 sp3 Tetrahedral Bent (1090)
3
1 3 4 sp Tetrahedral Linear (1800)
5 0 5 sp3d Trigonal Bipyramidal Trigonal Bipyramidal (900 & 1200)
3
3 2 5 sp d Trigonal Bipyramidal T-Shaped
3
4 1 5 sp d Trigonal Bipyramidal Seesaw Shape
6 0 6 sp3d2 Octahedral Octahedral (900)
4 2 6 sp3d2 Octahedral Square Planar
NOTE: All bonding pairs of electrons (and consequently, the total number of electrons) will only count
sigma bonds.
Intramolecular and Intermolecular Bonds
Intramolecular bonds are forces that connect atoms together. These include:
Covalent (two nonmetals with a nonpolar nature)
Ionic (a metal and a nonmetal)
Polar covalent (two nonmetals with a polar nature)
Metallic (stacking of nuclei & sharing valence electrons between all atoms. Lots of nuclei=high
density, stream of electrons=high conductivity).
Network covalent (a large stacking of covalent bonds, e.g. diamonds)
Intermolecular bonds or van der Waals forces keep molecules together. These include:
Ion-Dipole (where dipoles on a polar molecule attract ions; e.g. MgCl2 in water)
Induced Dipole (influencing small covalent molecules to produce a dipole; e.g. N2 in water)
Dipole-Dipole (connects polar compounds; e.g. glucose in water)
Hydrogen Bonds (dipole-dipole forces between H and N, O or F in polar compounds)
London Forces (weak, random forces that connect nonpolar molecules together; occur when
two electrons briefly cross paths in their orbits, causing a slight polarity to occur)
The table below summarizes certain properties of matter.
COMPARING DIFFERENT SOLIDS OF MATTER
Type Elements Forces Appearance/Atom Ar- Hardness Melting Conductivity
rangement Point S L G
Ionic Metal & Ionic Crystalline (organized Hard, Brittle @ High
Nonmetal packaging with direc- cleavage points No Yes Yes
tions), cleavage points
Metallic Metals Metallic Crystalline (closely Soft to hard Low to Yes Yes Insoluble
packed), high density High
Covalent Non-metals Covalent Powders/Waxes, com- Soft and brittle Low No No No
plex packing
Covalent Metalloids Covalent Crystalline, organized Extremely Hard Very No No No
Network and Carbon packing, very strong High
 SCH4U: Review (Goncalves)

Unit 2: Thermochemistry and Rates

Thermochemistry is the study of thermal energy transfers in chemical and physical changes.
Thermal energy encompasses all of the kinetic and potential energy in a substance, but since it is so
difficult to measure alone, we consider total energy transfer from one substance to another: heat.
An exothermic reaction will have a heat output.
An endothermic reaction will require a heat input.
In order to measure heat changes, reactions must take place in specific systems:
1. An open system does not contain both matter and energy during a chemical reaction
2. A closed system retains matter, but not heat.
3. An isolated system retains both matter and energy.
Heat is calculated using the formula = . (NOTE: The c value for water and all solutions is
assumed to be 4.18 J/goC)

While heat does refer to an energy transfer in a chemical reaction, it is NOT equivalent to the term en-
thalpy change. Enthalpy is the total internal energy a substance possesses at constant temperature.
Enthalpy change (H) is the difference in enthalpies during a chemical, physical or nuclear change.
The relationship between heat and enthalpy change may be stated to be:
=

It is important to recognize that various changes are represented by various enthalpy changes:
Physical changes have a LOW enthalpy change (10102 kJ/mol). In any physical change, energy is used
or given to overcome or form intermolecular and ionic bonds.
Chemical changes have a MODERATE enthalpy change (102104 kJ/mol). In any chemical change, en-
ergy is used or given to overcome or form intermolecular or intramolecular forces.
Nuclear changes have a LARGE enthalpy change (10101012 kJ/mol).In any nuclear change, energy is
used to alter the nuclear forces.

