NEW ERA COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

EEL111 - ELECTRONICS AND ELECTRICAL

WORKSHOP

Lab Manual

Prepared By
P. Jenifer Darling Rosita,
Senior Lecturer,
B. Eng Department,
 CONTENT

S.No List of Experiments Page

No.
1. Study Of Power Supply, CRO and Function Generator
2. Study of Colour coding of Resistors
3. Study of Breadboard connections, Ammeters, Voltmeters
a. Verification of Voltage in a Series Circuit.
b. Verification of Current in a Parallel Circuits.
4. Learning Oscilloscope Output
a. Half wave Rectifier.
b. Full wave rectifier.
5. Capture Circuits using MultiSim
a. Voltage and Current in a DC Circuits.
b. Verification of Ohms Law.
c. Measuring current and voltage in Series Circuit
d. Verification of KVL and KCL.
6. Basic Circuits using Matlab
a. Power Dissipation in a Resistor.
b. Equivalent Resistance using Series and parallel Circuits.
c. Half wave and Full wave rectifier
7. Study of PCB boards.
8. Soldering and Desoldering Exercises
INSTRUCTION FOR THE LABORATORY

The objective of the laboratory is to gain practical experience in the subject of

Electrical circuit analysis. The experiments illustrate different application of
electronic components.
Students must maintain silence inside the laboratory.
Students are advised to wear lab coat and shoes inside the lab.
Students must bring a scientific calculator, ruler, pencil, pen and lab manual, while
conducting experiments in the laboratory.
The experiments need prior preparation and the study of procedures, tabulation the
circuit diagrams.
Students can get the apparatus from the lab instructor, by making an entry in the lab
register.
It is necessary to check details such as mounting the components properly on the
breadboard.
It is important to give the circuit connections carefully and to check whether the
circuit is grounded and the power supply is given correctly.
Students are advised not to SWITCH ON the power supply, until the lab instructor
instructs to do so. Also the electronic components must be handled carefully, as there
is always a chance of electric shock.
The output must be recorded carefully and verified by the lab instructor.
After completing the experiment the students must SWITCH OFF the power supply
and carefully disconnect all the components and return the components to the lab
instructor.
In case of any damage in the components, it must be reported to the lab instructor.
Complete the experiments with in the lab session and get them evaluated by the lab
instructor.
EXP NO: 1 Date: / /

STUDY OF REGULATED POWER SUPPLY, CRO AND FUNCTION GENERATOR

Aim
To study the functions and features of regulated power supply, CRO (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope)
and Function Generator.
Apparatus Required

Sl. No Apparatus Range Quantity

1 Regulated power supply 0-10 V 1
2 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 0-10MHZ 1
3 Function Generator 0-3 MHz 1
4 Power chord - 3
5 Connecting wire BNC to crocodile type 2
or BNC to BNC

Regulated power supply

Theory
A power supply is a device that supplies electric power to an electrical load. The
term is most commonly applied to electric power converters that convert one form of electrical
energy to another, though it may also refer to devices that convert another form of energy
(mechanical, chemical, solar) to electrical energy. A regulated power supply is one that
controls the output voltage or current to a specific value; the controlled value is held nearly
constant despite variations in either load current or the voltage supplied by the power supply's
energy source.
A power supply may be implemented as a discrete, stand-alone device or as an integral
device that is hardwired to its load. Examples of the latter case include the low voltage DC
power supplies that are part of desktop computers and consumer electronics devices.
Commonly specified power supply attributes include:

The amount of voltage and current it can supply to its load.

How stable its output voltage or current is under varying line and load conditions.

POWER SUPPLIES TYPES

Battery
DC power supply
AC power supply
Linear regulated power supply
 Switched mode power supply
Programmable power supply
Uninterruptible power supply
High voltage power supply
Voltage multipliers

DC POWER SUPPLY
SPECIFICATION
1. Adjustable 0~30V/0~2A
2. The design is limit the voltage overload
The power supply input 220V, 230V, 240V AC
3. Output voltage: 0-30V DC
4. Work temperature: -10oC-40oC

MAIN FUNCTION
3. Output constant current adjustable.
4. Output constant voltage adjustable.
5. LCD voltage and current display.
6. Constant voltage and current operation in individual.
7. Over current protection.

Adjustable power supply

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

Electron gun Y plates

cathod
e Fluorescent screen
electron
anode beam

X
Cathode ray tube
plates

The cathode ray oscilloscope (CR0) is a very useful instrument that has many applications in
science.
A beam of electrons is shot down an evacuated tube by an electron gun. This beam passes
between two sets of deflecting plates and then strikes a screen that glows when the beam hits it
(fluorescence).

The most important parts of the CR0 are:

(a) electron gun - this produces the electron beam. The more electrons there are in the beam the
brighter the spot on the screen;
(b) deflecting plates - by putting a voltage on each pair of plates the beam can be moved up and
down or side to side.
Since the electron beam is negative it will be attracted towards a positive plate;
(c) fluorescent screen - this glows when the electron beam hits it.