Representing Enthalpy Changes

There are four ways to represent enthalpy changes:
1. Thermochemical Equations with Energy Terms
180.6 kJ + N2 + O2 2NO (endothermic) vs 2C4H10 + 13O2 8CO2 + 10H2O + 5742 kJ (exothermic)

2. Thermochemical Equation with Energy Changes

N2 + O2 2NO H= +180.6 kJ vs 2C4H10 + 13O2 8CO2 + 10H2O H= -5742 kJ

3. Molar Enthalpies of Reaction

N2 + O2 2NO H= +180.6 kJ BUT ( 2) N2 + O2 NO H= +90.3 kJ

4. Potential Energy Diagrams

NOTE: When more energy is required than it is

Ep (Potential Energy)

2NO made, the reaction is endothermic (+H). When

more energy is created than used, the change is
exothermic (-H). When the energy required and
the energy made are equivalent or very close, the
N2 + O2 system is thermally neutral.

RP (Reaction Progress)
 SCH4U: Review (Goncalves)

Calculating Enthalpy Change = or = =
The following reaction has an enthalpy change of -1408 kJ.
What is the change in enthalpy when 1kg of Al reacts completely with excess Cl?
2Al + 3Cl2 2AlCl3
Determine moles of sub- Isolate for 1 mole of substance Interpret data.
stance in question. in question.
1408 =
=
= =
2
1000 = 704 kJ/mol Al = 704 37.04
=
27 = 26076
= 37.04

Calculating Enthalpies with Calorimetry =

= or = =
Calorimetry is a process by which energy

changes in a system are determined using
temperature changes. In order to perform calorimetric calculations, four assumptions must be made:
1. Density of a solution is equivalent to the density of water (1 mL = 1 g)
2. The heat capacity of a solution is that of water (4.18 J/goC)
3. The reaction is occurring in an isolated system
4. The volumes of solutions and water are additive
ex. A student mixes 250 mL of 0.5 mol/L HI at 21oC with 6.91 g of KNO3. The highest temperature
achieved is 24.4 oC. Determine the molar enthalpy of this reaction.
HI + KNO3 KI + HNO3
Determine limiting reagent. Find heat produced in surroundings.
1 =
From equation:
1 3
= (4.18)(250)(24.4 21)
6.91
3 = = 0.068 3 = 3553
101. 6 3 = 3.553

= (0.250 ) (0.5 ) = 0.125

0.125 1.83
From data: =
0.068 3 1 3
KNO3 is limiting.

Determine the enthalpy change. Find molar enthalpy.

=
=
= 3.553
3.553
=
0.068
= 52.25 kJ/ mol

Hesss Law
Hesss Law states that the change in enthalpy of a reaction can be determined by adding the enthalpies
of the intermediate reactions that may take place in a reaction.
ex. C(s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g)

1. C (s) + O2 (g) CO (g) H= 110.5 kJ

2. CO (g) + O2 (g) CO2 (g) H= 283.0 kJ
C(s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g) ) H= 393.5 kJ
 SCH4U: Review (Goncalves)

Standard Enthalpies of Formation

A formation reaction occurs when a compound is formed from its elements at standard state.
K + I2 KI
Formation reactions can be used to develop intermediates in Hesss Law problems. For example:
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O H= ?

Ignore lone elements

1. C + 2H2 CH4 Hof= +74.4 kJ Flip
2. C + O2 CO2 Hof= 393.5 kJ N/A
3. H2 + O2 H2O Hof= 241.8 kJ x2
1. CH4 C + 2H2 Hof= 74.4 kJ
2. C + O2 CO2 Hof= 393.5 kJ
3. 2H2 + O2 2 H2O Hof= 483.6 kJ
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O H= 802.7 kJ
There also exists a shortcut to achieve the same results:
= ( ) ( )

Calculating Enthalpies with Bond Energies

Bond energies are the amount of energy required to break a bond in a molecule. By adding these val-
ues with the following equation, total enthalpy changes of reaction can be determined.
= ( ) ( )
H2CCH2 + Cl2 ClH2CCH2Cl
CC 347 kJ/mol Draw the molecules to visualize the bonds.
C=C 614 kJ/mol
CH 413 kJ/mol +
ClCl 239 kJ/mol
CCl 339 kJ/mol
Solve.

= ( ) ( )
= [4(413) + 614 + 239] [4(413) + 347 + 2(339)]
= 172

Collision Theory
Postulates: 1. All chemical systems consist of particles moving in constant random motion at vari
ous speeds. The average speed is directly related to temperature, and can be visualized
in a Boltzmann distribution graph.
2. Particles MUST collide for a chance at reacting
3. These collisions must be effective (proper orientation and enough energy to break
bonds)
4. Rate depends on the number of collisions that occur per time unit and the percent of
effective collisions
# of Particles

Ek (Speed)
Avg Speed (Temp) Avg Speed (Temp)
 SCH4U: Review (Goncalves)

Rates of Reaction
Rates of reaction are affected by the following factors:
Temperature: as temperature increases, so too do the number of collisions and the amount of
energy in particles higher temperature = higher rate
Nature of the Substance: changes orientation, for example: solutions react faster than solids
Surface Area: more surface area = faster rate
Concentration: higher concentration = more particles= more collisions higher rate
Catalysts/Inhibitors: change path to the product, increasing or decreasing rates. For example:
palladium coating in catalytic converters help CO to react faster to produce CO2

Rates can be measured using observable property changes called measurable quantities such as:
Gases: using or gaining a gas can be measured using volume change
Precipitate: can be measured using light (cloudiness) or mass changes
Colour changes: measured using intensity change
Conductivity is used for reactions involving ionic compounds in solution

Rate can be found using the formula = , although C can be replaced with any other measurable
quantity.

Rate is also useful in predicting the rates of reaction of ALL components of a reaction. Consider:
2Na3N + 3MgSO4 3Na2SO4 + Mg3N2
If the rate of production for Na2SO4 was found to be 0.045 mol/Ls, then:
2
Na3N = + 3 (24 ) Rate is very relative. As
= +0.030 / such, all terms in the
equation must be re-
Rate Law written to accommo-
Rate Law states that the relationship between reaction rates and the fac- date 1 mole of the sub-
tors affecting rate can NOT be predicted. Only through experiment can a stance in question,
relationship with rate be found. Thus, the following general rule was made: which, in this case, is

= [] [] Na2SO4. This is why the
m and n are exponents that indicate the contribution to the rate for each coefficient on Na3N is
reactant. They are also called orders of reac- 2/3.
tion. Trial # Initial [ClO2] Initial [OH] Initial Rate of Formation
NOTE: Rate only considers the reactants in a 1 0.o150 0.0250 1.30 x 10 3
reaction. 2 0.0150 0.0500 2.60 x 10 3
ex. 2ClO2 +2OH ClO3+ ClO2 + H2O 3 0.0450 0.0250 1.16 x 10 2

Find m using 1 and 3. Find n using 1 and 2.

0.0450 1.16 102 0. 500 2.60 103
= =
0.0150 1.30 103 0.0250 1.30 103
3 9 2 = 2
=2 =1
Isolate for k. Find units.
= [2 ]2 [ ] 2
= [ ] [ ]
1.30 103 = [0.0150]2 [0.0250]
1.30 103 = [5.625 106 ] 2
=
231 2
2
= 231 2
[2 ]2 [ ].
 SCH4U: Review (Goncalves)

Alternate Ways of Finding Orders

Orders of reaction may also be found by interpreting various types of graphs. The following graphs
summarize the general shapes of each of the curves, and which order they represent.
Zero Order First Order Second Order

1 1 1

[X] [X] [X]