Theory

The device consists mainly of a vacuum tube which contains a cathode; anode, grid,
X&Y-plates, and a fluorescent screen (see Figure below). When the cathode is heated (by
applying a small potential difference across its terminals), it emits electrons. Having a potential
difference between the cathode and the anode (electrodes), accelerate the emitted electrons
towards the anode, forming an electron beam, which passes to fall on the screen.
When the fast electron beam strikes the fluorescent screen, a bright visible spot is
produced. The grid, which is situated between the electrodes, controls the amount of electrons
passing through it thereby controlling the intensity of the electron beam. The X&Y- plates are
responsible for deflecting the electron beam horizontally and vertically.
A sweep generator is connected to the X-plates, which moves the bright spot
Horizontally across the screen and repeats that at a certain frequency as the source of the
signal. The voltage to be studied is applied to the Y-plates. The combined sweep and Y
voltages produce a graph showing the variation of voltage with time.

Experimental Figures

Fig 1. Cathode Ray tube Oscilloscope Fig 2. Out Line Diagram of CRO

Procedure
1. Turn on the Oscilloscope
2. Adjust the intensity and the focus of the trace.
3. Use the X & Y knobs to center the trace horizontally and vertically.
4. Connect the cable from Ch1 of the CRO to Function generator.
5. A signal will appear on the screen.
6. Make sure that the inner red knobs of the Volt/Div and the Time/Div are
locked clockwise.
7. Set the frequency of the generator to 100 Hz.
8. Adjust the Volt/Div and the Time/Div knobs so that you get a suitable size signal
9. Count the number of vertical squares lying within the signal, then calculate the peak to peak
value as:

Vp-p = No. vertical Div * Volt/Divs

10. Count the number of horizontal squares lying within the one Duty Cycle,
then calculate time value as:
 Time = No. Horizontal Div * Time/Divs

11.Calculate the Frequency of signal by using the formula:

Freq = 1 /Time

Function Generator
Theory
A function generator is electronic test equipment used to generate different types of
waveforms over a wide range of frequencies. Function generators are capable of producing a
variety of repetitive waveforms, generally from the list below

Sine wave: A function generator will normally have the capability to produce a
standard sine wave output. This is the standard waveform that oscillates between two
levels with a standard sinusoidal shape.

Square wave: A square wave is normally relatively easy for a function generator
to produce. It consists of a signal moving directly between high and low levels.

Pulse: A pulse waveform is another type that can be produced by a function generator.
It is effectively the same as a square wave, but with the mark space ratio very different
to 1:1.

Triangular wave: This form of signal produced by the function generator

linearly moves between a high and low point.

Saw tooth wave: Again, this is a triangular waveform, but with the rise edge of the
waveform faster or slower than the fall, making a form of shape similar to a saw tooth.
These waveforms can be either repetitive or single-shot Function generators are used in
the development, test and repair of electronic equipment.
Types of Function Generator

PROCEDURE
1. Turn on the oscilloscope
2. Connect the function generator to one vertical channel of the oscilloscope using
BNC Connector
3. Select the type of wave form by pressing Function control button.
4. Set the waveform at desired frequency by adjusting Frequency variable control button.
5. Now adjust the amplitude control of the function generator to establish a 4 V peak-to-peak
(p-p) sinusoidal waveform on the screen.

Function Generator connected

 Function Generator Controls

Knobs Control Name Functions

Number
1 Power Push button switch to power ON the instrument.
2 LCD Display 20 x 4 Character bright back lit Liquid Crystal Display.
3 Frequency Used for selection of frequency range step by step.
Used for selection of Particular waveform. A total number of 6
different waveforms :

Sine

4 Function Square

Triangle

Ramp

Pulse

TTL are available.
5 Modulation Used for selection of Frequency Modulation.
6 Attenuation Used for Selection of 20dB or 40dB attenuation
7 Menu Used for selection of Function Generator/Frequency counter
mode.
8 Duty Cycle When pulse output function is selected, this controls the pulse
duty cycle from 15% to 85%.
9 Frequency In conjunction with frequency range, selected by frequency key
Variable on front Panel.
10 Amplitude In conjunction with attenuators (6), this varies the level of output.
Variable
This control provides DC offset. Approximately 5VDC is
11 DC Offset superimposed on the output. Keep the control off if DC offset is
not required.
12 Output (BNC Output of 10 MHz function generator i.e. 20Vpp (Open Circuit)
connector)
External Input BNC connector for measuring the frequency of external
13 Counter (BNC signal when External Counter mode is selected by
Connector) Menu key on the LCD display.

14 Modulation Maximum modulation Input i.e. 2Vpp.

Input

Result
Thus the functions and Features of regulated power supply, Cathode ray Oscilloscope and
Function generator were studied.

10
EXP NO: 2 Date: / /

STUDY OF COLOUR CODING OF RESISTORS

Aim
1. To learn the different colour codes of resistors.
2. To determine the stated value of a resistor by interpreting the colour code indicated on the
resistor.
Apparatus required

Sl .No Component Range / type Quantity

1 Resistor Any range As required
2 Multimeter /Ohmmeter Analog /Digital 1

Theory

Resistors are available in a range of different resistance values from fractions of an Ohm ( )
to millions of Ohms. Obviously, it would be impractical to have available resistors of every
possible value for example, 1, 2, 3, 4 etc, because literally tens of hundreds of
thousands, if not tens of millions of different resistors would need to exist to cover all the
possible values. Instead, resistors are manufactured in what are called preferred values with
their resistance value printed onto their body in coloured ink. These coloured painted bands
produce a system of identification generally known as a Resistors Colour Code.