Mechanisms
A mechanism is the step-by-step process by which a chemical reaction takes place. For example:
2N2O 2N2 + O2 has the mechanism:
Step 1: N2O N2 + O (slow)
Step 2: N2O + O N2 + O2 (fast)
Each step of the mechanism is called an elementary step. The single oxygen atoms in both steps are
called intermediates because they are used up in the elementary steps and do not appear in the overall
chemical equation.
The slowest step is called the rate-determining step.
There are 3 types of mechanisms: unimolecular (one reactant), bimolecular (two) and termolecular.
In order to determine the rate determining step of a reaction, one must find the intermediate that con-
tains all reactants in the original equation. The exponents on the rate law expression for each reactant
must be the same as the coefficients of the reactants in the rate-determining step.
ex. In the reaction 4 HBr(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(g) + 2Br2(g) :
Step 1: HBr + O2 HOOBr rate determining step (reactants are the same as in overall equation)
Step 2: HOOBr + HBr 2HOBr
Step 3: 2 HOBr + 2 HBr 2 H2O + 2 Br2
the rate law expression is = []1 [2 ]1

Activation Energy and Catalysts

Activation energy (Ea) is the energy required to make the particles involved in a reaction react.
Catalysts work by lowering the activation energy of a reaction.
Exothermic Reaction Endothermic Reaction
Low Ea

Potential Energy
Potential Energy

High Ea

Activated
Complex

RP
RP
The activated complex (NOT to be confused as an intermediate) is the name given to the reacting
molecules at the transition state (the peak of the energy barrier) required to overcome in order to
begin their change from reactant to intermediate OR from intermediate to intermediate OR from in-
termediate to product.
 SCH4U: Review (Goncalves)

Unit 3: Equilibrium
Static equilibrium occurs when the forces acting on an object are balanced.
Chemical systems run under dynamic equilibrium; a balance of forward and reverse rates.
ex. Photochromic lenses work because the lenses are mixed with AgCl and Cu2+ ions. When ex-
posed to UV light, AgCl ionizes and the silver ions darken the lenses. The Cu2+ remove an electron from
Ag+, catalyzing the synthesis of AgCL from its ions.

Conditions Required for Equilibrium to Be Established

1. The reaction is reverslibe, so a double arrow must be used ()
2. Equilibrium only occurs in a closed system
3. The physical properties of a system in equilibrium seem constant, but at a molecular level, exchange
occurs.
4. A reversible may be written in either direction

Types of Equilibrium
Chemical reaction equilibrium: equilibrium where forward and reverse rates are equal
Solubility equilibrium: rates of dissolving and un-dissolving are equal
Phase equilibrium: rates of state changes are equal

Calculations with Chemical Reaction Equilibrium

Reactions that do not reach equilibrium are considered quantitative (Na + H2 2NaH). If this reaction
took place in a closed system, it would have a chance to reach equilibrium. Because it does not set up
equilibrium, the product made is reduced.

Percent Reaction
Percent reaction is used to calculate the product yield at equilibrium when compared to expected prod-
uct yield in a quantitative reaction:
In the synthesis of iodic acid, it was found that 1.56 mmol/L HI was formed at equilibrium when 1 mmol
of H2 was used. Find the percent reaction.

% = 100%

H2 + I2 2HI 1.56
= 100%
2
1:2 ratio 2mmol/L = 78%
ICE Tables
ICE tables help to determine concentrations at various stages of a reaction at equilibrium.
Find [H2] and [HF] if H2intl= 1 mol/L, F2intl= 1 mol/L and Equm concentration of H2= 0.24
H2 + F2 2HF
I (Intl Concentration) 1 mol/L 1 mol/L 0 mol/L
C (Concentration) +2
E (Equm Concentration) 1 1 2
1 = 0.24 1 = 0.24 2 = []
= 0.76 / = 0.76 / 2(0.76) = []
[] = 1.52
NOTE: 0 mol/L is used for HF at intl concentration because we assume no product is yet made.
NOTE: The constants before in C are retrieved from coefficients in the actual chemical equation.
NOTE: The /+ before the represent the consumption/production of matter in the system.
 SCH4U: Review (Goncalves)

The Equilibrium Constant

[]
The equilibrium law states that [] gives a constant value when equilibrium is reached. As such:
[] []
aA + bB dD + eE = [][]
If k 1, the reaction favours products. If k 1, the reaction favours reactants.
If the reaction is observed in reverse, is the reciprocal of .
NOTE: When using the equilibrium constant, all solids and liquids are ignored because their concentra-
tions remain constant.