The resistor colour code markings are always read one band at a time starting from the left to
the right, with the larger width tolerance band oriented to the right side indicating its tolerance.
By matching the colour of the first band with its associated number in the digit column of the
colour chart below the first digit is identified and this represents the first digit of the resistance
value.

Again, by matching the colour of the second band with its associated number in the digit
column of the colour chart we get the second digit of the resistance value and so on. The
multiplier band tells us about the number of zeros and the last band indicates the tolerance.
The figure 2.1shows the 5 band and 4- band resistors

Fig 2.1: 5 and 4 band resistors

The table 2.1 shows the colour coding values of the resistor.

Table 2.1 Colour coding values

11
The first letter word to represent colour resistor code (BBROYGBVGW) is as follow.

B. B. Roy Of Great Britain Has a Very Good Wife

or
Better Be Ready Or Your Great Big Venture Goes Wrong, Go Study Now

Procedure
1. Identify the resistor for which the resistor value to be measured.
2. Note the colours for each band of the resistor.
3. Record the corresponding value for each colour band in the table.
4. Add all the values and record them in the table.
5. Measure the value of the resistor with the Ohmmeter or multimeter.
6. Verify the theoretical value with practical value.

Tabulation

Table 2.2
Band Colour code Value
First band
Second Band
Third Band
12
 Fourth band
Fifth band
Total resistor value()
Tolerance %
Practical value ()

Table 2.3
Band Colour code Value
First band
Second Band
Third Band
Fourth band
Fifth band
Total resistor value()
Tolerance %
Practical value ()

Calculation

Result:
Thus the value of each resistor was identified using resistor colour coding.
Resistor 1 Resistor 2
Theoretical
Practical

13
EXP NO: 3 Date: / /

STUDY OF AMMETERS, VOLTMETER, MULTIMETER & BREADBOARD

CONNECTIONS,
Aim
To study the function of ammeter, voltmeter, multimeter and bread board layout
Apparatus required

Sl .No Component Range / type Quantity

1 Ammeter Any range 1
2 Voltmeter Any range 1
3 Bread board 720 pin 1

Theory
1) Ammeter:
Meter is an instrument which can measure a particular quantity. We know, the unit of current
is Ampere. Ammeter means Ampere-meter which measures ampere value. Ampere is the unit
of current so an ammeter is a meter or an instrument which measures current.

Working Principle of Ammeter

The main principle of ammeter is that it must have a very low resistance and also inductive
reactance. Now, why do we need this? Can't we connect an ammeter in parallel? The answer to
this question is it has very low impedance because it must have very low amount of voltage
drop across it and must be connected in series connection because current is same in the series
circuit. Also due to very low impedance the power loss will be low and if it is connected in
parallel it becomes almost a short circuited path and all the current will flow through ammeter
as a result of high current the instrument may burn. So due to this reason it must be connected
in series. For an ideal ammeter, it must have zero impedance so that it has zero voltage drop
across it so the power loss in the instrument is zero. But the ideal is not achievable practically.
The ammeter is shown in figure 3.1

Fig : 3.1 : Ammeter

Classification or Types of Ammeter

Depending on the constructing principle, there are many types of ammeter we get, they are
mainly -
14
 1. Permanent Magnet Moving Coil(PMMC) ammeter.
2. Moving Iron(MI) Ammeter.
3. Electrodynamometer type Ammeter.
4. Rectifier type Ammeter.

Depending on this types of measurement we do, we have-

1. DC Ammeter.
2. AC Ammeter.
DC Ammeter are mainly PMMC instruments, MI can measure both AC and DC currents, also
Electrodynamometer type thermal instrument can measure DC and AC, induction meters are
not generally used for ammeter construction due to their higher cost, inaccuracy in
measurement.

2) Voltmeter

Voltmeter is a voltage meter. Which measures the voltage between the two nodes. We know
the unit of potential difference is volts. So it is a measuring instrument which measures the
potential difference between the two points.
Working Principle of Voltmeter
The main principle of voltmeter is that it must be connected in parallel in which we want to
measure the voltage. Parallel connection is used because a voltmeter is constructed in such a
way that it has a very high value of resistance. So if that high resistance is connected in series
than the current flow will be almost zero which means the circuit has become open.

Fig: 3.2 : Voltmeter

If it is connected in parallel, than the load impedance comes parallel with the high resistance of
the voltmeter and hence the combination will give almost the same the impedance that the load
had. Also in parallel circuit we know that the voltage is same so the voltage between the
voltmeter and the load is almost same and hence voltmeter measures the voltage.
For an ideal voltmeter, we have the resistance is to be infinity and hence the current drawn to
be zero so there will be no power loss in the instrument. But this is not achievable practically
as we cannot have a material which has infinite resistance.

15
Classification or Types of Voltmeter
According to the construction principle, we have different types of voltmeters, they are
mainly -

1. Parmanent Magnet Moving coil (PMMC) Voltmeter.

2. Moving Iron (MI) Voltmeter.
3. Electro Dynamometer Type Voltmeter.
4. Rectifier Type Voltmeter
5. Induction Type Voltmeter.
6. Electrostatic Type Voltmeter.
7. Digital Voltmeter (DVM).

Depending on this types of measurement we do,we have-

1. DC Voltmeter.
2. AC Voltmeter.

3) Multimeter
Digital multimeter is a test equipment which offers several electronic measurement task in one
tool. It is also known as the voltmeter or Ohm meter or Volt Ohm meter. The standard and
basic measurements performed by multimeter are the measurements of amps, volts, and ohms.
Apart from that, these digital multimeters perform many additional measurements by using
digital and logic technology. These may include temperature, frequency, continuity,
capacitance etc. The new improved integrated circuits of digital multimeter are more efficient,
faster and work with a large accuracy as compared to an analogue multimeter.

Fig 3.3: Multimeter

Parts of Digital Multimeter
A multimeter is a simple but useful device which has only three parts; Display screen,
selection knob, ports. Display screen-It has illuminated display screen for better visualization.
It has five digits display screen; one represent sign value and the other four are for number
representation.
Selection knob- As we know a single multimeter performs so many tasks like reading voltage,
resistance, and current. The selection knob allows the user to select the different job.
Port- There are two ports on the front of the unit. One is the mAV port which allows the
measurement of all the three units: current up to 200 mA, voltage, and resistance. The red
probe is plugged into this port. The other is COM port which means common and it normally

16
connected to ev of a circuit and black probe is plugged into it. There is one particular port I
is10A, which is use to measures large current in the circuit.

Fig 3.4: Multimeter ports

4) Bread board

A breadboard is a solderless device for temporary prototype with electronics and test circuit
designs. Most electronic components in electronic circuits can be interconnected by inserting
their leads or terminals into the holes and then making connections through wires where
appropriate. The breadboard has strips of metal underneath the board and connect the holes on
the top of the board. The metal strips are laid out as shown below. Note that the top and
bottom rows of holes are connected horizontally and split in the middle while the remaining
holes are connected vertically.

Fig:3.5: Bread board

Note how all holes in the selected row are connected together, so the holes in the selected
column. The set of connected holes can be called a node:

17
 Fig 3.6: Bread board showing the internal connections

To interconnect the selected row (node A) and column (node B) a cable going from any hole in
the row to any hole in the column is needed:

Fig 3.7: Bread board wiring

18
Result:
Thus the bread connections and the functions of voltmeter and the ammeter were studied.

19
EXP NO: 3.a Date: / /

VERIFICATION OF VOLTAGE IN A SERIES CIRCUIT

Aim
To measure the voltage in a series circuit using voltmeter.
Apparatus required

Sl .No Component Range / type Quantity

1 Power supply 0-10 V 1
2 Voltmeter 0-5 V 3
3 Bread board 720 pin 1
4 Resistor 1K 3
5 Wire Single strand As required

Theory
A series arrangement of components has two distinguishing characteristics. In a series
connection, the current is the same through each component regardless of what components
are used or their values. The voltage drops across each component in the circuit are dependent
upon the values of the components used in the circuit. Another way to view a series connection
is that the positive end of each component is connected to the negative end of the previous
component in a 'one after the other' arrangement. The negative end of each component is also
connected to the positive end of the next component.
Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram, given in figure 3a.1.
2. Check the circuit connections before switching ON the power supply.
3. Vary the regulated power supply and set the input voltage as 5V.
4. Measure the voltage (V1,V2 and V3) using voltmeter and note the readings in the
tabulation.
5. Switch OFF the power supply and disconnect the circuit.
Circuit Diagram

Fig: 3a. Circuit diagram

Tabulation

20
 Voltage (V)
V1 (Volts) V2 (Volts) V3 (Volts)
Volts

Formula used:
Ohms law

V=I R

Where, V - Voltage in volts

I - Current in Amperes
R- Resistor in Ohms

Calculation:

Result:
Thus the voltage is measured across each resistor and tabulated.

21
EXP NO: 3.b Date: / /

VERIFICATION OF CURRENT IN A PARALLEL CIRCUIT

Aim
To measure the current in a parallel circuit using parallel.
Apparatus required

Sl .No Component Range / type Quantity

1 Power supply 0-10 V 1
2 Ammeter 0-5 mA 1
3 Bread board 720 pin 1
4 Resistor 1K 3
5 Wire Single strand As required

Theory
A parallel arrangement of components is the analogue of the series connection. In a parallel
connection, the current in each parallel branch is dependent upon the values of the
components used in the branch. The voltage, however, is the same across components. In a
parallel connection, the positive ends are connected to the positive ends, and the negative ends
are connected to the negative ends.
Procedure
i) Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram shown in figure 3.b.1.
ii) Verify the connections before switching ON the power supply.
iii) Vary the regulated power supply and set the input voltage as 5V.
iv) Measure the various current (I1,I2 and I)using ammeter and note the readings in the
tabulation.
v) Switch OFF the power supply and disconnect the circuit.
vi) Compare the observed readings with the theoretical value.
Circuit Diagram

Fig: 3b.1: Circuit Diagram

Tabulation

22
 Current I Current I1 Current I2
Voltage (volts)
(mA) (mA) (mA)

Formula used:
Ohms law

V=I R

Where, V - Voltage in volts

I - Current in Amperes
R- Resistor in Ohms
Calculation:

Result:
Thus the current is measured in the parallel circuit and the values are tabulated.