LeChteliers Principle
LeChtelier observed that a dynamic equilibrium tends to respond to a change by relieving the effect
induced by that change; e.g. if one reactant is removed, the reaction will work in reverse to produce it.
Consider N2 + 3H2 2NH3:
H2

N2

NH3
Change in conditions
SOME REACTANT IS ADDED SOME REACTANT IS REMOVED
(shifts to products) (shifts to reactants)

If temperature increases, the system will want to make use of the extra thermal energy, favouring the
endothermic reaction. If temperature decreases, the system will favour the exothermic reaction.
SO3

Temp increase: easier for endothermic

EP favours endothermic reaction

Temp decrease: harder for endothermic

favours exothermic reaction SO2
O2
SO3 2SO2 + O2 H=+197 kJ
Temperature increase
SCH4U Chemistry Lesson 18
Applying only to gases, volume changes work similarly to concentration changes. A decrease in volume
results in an increase in all concentrations. An Table
increase in volume
18.1: Variables thatdecreases concentrations. It is im-
affect equilibrium
portant to note that the side with the Variable Type of Change Response of System
Concentration Increase Shifts to consume some of
most collisions is affected most: the added reactant or
product
Consider N2 + 3H2 2NH3: Catalysts only targetDecreaseactivation energies, but do not cha-
Shifts to replace some of
H2 nge equilibriaas such, there is no shift. the decreased reactant or
product
N2 Inert gases: as long as
Temperature a gas does not reactShifts
Increase withto chemic-
consume some of
cals in equilibrium, no shift will occur. the added thermal energy
Decrease Shifts to compensate some
of the decreased thermal
energy
NH3 Volume Increase Shifts towards the side with
(decrease in pressure) the larger total amount of
gaseous entities
DECREASE IN VOLUME Decrease Shifts towards the side with
(increase in pressure) the smaller total amount of
gaseous entities
Variables that do not effect equilibrium
Catalysts - No effect
Inert Gases - No effect

Support Question

15. Consider the following equilibrium:

 SCH4U: Review (Goncalves)

The Reaction Quotient

If, during an experiment, we are capable of finding the concentrations of all chemicals, we can test to
see if equilibrium achieved:
[] If Q k, the back reaction is favoured (shifts to reactants)
[] If Q k, the forward reaction is favoured (shifts to products)
=
If Q = k, equilibrium has been achieved
If [N2]= 0.10 mol/L, [H2]= 0.30 mol/L, [NH3]= 0.20 mol/L and k= 0.4, is the system in equilibrium?
[] Compare Q to k (0.4)
=
[]
[0.20]2
>
= [0.10][0.30]3 shifting to reactants. No, the system is not in
14.8 equilibrium.
Quantitative Reaction Calculations
[ ]
Hundredth Rule: If the quotient is greater than 100, the added x term may be omitted.

Given 2H2O (g) 2H2 + O2 , [H2O]i = 0.25 mol/L and k= 6.8 x 10-5, Find [ ]e.
H2O 2H2 O2 Find ""
. 0 0 [2]2 []
= [0.252]2
+2 +
4 3
. 2 6.8 105 = [0.25]2 (hundredth rule omits 2x)
0.01
Find [ ]e
[H2O]e= 0.25 2 [H2]e= 2 [O2]e=
= 0.23 / = 0.02 / = 0.01 /

Solubility Equilibrium
In a saturated solution, equilibrium can be established with the solid and solution forms of a compound.
Solutions also make use of the equilibrium constant, but they are called solubility products.
= [ ][ ]
Molar solubility is often the x value of an ICE table.