23
EXP NO: 4.a Date: / /

OSCILLOSCOPE OUTPUTS HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

Aim
To design a Half wave rectifier circuit using PN junction diode
Apparatus required

Sl .No Component Range / type Quantity

1 Step down Transformer 230-12 V 1
2 PN Junction diode IN4001 1
3 Bread board 720 pin 1
4 Resistor 1K 2
5 Capacitor 470f 1
6 CRO 1-10MHz 1
7 Connecting Wire Single strand As required

Theory:
A Half wave rectifier is a device which converts ac voltage to pulsating dc voltage using one
PN junction diode. The ac voltage (230 V, 50 HZ) is connected to the primary of the
transformer. The transformer steps down the ac voltage. Thus, with suitable turns ratio we get
desired ac secondary voltage. The rectifier circuit converts this ac voltage in to a pulsating dc
voltage. Half wave rectifier conducts during positive half cycle and gives output in the form of
positive sinusoidal pulses. Hence the output is called pulsating dc. A pulsating dc voltage
containing large varying component called ripple in it. The capacitor filter is used after
rectifier circuit, which reduces the ripple content in the pulsating dc. Thus filter converts
pulsating dc in to pure dc.
Ripple Factor:
The output of the rectifier is of pulsating dc type. The amount of ac content in the output can
be mathematically expressed by a factor called ripple factor.

Procedure:
1. The circuit connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. First without connecting the capacitive filter, note down the amplitude and time
period of the rectified waveform.
3. Now connect the capacitive filter and note down the amplitude and time period of
the rectified waveform.
4. Connect the CRO across the load and measure the full load voltage then remove
the load and measure the no load voltage.
5. Plot the graph and calculate the efficiency.

24
Circuit diagram:

Fig 4a.1: Circuit diagram

Tabulation
Input voltage: _______

Sl No Maximum voltage (V) Minimum voltage (v)

Model graph:

Fig 4.a. 2 :Model graph

25
26
Calculation:

Result:
Thus the half wave rectifier circuit was designed and the waveform was drawn.

27
EXP NO: 4.b Date: / /

OSCILLOSCOPE OUTPUTS FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

Aim
To design a Full wave rectifier circuit using PN junction diode
Apparatus required

Sl .No Component Range / type Quantity

1 Step down Transformer 230-12 V 1
2 PN Junction diode IN4001 2
3 Bread board 720 pin 1
4 Resistor 1K 2
5 Capacitor 470f 1
6 CRO 1-10MHz 1
7 Connecting Wire Single strand As required

Theory
A full wave rectifier is a device which converts ac voltage to pulsating dc voltage using two
PN junction diode.
The ac voltage (230 V, 50 HZ) is connected to the primary of the transformer. The transformer
steps down the ac voltage. Thus, with suitable turns ratio we get desired ac secondary voltage.
The rectifier circuit converts this ac voltage in to a pulsating dc voltage. Full wave rectifier
conducts during both positive and negative half cycle of input ac supply. Because two diodes
are used in this cir circuit .It gives output in the form of positive sinusoidal pulses. Hence the
output is called pulsating dc. A pulsating dc voltage containing large varying component
called ripple in it. The capacitor filter is used after rectifier circuit, which reduces the ripple
content in the pulsating dc. Thus filter converts pulsating dc in to pure dc.

Procedure

1. The circuit connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. First without connecting the capacitive filter, note down the amplitude and time period
of the rectified waveform.
3. Now connect the capacitive filter and note down the amplitude and time period of the
rectified waveform.
4. Connect the CRO across the load and measure the full load voltage then remove the
load and measure the no load voltage.
5. Plot the graph

Circuit Diagram:

28
 Fig4.b. 1. circuit diagram
Tabulation

Input voltage: _______

Sl No Maximum voltage (V) Minimum voltage (v)

Model graph

Fig 4.b.2 model graph

29
30
Calculation:

Result:
Thus the full wave rectifier circuit was designed and the waveform was drawn.

31
EXP NO: 5a Date: / /

VOLTAGE AND CURRENT IN A DC CIRCUIT

AIM
To investigate how to use a voltmeter to measure voltage across a circuit component.
To investigate how to use an ammeter to measure current flow in a circuit component.
To investigate what happens if the rated value of a component is exceeded.

Materials
One dc power supply
One dc 0-20V Voltmeter
One dc 0-100mA Ammeter
One Multimeter
One 5V, 1W lamp

Ammeter

Voltmeter

Figure 1: Measuring current and voltage: a lamp connected across a battery

Procedure
Simulation

1. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 1 on the Multisim Electronics Workbench. Use
5V, 1W lamp for simulation. (In the Components Toolbar select the Indicator icon;
now find Voltmeter, Ammeter and Lamp in this window).
2. Set the dc supply voltage to 3V and click the Simulate Switch and verify that the
battery voltage is 3V as measured by the voltmeter. Record the voltage across the lamp
terminals V and the current I flowing through it in Table 1. Calculate power
dissipation in the lamp using the relationship P=VI and note it down.
3. Change the dc supply voltage to 5V. Run the analysis again. Record voltage and
current in Table 1 and calculate power dissipation in the lamp.
4. Change the dc supply voltage to 7V. Run the analysis and see the effect on the intensity
of light. Record voltage, current in Table 1 and calculate power dissipation.

32
 5. Change the dc supply voltage to 8V. Run the analysis and observe the value of current,
also observe the glow of the lamp. What happened? Explain

Table 1: Simulation results using Multisim Electronics Workbench

Source Voltage (V) Lamp Voltage (V) Current (A) Power , VI (W)
3
5
7

Note: The lamp is rated at 5V, 1W

Question: Why the lamp is damaged when the voltage across it goes to 7V? Explain by
comparing power dissipation with rated value.

Hardwired Experiment

6. Build the circuit of Fig. 1 with hardwired laboratory components. Before switching on
the DC power supply set its voltage to 0 volts.

7. Turn the power supply on. Increase the supply voltage to 3V. Enter the voltage and
current in Table 2.

8. Increase the supply voltage to 5V and repeat step 7.

Note: Do not raise the battery voltage beyond 5V as it will burn the lamp.

RESULT

Source Voltage (V) Lamp Voltage (V) Current (A) Power , VI (W)
3
5

33
EXP NO: 5b Date: / /

VERIFICATION OF OHMS LAW

AIM
To learn how to use multimeter to measure resistance
To Verify Ohms law
To determine the relationship for voltage and current for constant resistance
To Determine value of resistance from slope of I-V characteristic curve.

Materials
o One dc variable voltage power supply
o One multimeter
o One 0-100mA Ammeter
o Resistor (100)

V1

Figure 2: Measuring resistance Figure 3: Verifying Ohms Law

Procedure
Simulation

1. Build the circuit of Figure 2 using Multisim Electronics Workbench. Connect a

multimeter between the terminals of resistor and set it to read resistance. Select
R1=100. Click the Simulation Switch to run analysis. Record the value of
resistance R1 in Table 3.
2. Build the circuit given in Figure 3. Set Vs = 10V and R1=100. Click Simulation
Switch to run analysis. Record voltage V1 across resistor R1 by connecting a
multimeter in parallel to it. Record the value of current I flowing through R 1 by
connecting another multimeter in series to R1. Note down the values in Table 3. From
the voltage current readings verify Ohms law V1=R1 I. Considering multimeter
reading as reference, calculate % error.
3. Vary the dc supply voltage Vs in steps of 2V and record current in each case. Enter
your results in Table 4.
4. Plot I vs. V in the graph of Table 5.
34
 Table 3: Resistance Measurement
Ohmmeter Reading Ohms Law (V1/I)
Workbench R1= R1=
Hardwired R1= R1=
% Error

Table 4: V-I measurements

Workbench Hardwired
V (volt) I (mA) V (volt) I (mA)
0 0
2 2
4 4
6 6
8 8
10 10

35
 1. Calculate the value of resistor based on the slope of the V-I characteristic curve
plotted in step 4.

Hardwired Experiment

6. Repeat steps 1-5 with the laboratory hardwired components.

Note: Use different color pen to plot the experimental results in Table 5.

RESULT:

Resistance Measurement from V-I slope

Workbench experiment R=
Hardware experiment R=

36
EXP NO: 5C Date: / /

RESISTORS IN SERIES (USING MULTISIM)

AIM
To Measure the equivalent resistance of a series circuit
To Determine current in each resistor
To Determine voltage across each resistor
To Determine equivalent resistance
To Demonstrate Kirchhoffs voltage law

Materials
o One dc voltage supply
o One multimeter
o Five dc 0-10 V voltmeters
o Five dc 0-5mA ammeters
o Assorted resistors

Figure1. Measurement with multimeter

37
Procedure
5. Draw Figure 1 using the Multisim simulation software. Connect the multimeter as
ohmmeter between a and b. Click the simulate switch to run analysis. Record the
measured resistance. Calculate the total value just by addition and record it.

Req (measured) = Req (calculated) =

2. Draw Figure 2. Run the simulation and record the currents and voltages.

I I I I I V V V V V
ab cd ef hi jk bc de fg gh ij

RESULT:
Thus the series circuit is measured using MULTI SIM Simulator.

38
EXP NO: 5d Date: / /

VERIFICATION OF KVL AND KCL

AIM:
To Verify the Kirchhoffs voltage and current laws.

Materials
o One dc power supply
o One multimeter
o Assorted carbon resistors

Figure 1: Resistive circuit

Procedure
1. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 1 using Multisim Electronics Workbench.
2. Measure the voltages VAB, VBC, VAD, VDC, VBD, and VAC. Enter the values in Table 1.
Note the polarities of the voltages.
3. Measure the currents IAB, ICB, IAD, ICD and IFA and enter the values in Table 2. Note the
polarity (sign) of the currents.

4. Calculate the voltages around the following loops and record them in Table 4.

ABCEFA, ABDA, BDCB, ABCDA

5. Verify KCL by adding the currents at nodes A, B, C, D. Enter your results in Table 3.
6. Construct the circuit in Figure 1 with hardware components. Repeat steps 2-5. Enter you
results in Tables1-4. Considering the Workbench results as the base compute the
percentage errors.

39
 Table 1: Voltage measurement

VAB VBC VAD VDC VBD VAC

Workbench
Hardwired
% Error

Table 2: Current measurement

IAB ICB IAD ICD IFA

Workbench
Hardwired
% Error

Table 3: Sum of currents at nodes

A B C D
Workbench
Experiment
% Error

Table 4: Voltages around loop

ABCEFA ABDA BDCB ABCDA

Workbench

Experiment

% Error

RESULT:
Thus KVL and KCL were verified using MULTISIM Software,

40
EXP NO: 6 Date: / /
BASIC CIRCUITS USING MATLAB

VOLTAGE AND POWER DISSIPATION

AIM:
To find the voltage and power dissipation using MATLAB

PROCEDURE:
1. Open the MAT LAB R17a Software.
2. Click on the + icon to open the new script.
3. Type the MAT LAB program in the Editor window
4. Save the Program and then click the Run symbol.
5. Verify the results in command window.

PROGRAM

diary ex1_1.dat// Voltage and power dissipation

R=10;
I=3;
V=I*R;
P=(I^2)*R;
sol=[V P]
diary

PROGRAM 2
diary ex1_1.dat// Voltage and power dissipation for many inputs
R=10
I=(1:3);
V=I.*R;
P=(I.^2)*R;
sol=[V P]
diary

41
 OUTPUT:

RESULT:
Thus the Voltage and the power dissipation for the given values were done using MATLAB.

42
EXP NO: 6b Date: / /
VERIFYING THE SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS

AIM:
To verify the calculations for the series and parallel circuits using MAT LAB.
PROCEDURE:
1. Open the MAT LAB R17a Software.
2. Click on the + icon to open the new script.
3. Type the MAT LAB program in the Editor window
4. Save the Program and then click the Run symbol.
5. Verify the results in command window.

PROGRAM 1
diary ex1_1.dat// Sereies circuit
R1=2;
R2=3;
R3=2;
V=10;
Rt=R1+R2+R3;
It=V/Rt;
V1=It*R1;
V2=It*R2;
V3=It*R3;
sol=[Rt It V1 V2 V3]
diary

PROGRAM 2
diary ex1_1.dat// Parallel circuit
R1=2;
R2=3;
R3=2;
V=10;
Rt=1/(1/R1+1/R2+1/R3);
It=V/Rt;

43
CALCULATIONS

RESULT:
Thus the calculations for series and parallel circuits were analysed using MATLAB.

44
EXP NO: 6C Date: / /
HALFWAVE RECTIFIER
AIM
To generate the output voltage and current for the half wave rectifier using MATLAB and to find
the peak current of the given values.
Given that, VB = 118V, vS (t) = 18sin(120t) V, R = 100

PROGRAM
diary ex9_5.dat
% Baltery charging circuit
period = 1/60;
period2 = period*2;
inc =period/100;
npts = period2/inc;
vb = 11.8;
t = [];
for i = 1:npts
t(i) = (i-1)*inc;
vs(i) = 18*sin(120*pi*t(i));
if vs(i) > vb
idiode(i) = (vs(i) -vb)/r;
else
idiode(i) = 0;
end
end
subplot(211), plot(t,vs)
%title('Input Voltage')
xlabel('Time (s)')
ylabel('Voltage (V)')
text(0.027,10, 'Input Voltage')
subplot(212), plot(t,idiode)
%title('Diode Current')
xlabel('Time (s)')
ylabel('Current(A)')
text(0.027, 0.7e-3, 'Diode Current')
% conduction angle
theta1 = asin(vb/18); theta2 = pi - theta1;
acond = (theta2 -theta1)/(2*pi)
% peak current
pcurrent = (18*sin(pi/2) - vb)/r
% pcurrent = max(idiode)
Diary

45
Output of Input Voltage and Diode Current

The conduction angle, acond, and the peak current, pcurrent, are

RESULT:

Thus the outputs waveforms for the half wave rectifier were generated.

46
EXP NO: 7 Date: / /

STUDY OF PCB BOARDS

AIM
To study the single side PCB fabrication process by photo resist method.
To get familiarize with the materials, precautions to be observed and the fabrication
procedure of NV1800 PCB fabrication machine setup.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

NV1800 PCB FABRICATION MACHINE

1. PCB Art Work Film Maker NV180

2. PCB Art Work Table NV181
3. PCB Shearing Machine NV182
4. Photoresist Dip Coating Machine NV183
5. PCB Curing Machine - NV191
6. UV Exposing Machine NV184
7. Dye Tank NV185
8. Development Tank NV186
9. PCB Etching Machine NV187
10. Drilling Machine NV188
11. Solderable Lacquer Tank NV189

1. PCB Art Work Film Maker NV180

PCB Layout can be system generated or hand drawn. The PCB artwork film maker is used
to develop art work film. The film development is a dark room process. The lith film developed in
this process is called negative. The negative and positive refers to the way the film represents the
actual art work.
Positive Film Negative Film

2. PCB Art Work Table NV181

47
 The artwork table is used for inspecting and correcting the film developed by Art work
film maker. A new film can be directly developed with the help of accessories provided in PCB
designer kit (NV190). The direct films can be developed for small circuits and it becomes
complex with increase in circuit complexity.

3. PCB Shearing Machine NV182

PCB Shearing Machine is used for cutting PCB laminate to the desired dimensions.

4. Photoresist Dip Coating Machine NV183

PCB laminate cleaning is very important before photoresist coating. This PCB laminate
coated with photoresist is used for further PCB development. The Photoresist creates a layer on
the PCB laminate.

i. Take the cut PCB laminate from the shearing machine in previous procedure. Cleaning
with Cleaning Reagent- 1
ii. Dry the PCB laminate in the air first and then in PCB Curing Machine. During drying
process the care should be taken that spots should not occur on PCB laminate.
iii. Photoresist coating is done by mounting the PCB on the dipping assembly.
iv. Dip the PCB laminate slowly in the tank till the photoresist is coated on the PCB laminate.
v. Take out the PCB dipping assembly from the stand.

5. PCB Curing Machine (NV191).

Place the PCB laminate in the PCB Curing machine and leave the Laminate for 10 minute.

6. UV Exposing Machine NV184

i. Place the negative on the glass of the UV exposure machine such that the solder side is
in contact with the glass plate.
ii. Place the photoresist coated PCB on the negative.
iii. Close the lid of the UV exposure machine.
iv. The exposing time is about 15 minutes to 20 minutes.
v. After exposing the PCB is ready for development process.

7. Development Tank NV186

UV exposed PCB laminate is dipped in the developer quite for few minutes and then
processed for next step which is dye tank process. . Basically developer is used to remove the
extra photoresist coating.

i. If no tracks are visible dip it again for 5 sec. Repeat the process until tracks are clearly
visible. This process removes unused photoresist from the PCB that is not exposed to the
UV light i.e. the darker side of the Negative Film.

68

48
 ii. Suitable time for PCB laminate to be dipped in development tank is 1 to 5 minutes.
The time must not be varied as the excess time can damage tracks and time less than
the required time does not allow the developer to remove the extra photoresist.

8. Dye Tank NV185

Dye tank is used to dip the PCB laminate after development tank process. Role of the
dye tank process is to make the tracks formed in the development tank process visible.

9. PCB Etching Machine NV187

PCB etching machine is used for the etching process. Actually the tank of the
machine is filled with the ferric chloride solution in water. This solution reacts with the
copper of the PCB laminate when the laminate is dipped in the solution. The uncovered
copper of the laminate reacts with the ferric chloride and is removed from the PCB laminate
leaving the copper tracks only which were protected actually due to the photoresist coating
and dye.

i. Mount the PCB Laminate on the Stand provided for PCB etching machine. Dip it in
the PCB etching machine.
ii. The required time duration to pump the PCB etching machine ON is entered using
the push buttons and display provided on the front panel of the PCB etching machine.
iii. As soon as the spray starts functioning the ferric chloride solution goes whirling and
the process of the etching starts for the time duration as entered.
iv. When the time is over and the spray ceases and the etching process is complete.
v. Open the lid of the PCB etching machine and remove out the PCB laminate from the
etching machine. Check the PCB for complete etching. If the unused copper is not
completely removed then start the process again from step ii.
vi. The etching time depends on the concentration of etching solution and the size of
PCB.
vii. Wash the PCB laminate with cleaning reagent 2 and dry it, the process of etching is
complete.

10. Drilling Machine NV188

The PCB must be drilled as per components used in the design of the PCB
i. Place the PCB on the base of drilling machine provided for the support of drilling.
ii. Placing will be such that the drill bit will go straight to the place where hole is to be
made.
iii. Drill slowly creates holes.
iv. Similarly all the holes are made and thus drilling is complete.

RESULT:
Thus the various fabrication mathods of PCB were learnt.

49 | P a g e
EXP NO: 8 Date: / /
SOLDERING AND CHECKING CONTINUITY

Aim:
To practice soldering of plates and wires

Tools Required:
1. Soldering iron
2. Solder and
3. Flux

Theory:
Soldering:
Soldering is the process of joining thin metal plates or wires made of steel,
copper or brass. It is very commonly used to join wires in electrical work and mount
electronic components on a circuit board. The joining material used in soldering is
called as solder or filler rod. An alloy of tin and lead is commonly used as the solder.
The flux is used to clean the surface of the plates/wires to be soldered. Aluminium
chloride or zinc chloride is commonly used as flux. A good soldering iron is a
variable temperature setting type with interchangeable irons and tips. The tip should
be removed regularly to prevent oxidation scale from accumulating between the
heating element and the tip.

Procedure:
1. The surface to be soldered is cleaned and flux applied.
2. The soldering iron is heated to the required temperature.
3. The soldering iron melts the solder rod and a thin film of solder spreads
over the surface to join the plates/wires.

Soldering Simple Electronic Components:

A printed circuit board (PCB) consists of copper strips and pads bonded to a
plastic board. The copper strip is the network of interconnecting conductive path.
Leads of components mounted on the board are inserted through holes on the board
and the conductive copper. These leads are soldered to the copper at the end of the

50 | P a g e
hole. If excessive heat is applied to copper, it may get lifted from the board or the
components on the board get damaged. Soldering pencil gun of about 30 Watts is
used to heat the junction. The surface of copper bonded to the board should be
properly prepared and cleaned before soldering. Flux is applied on circuits and
component leads.
Check the conductive strips and pads on the board before soldering. Avoid
excess solder to prevent two copper paths from bridging. When solder globules form
on the junction area, remove them by cleaning the soldering tip using a cloth.

Checking Continuity:
The continuity of a wire conductor without a break has practically zero ohms
of resistance. Therefore, an ohmmeter may be used to test continuity. To test
continuity, select the lowest ohm range. A wire may have an internal break, which is
not visible due to insulation, or the wire may have a bad connection at the terminals.
Checking for zero ohms between any two points tests the continuity. A break in the
conducting path is evident from the reading of infinite resistance.
In a cable of wires, individual wires are identified with colours. Consider the
figure, where the individual wires are not seen, but you wish to find the wire that
connects to terminal A. This is done by, checking continuity of each wire to terminal
A. The wire that has zero ohms is the one connected to this terminal. Continuity of a
long cable may be tested by temporarily short-circuiting the other ends of the wires.
The continuity of both wires may be checked for zero ohms.
In a digital multimeter, a beep mode is available to check continuity. The
connectivity between the terminals is identified by the beep sound.

Result:
The electronic components are soldered and continuity of a circuit or wire is
checked.

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