Predicting Precipitation
The reaction quotient (called trial ion product when concerning solubility) can help determine if a pre-
cipitate will form. If Q ksp, supersaturated (ppt will form)
= [ ][ ] If Q ksp, unsaturated (ppt will NOT form)
If Q = k, equilibrium has been achieved (saturated)
If 50 mL of 0.001 mol/L CaCl2 solution was added to 50mL of 0.01 mol/L Na2SO4, would a ppt form?
CaCl2 + Na2SO4 2NaCl + CaSO4 (s) Use CaCl2 Ca2++ 2Cl- to find [Ca2+]
CaSO4 Ca2++SO42- 1 1 = 2 2
Find [ ] of ions (0.001)(. 050) = 2 (0.05 + 0.05)
2 = 5 104 / 1:1 ratio (CaCl2 = Ca2+)
Use Na2SO4 2Na+ + SO4- to find [SO4-] Use trial ion product
1 1 = 2 2 = [5 104 ][5 103 ]
(0.01)(. 050) = 2 (0.05 + 0.05) = 2.5 106
2 = 5 103 / Compare to Ksp=7.1 105
Q Ksp no precipitate will form.
 SCH4U: Review (Goncalves)

The Common Ion Effect

The common ion effect reduces the solubility of an already insoluble substance.

Acid/Base Equilibrium
There are two theories of acids and bases:
1) Arrhenius Theory: acids have H+ and bases have OH-; the problem is that NH3 and carbonates are
basic as well
2) Brnsted-Lowry Theory: acids are proton donors and bases are proton accetors

Water is amphotericit can act as both an acid and a base. Substances that are amphiprotic must have
a proton attached and must be capable of gaining a proton (ions must be negative).
Conjugate acids/bases are the complementary acids/bases produced in a chemical reaction between
an acid and a base.
NOTE: An acid/base reverse reaction interchanges OH- or H3O+ ions with H2O.

Weak & Strong Acids and Bases

Acids/bases placed in water take part in an ionization reaction. If ionization 99%, the acid/base is
strong. If ionization 99%, the acid/base is weak. Weak acids/bases set up equilibria whereas strong
acids/bases only partake in quantitative reactions.
Water autoionizes into hydroxide and hydronium ions: H2O + H2O OH- + H3O+
= [ + ][ ] = 1 1014 /
As a result:
=
where Ka and Kb are the K values of acids/bases
Polyprotic Acids
Polyprotic acids contain multiple protonswhen calculating, each proton must be treated separately.

pH and pOH
pH measure proton concentration. pOH measure hydroxide concentration.
= log[+] = log[] [ +] = 10 [ ] = 10

Calculations for Weak Acids/Bases

1) Percent ionization:
[+] []
= =
[] []
2) Using k values:
Determine the Ka of chloracetic acid (HC2H3O2Cl) if the solution has a concentration of 0.01 mol/L and a
pH of 2.51.
Let [H+]=x: Find Ka
HC2H3O2Cl H+ C2H3O2Cl- = log[ +] [][]
2.51 = log[ +] =
. 0 0 [0.01 ]
+ + [ +] = 102.51 2
. 3
[ +] = 3.09 10 / =
[0.01 ]
(3.09 103 )2
=
(0.01)(3.09 103 )
= .
 SCH4U: Review (Goncalves)

Determining the pH of Salt Solutions

When given a salt solution, it must be broken down into its ions. The ions must then be analyzed:
Na+ metal ions do not alter pH (neutral) CO3-2conjugate of a weak acid (slightly basic)
therefore Na2CO3 is slightly basic.
RULES: The conjugate of a strong acid/base will not give pH in solution (neutral)
The conjugate of a weak acid is a slightly more basic ion in solution (slightly basic)
Predict if NH4CN is acidic, basic or neutral and then find its pH if its has a concentration of 0.25 mol/L.
Compare ions of NH4CN Use ICE table to find [H+] or [OH-]
NH4 weak acid (slightly acidic) Ka=5.8 10
+ 10 CN- H2O HCN OH-
CN conjugate of weak acid HCN (slightly basic)
- . 0 0
-
CN + H2O HCN + OH - + +
= Ka=6.2 1010
.
[][] 2
= = 1.61 105 =
[0.25] 0.25

= .
= .
> + NH4CN is slightly basic.
Use [H+] or [OH-] to find pH (or pOH and then pH)
= log[] + = 14
= log[2.00 103 ] + 2.70 = 14
= 2.70 = 14 2.70
= 11.3
Metal and Non-Metal Oxides
Metal oxides react with water to make a base.
Non-metal oxides react with water to make an acid.
Titration Calculations
Equivalence Point: the true end of a reaction when all reactants are consumed
End Point: the end of a reaction according to an indicator
Determine the pH of 25mL 0.25 mol/L benzoic acid solution before and after adding 5mL 0.25 mol/L NaOH.
Find pH of benzoic acid (Ka=6.3 x 10-5) prior Determine mole amounts during reaction
C6H5COOH C6H5COO- + H+ 6 5 = =
. 0 0 = (0.25)(0.030) = (0.25)(0.030)
3
+ + = 6.25 10 = 1.25 103
= 6.25 103 1.25 103
.
= 5 103
[][] 5 2
= [0.25] 6.3 10 = 0.25 = 3.97 C6H5COOH + NaOH Na+ + C6H5COO-+ H2O
103 Only C6H5COOH and C6H5COO- can affect pH.
= log[ 3.97 103 ] [C6 H5 COO ] = 0.0417 [C6 H5 COOH] = 0.167
= .
Use K of reactant to find pH Equivalence Point for
C6H5COOH C6H5COO- + H + Strong Acids/Bases (7)

. 0.0417 0 pH
+ +
. 0.0417 +
[0.0417+ ][] 0,0417
= 6.3 105 = = 2.52
[0.167] 0.167
104 Acid/Base in Flask (mL)
4
= log[2.52 10 ] = .
 SCH4U: Review (Goncalves)

Unit 4: Organic Chemistry

Organic chemistry involves compounds that compose living matter.
Most organic compounds come in the form of hydrocarbons, which can be further divided into the fol-
lowing groups: aliphatics, aromatics and derivatives (waxes and oils). Aliphatic hydrocarbons come in
3 varieties: alkanes (single bonds), alkenes (1+ double bonds) and alkynes (1+ triple bonds).

Structural Diagrams and Nomenclature for Aliphatic Hyrdocarbons

Chemical formulae for organic compounds are typically not enough information to identify the com-
pound, which is why we must draw out the compound. For example, pentane (C5H12) comes in 3 varie-
tieseach variety is called a structural isomer.

Hydrocarbon names have 3 parts:

-the suffix (-ane, -ene or-yne)
-the root (the number of carbons in the main chain)
-the prefix (names the branches, ending in yl)

How to Name Hydrocarbons

1. Identify the main chain and name itbutane
2. List off the branches, naming the branch from which they originate. Be sure to ensure that branches
are ordered in the lowest terms possible2-methyl rather than 3methyl. Though both work, 2-
methyl is the only accepted version.
NOTE: Double/Triple bonds have priority when numbering carbons.
3. Order the branches in alphabetical order1-methyl
4. Combine the branches and root in the form prefix-root-suffix1-methyl butane

SPECIAL ALKYL GROUPS

Isopropyl Secondary Butyl Isobutyl Tertia ry Butyl (t-butyl)
(s-butyl)

Cycloalkanes
When naming cycloalkanes, the main chain IS the ring. Carbon 1 is usually where the only/first branch is
found OR where the double bond is found. Simply add cyclo- before the suffix when naming:

Naming/Drawing Alkenes and Alkynes

New rules apply when dealing with alkenes and alkynes: