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PROCEEDINGS INDONESIAN PETROLEUM ASSOCIATION

Twenty First Annual Convention, October 1992

BASIN MODELLING IN THE MAHAKAM DELTA BASED ON THE

INTEGRATED 2D MODEL TEMISPACK

Jean Burrus *
Etienne Brosse *
Ghislain Choppin de Janvry **
Yves Grosjean **
Jean-Louis Oudin **

ABSTRACT Most previous work focused on the organic geo-

The petroleum system of the Mahakam delta is
investigated using a two-dimensional reconstruction of
the history of HC generation and migration along a
80 km long regional section. We find that the classical
perascensum model, in which gaseous HC are
generated in the deep overpressured, overmature
shales, and sweep liquid HC during their vertical
migration, needs to be revised. The main conclusion of
this study is that the coal-rich, sand-rich and normally
pressured delta-plain facies, located in the synclines,
need to be considered as the most effective source rock,
rather than the deep overpressured marine shales.
Also, migration appears to take place mostly parallel to
bedding up-dip along structure flanks rather than
vertically across bedding. Our model explains the
distribution of gaseous HC at Tunu structure, and of oil
at Tambora structure. It is consistent with distribution
of present-day subsurface temperatures, shown to be
affected by recent meteoric water circulation, with coal
maturity and with overpressures distribution.
INTRODUCTION
The Mahakam delta (Figure 1) is Indonesias second
hydrocarbon province. oil and gas accumulations are
found in complex stacked deltaic sandy reservoirs
generally encountered between 2 and 4 km depth. The
principal fields (Figure 1) are : Handil (oil and gas),
Nilam and Radak (gas with minor oil rim), Attaka
(mainly oil), Bekapai (light oil and gas). More recent
discoveries include Tunu (gas) and Sisi (gas with minor
oil). The petroleum system of the Mahakam delta has
been studied by various authors over the past decade.
chemistry of the regional potential source, a rather
uniform type 111 series with interbedded coals. While
most authors have described the nature, distribution
and variability of the organic matter, few authors have
attempted to address the geochemical evaluation of the
delta together with its geological evolution, including
structural history, thermal history, and history of
overpressures development and subsequent fluid flow.
Recently appeared numerical basin modelling techni-
ques provide a useful way to address simultaneously the
geochemical history and the geological history of petro-
leum provinces through an integrated approach. This
paper presents some results obtained when applying
IFPs integrated numerical model TEMISPACK to
study the petroleum history along a 80 km east-west
regional section located in the center of the Mahakam
delta. This section crosses the South Tambora, Tunu
and Sisi structure. South Tambora, where some oil
shows were found, is equivalent to the giant oil field of
Handil (Figure I ) , but has no significant closure. Tunu
is an asymmetrical gas accumulation. with a steeper
flank along the more shaly facies found eastward. Sisi
was only recently drilled. Gas and minor quantities of
oil were found, and appraisal is still going on.
The purpose of this study is to discuss a regional
scenario of HC generation and migration. Geological,
geophysical and geochemical data used in this
study were collected and synthesized by TOTAL
TNDONESIE in 1988-1990. The numerical simulations
were carried out at IFP on a CRAY computer in 1990-
1991. This modelling study is part of a regional
synthesis carried out by TOTAL. A summary of data
and main conclusions of this synthesis were already
given by Duval et al. (1992).

* Institute Franais du PL-trole This paper includes four sections. In the first section, we
* TOTAL - Francc present the numerical model used for the simulations.
24
In the second section, we briefly summarize the
principal geological and geochemical characteristics of
the studied section. In the third section, we show model
outputs pertaining to (a) distribution of overpressures,
(b) distribution of subsurface temperatures and source
rock maturity, (d) H C migration trends. The last
section is a discussion and conclusion section.
PRINCIPLES OF TEMISPACK MODELLING
TEMISPACK is a finite-volume model which re-
constructs the history of petroleum generation and
migration along a 2D evolutive mesh representing a
regional cross section. Equations used in TEMISPACK
can be found in Ungerer et al. (1990), Burrus et al.
(1992a). The program contains five different modules.
The backstripping module simulates the sedimentation
rate along the section, by decompaction of the layers
using normal compaction curves. 'Normal' means that
neither undercompaction nor mineral diagenesis are
considered.
The mechanical compaction module uses the sedimen-
tation rates computed previously to simulate the
development of overpressures, the direction and
magnitude of water flow and the porosity. The following
parameters need to be inputs: the permeability of
layers (a function of porosity through Koseny-Carman
law), their surface porosity, and their mechanical
strength (through effective stress/porosity relation, a
classical concept in overpressure modelling: Smith,
1971). All these parameters are lithology dependent. In
this study, effective stress/porosity relations were
reconstructed from wireline logs and pressure data
(RFT, mud density) following the details given
elsewhere (Burrus et al., 1992b). The free parameters
were therefore the permeabilities, which were adjusted
against the observed overpressures.
The thermal module computes the transient history of
subsurface temperatures. In this study, as convective
flow was considered, the heat equation was solved in
conduction and convection. The inputs to the module
were thermal conductivities and heat capacities
estimated from the lithology, in accordance with Table
1. A variable basement heat flow was imposed at 15 km
below sedimentbasement interface, and the surface
temperature was kept constant at 25"G, the present day
mean surface temperature at the top of the sediments.
The main free parameter is the subcrustal heat flow,
which is adjusted against the observed subsurface
temperatures and thermal maturity indicators.
The HC generations module computes the rate of
kerogen cracking (or TR: transformation ratio) by
solving a system of parallel kinetic reactions (Tissot and
Espitalie, 1975). Kinetic parameters for the source rock
were adjusted against experimental pyrolysis yield
curves (Table 2). Theoretical TRs were compared to
observed maturity indicators like H I (hydrogen index)
using an approximate relation TR=HIo-HI/HIo.
The H C migration module computes the mass of H C
displaced across the mesh, in response to the driving
forces: buoyancy, gradients of overpressures, capillary
forces. It is assumed that petroleum migrates as a
separate phase flow through the pore network, and that
other mechanisms (diffusion, adsorption, etc) are
relatively negligible. The results are displayed as the
volumetric H C saturations in each mesh cell. This is
obtained by solving a two-phase (water+HC) Darcy
equation, together with the compaction equation.
Additional parameters are: the initial potential of the
source rocks, estimated from~Rock Eva1 experiments
(see Table l), the relative permeability functions used
in multi-phase Darcy equation (degree two functions of
saturations), the capillary pressures, which represent
the difference of pressure between the water phase and
the H C phase, and the petroleum fluid properties
(density and viscosity). The density and viscosity of the
H C phase are theoretically affected by PVT and H C
chemical composition changes. These were not explored
in this study. We assumed the H C generated from
kerogen cracking behave like a 'compressed gas' from a
density (350 kg/m ) and viscosity Pa.s) standpoint.
Capillary pressures were assumed to be around 10 MPa
in marine or transgressive shales, and neglected
elsewhere.
Practically, a TEMISPACK modelling study is step-
wise organized, starting from the most simple re-
constructions (backstripping), and ending with
complete coupled reconstructions (burial / over-
pressures / thermal / HC generation and migration). A
litho-chrono-stratigraphic model of the studied section
was established first, and all well controls gathered:
lithofacies. overpressure, porosities, temperatures.
source rock potential and maturity, etc. Then the
section was decompacted using the backstripping
module. Consistency between palaeo-bathymetries and
stratigraphy was checked. Then the past and present-
day pressure regime was simulated and the pressure
history calibrated against observed pressure distribu-
tion. Permeabilitics were first estimated from the
lithological model, then refined to fit the observed
pressure. Due to the presence of interbedded shale and
sands, considerable Permeability anisotrogy was
introduced (up to five orders of magnitude; see details
in Burrus et a]., 1992b). The next step was to model
thermal and maturity histories, while adjusting a
consistent subcrustal heat flow reconstruction against

observed temperatures, organic maturity and other
thermal indicates. Since a convective component was
recognized in the thermal field, some calibration of
horizontal permeabilities was also achieved while
matching temperatures. Finally, the coupling of all
modules lead to discuss the history of HC expulsion and
migration. This last step must be viewed as qualitative
rather than quantitative. In particular, comparison of
quantities of HC computed by a given model and real
accumulations is not relevant since computations are
2D, while real migration pathways are 3D.
GEOLOGICAL AND GEOCHEMICAL
CHARACTERISTICS: AN OVERVIEW.
The Mahakam delta basin (see location in Figure 1 and
section in Figure 2) contains an accumulation of more
than 9 km of post-mid Miocene sediments. They are
overlying older (Upper Eocene ? to Oligocene Lower
Miocene) sediments not involved in this study.
Geodynamics-Structures.
The Mahakam basin forms the eastern part of the wider
Kutai basin (Figure 1). Its development, between
Upper Eocene and mid-Miocene, is roughly coeval
with the opening, 150 km to the north-east, of the
North Makassar basin, a marginal extensional basin
linked to the subduction of the Indian-Australian plate
under Sulawesi (Situmorang, 1982;Letouzey et al.,
1990). Subsidence is considerably reduced to the south
of the delta across the Pater Noster platform. A major
east-west compression appeared during the Pliocene. It
is still active at present-day time. It was responsible for
the inversion of the whole Kutai basin and for the
formation of the Meratus range 200 km to the south-
east of the delta (Figure 1). In the Mahakam delta
region, the structuration is attenuated when compared
to the Kutai inversion structures, which are accompa-
nied by more than 2 km of erosion, and major thrusting.
To the west of the present-day delta, the structuration
consists in the NlO-N20 folds and thrusted folds of the
Samarinda anticline (Figure 1). Within the present-day
delta, the structuration consist in three parallel folded
axes, not affected by thrusting: the Handil-Badak axis,
the Bekapai-Attaka axis and the Pemarung-Sisi axis.
Erosion, estimated from log and seismic data, is
relatively high at handil (700-800 m) and Badak
(500-600 m ) , small (<200 m) at the western flank of
Tambora, and negligible east of Tambora culmination.
Other minor structures are controlled by normal faults,
often oblique to structures. The outer part of the
Mahakam delta (east of Sisi region) is characterized by
basinward-dipping normal faulting, possibly controlled
by gravity. These faults are believed to act as discharge
zones for regional fluid flow (see below).
25
Basin infilling; stratigraphy.
The depositionally regressive succession is dominated
by shales, found below 3.5 to 4 km depth to the west,
and 2 to 2.5 km east of Sisi. Above, sand content
increases progressively such that the succession
coarsens both upward and westward. The present-day
Mahakam delta is a classical example of tide-dominated
delta (Allen et al., 1981). Four major sedimentary
environments are commonly observed, which differ
both in sand composition, organic content, and sand
bodies architecture: the fluvial plain, the tidal delta
plain, the proximal and distal delta front, the pro-delta
and shelf. The lateral continuity of the sands along
the east-west direction is believed to be excellent
(except over the delta front sand bars, which are more
continuous across than along the section). The
elementary stratigraphic sequence is around 30-50 rn
thick: it starts with transgressive shales, progressively
enriched in sands, and ends with coals deposits in
subaerial conditions when regression was most
developed.
While presenting the sedimentological characteristics
of the delta, it is important to keep in mind that the
orientation of the studied section, 80 km in length, is
located between the South-Tambora and Sisi structures
(Figure 1to 3). It is parallel to the transport direction of
the Mahakam river and to the sand distributaries in the
fluvial and delta plain, and perpendicular to the regional
structural axes. The typical resolution of the mesh is
2-5 km horizontally, and 100-300 m vertically, whereas
thickness of individual sand bodies is in the range of
1-30 m. Significant lumping has therefore to be carried
out in order to assign 'homogeneous' lithofacies to each
element of the mesh, and to evaluate their petrophysical
characteristics. The lumping procedure was as follows.
Using an averaging method based on a sliding window
(Duval et al., 2992), wire line log information available
along the section was converted by TOTAL INDO-
NESIE to sand/sand+ shale ratios calculated at a scale
consistent with the mesh resolution (100-500 m).
leading to the definition of 7 classes of sands:
- fluvial sands have the highest sand content (0.65),
- delta plain sands show a great variability, with 4
classes identified (ratio of 0.55,0.45,0.35 and 0.25),
- delta fronts have lower sand contents (0.25, 0.15)
except in isolated low-stand sand bodies, with sand
ratio of 0.55 (Figure 3),
- pro-delta and marine shales have a poor sand
content (0.05).
Other facies (including minor occurence of carbonates)
were neglected. '
26
Regional seismic lines, tied on key wells, were re-
interpreted by TOTAL following the principles of
sequential stratigraphy. Thirty-two time-horizons were
thus identified along the regional section modelled,
subsequently dated on key wells, with ages between
14.8 and 0 Ma. The final mesh includes 31 x 32 node
blocks. Additional information needed to model the
stratigraphic evolution along the section include
palaeo-bathymetry and normal compaction curves. All
facies from fluvial sands to l o w - \ t a d sands in the delta
front were assumed to be deposited with zero bathy-
metry, while in the slope and deep basin, paleobathy-
metrical profile were estimated from the sigmoid shape
of regional seismic markers, corrected for decompac-
tion. A regional compilation of log information was
used to establish 'typical' porosity versus depth profiles
for 'pure sand' and 'pure shale' lithologies. The
procedure used for the shale will be presented else-
where with greater details (Burrus et al., 1992b). The
curves established for pure mineralogical poles were
averaged according to proportions for mixed Yandlshale
lithologies.
SUBSURFACE DATA: OVERPRESSURES,
TEMPERATURES, FLUIDS.
Overpressures.
The existence of a zone of severe overpressures (10-40
MPa) at depth in general greater than 3.5 to 4 km in the
central delta is a fundamental characteristic of the
Mahakam basin. This zone, roughly coincides with the
development of the marine shale and is separated from
the overlying hydrostatic, more sandy facies by a sharp,
narrow 'transition zone' (Oudin and Picard, 1982). This
transition zone is in general 200-300 m thick, and
characterized by very high overpressures gradients
(several 10 MPa/100 m). Consistently with the shallower
depth of the top of the marine shale from west
(Tambora) to east (Sisi), the top of the transition zone
is at 3880 m at Tambora, 3600-3700 m at Tunu and
3400 m east of Ski. Most pressure information is derived
from mud weights, except over Tambora and Tunu,
where some RFT data are available. The maximum
overpressures measured in each structure along the
studied section, generally at the base of the transition
zone, is 7 MPa in Tambora, 24 MPa in Tunu, 15 MPa
in Sisi. The unusually deep Bekapai 11 well (Figure 4)
shows that the development of overpressures and with
the development of overpressures is co-evat with the
development of undercompaction (documented
through Sonic or Density logs anomalies). The over-
pressures are a critical aspect in the concept of effective
kitchen proposed in the literature (see below) for the
region.
Fluids.
Recent analysis of the chemistry of waters (240
sampled, in the hydrostatic zone mostly) carried out by
TOTAL and published work (Taieb, 1990) indicated
that the waters of Handil-Tambora-Badak have a
meteoric character across the whole hydrostatic zone.
This is consistent with the assumption developed
below where this axis has been cooled by cold water
circulation. The meteoric signature progressively
attenuates toward Tunu and Sisi axes. Besides, resisti-
vity logs indicate that fresh water is progressively
diluted with saline waters from west to east in the
'Fresh water sands' formation, a one-km thick regional
aquifer located between 1.5 and 2.5 km depth, which
outcrops west of tambora. Weak signs of dilution still
exist at Sisi. Finally, oil trapped at a depth of 1.5 km in
Handil shows signs of water washing (Lafargue, oral
comm.). These data suggest that some regional scale,
horizontal and west-to-east water flow has taken place
in the past, and still continues today. Oil-water inter-
face tilting is rare in the Mahakam region, but exists
south of Sanga-Sanga and at Badak (Figure 1). As
argued below, this could be a sign that present-day
hydrodynamism is considerably reduced.
Temperatures, palaeo-temperatures.
Available subsurface temperatures were reevaluated by
TOTAL after this study. Five hundred present-day
temperatures determination were selected after
correction for drilling effects. In the vicinity of the
studied section, 15 determinations apply to the
Tambora structure, 11 to Tunu and 6 to Sisi. The
principal trend shown by these data (Figure 5) is the
15-20" C cooler temperatures of Tambora, compared to
Tunu or Ski, at depths ranging between 1.5 to 4 km.
Tunu and Sisi exhibit comparable temperatures. Data
suggest that, if the whole Handil-Tambora-Badak axis
seems cooler than the Bekapai-Tunu-Attaka axis, the
cooling is however more pronounced at Tambora than
Handil or Nilam (Duval et al., 1992). Figure 5 indicates
that formation gradients between Tambora and Tunu-
Sisi do not differ significantly. The main difference is a
shift of the whole temperature profile at Tambora. This
cannot be caused by erosion: very recent erosion at
Tambora would exhume warmer sediments, and the
effect would be opposite. Neither can it be caused by
conductive effects: any conductive effect would
considerably affect the formation gradients. An
alternative explanation would be a 15-20" C lower
surface temperature at Tambora than at Tunu-Ski.
This is excluded: Tambora shows negligible topography
difference with Tunu. Recent west-to-east hydro-
dynamics, related to topography now eroded west

of Tambora, is suggested below as an alternative
explanation,
Another result of the reevaluation of temperatures is
that top and flanks of individual structures do, in
general, show more uniform temperature than originally
thought. The reported 'dog-leg' shape of thermal
gradients across the transition zone was previously
attributed to circulation of hot fluids or unconsolidated
material within the overpressured zone (shale diapirism)
or free convection (Oudin, 1987). The reevaluation of
data suggests that this is an exceptional feature, most
probably related to local fluid circulations in the
hydrostatic zone.
Literature already mentions evidence of cooling in the
Mahakam region. The best evidence was given by
Rinckenbach (1988) and Clauer (1987) who estimated
past temperatures at Handil to be at least 20" C higher
than at present-day. This result was based on the inter-
pretation of scarce fluid inclusions and smectite-illite
evolution. The previous authors proposed to interpret
the 20" C cooling at Handil by late-Tertiary erosion of
around 800 m. Data at Tambora suggest that convective
cooling might be an alternative mechanism, and that
both erosion and hydrodynamics might explain the
cooling observed at Handil.
SOURCE ROCKS, EXTRACTS, OILS.
Source type and potential.
The organic matter, whatever the methods used
(optical analysis, Rock-Eva1 pyrolysis, Van Krevelen
diagrams), appears homogeneous, with a terrestrial
origin (Combaz and Matharel, 1987; Oudin and Picard,
1982; Schoell et al., 1983; Vandenbroucke et al., 1983;
Huc et al., 1986; Oudin, 1987; Laggoun-Defarge and
Pradier, 1990). It is mostly composed of huminite-
vitrinite with a minor proportion of exinite. The type
and distribution of the recent organic matter (Pelet,
1987) have not changed much since the Miocene in the
region. The T O C variability is locally controlled by the
structure of the elementary sequence (Oudin, 1987): at
the base of the sequence, marine shales and pro-delta
shales have a TOC of 1% at most, with dispersed
organic matter; delta plain sands have no kerogen,
whereas interbedded shales have TOC of around 2.5%,
up to 8% for organic shales; at the top of the sequence,
coal beds with thickness 0.1 to 5 m have TOC of 45 to
80 YO. Average volume ratio of shales, organic shales
and coals have been reconstructed for the lithological
classes considered. Lumping the TOC at the scale of
the numerical elements enables calculation of the initial
petroleum potential. The result is given in Table 1 and
in Figure 2. Taking into account the sand content, the
27
shale type (organic or not) and the coal content
together leads to define 16 different lithofacies, with
initial petroleum potential (at the scale of model
elements) between 1 and 9 kg HC/t rock.
Maturity of Kerogen.
Vitrinite reflectance, Tmax and H I have been exten-
sively used to characterize the maturity of the source
rocks. The present day top of the 'oil window' (defined
by TR=10%, or Tmax=435"C, or Ro=0.60) seems not
as downwarped along structure flanks as initially
thought (e.g. Durand and Oudin, 1979; Oudin, 1987).
Previous authors suggested strongly that iso-maturity
lines were dipping parallel to structure flanks, in
particular along the Handil-Badak axis, leading to the
concept that top of structures were persisting 'hot
zones' associated with reported 'dog-leg' thermal
anomalies, and synclines 'cold' sediments. Recent re-
examination of data by TOTAL - INDONESIE and
IFP leads to moderate this view.
At Tambora, the depth of the top of the oil window,
derived from HI to Ro data, is around 3600-3800 m
(west flank and top). On the east flank, where erosion
is quasi-absent, the top of the oil window is not reached.
H I data indicate that it is at least 200 m deeper than
on the top and west flank, a value compatible with
estimated erosion. Erosion seems also responsible for
the very hallow (2400 m) position of the top oil-window
(Ro=0.60) at Handil, and its 800-1000 m deeper
position on the less eroded east flank (Kerbau zone,
Durand et al., 1987). Interestingly, deep enough H I
data at the top of.Tambora reveal that T R is 0.40 at a
depth of 4400 m. This provides a control point for
thermal history calibration. At Tunu and Sisi, only the
top of the oil window, derived from less precise Ro
data, is observed around 3500 m.
In conclusion, the very moderate tilt of the top of oil
window, slightly (100 m?) shallower at Sisi than at
Tambora, is within data resolution. The only prominent
feature is the uplift of the top of oil window west of
Tambora and at HandilBadak, attributed to late
Tertiary / Recent erosion.
Oil extract-expulsion-migration.
Since the mid seventes, numerous studies (Combaz and
MaStharel, 1978; Durand and Oudin, 1979; Oudin
Picard, 1982; Schoell et al., 1983; Vandenbroucke
et al., 1983; Hoffman et al., 1984) have stressed the
idea that reservoir oil composition compares with
extracts composition found in coals located several km
deeper, at much higher maturity. This has led to
develop the now classical 'per ascensum' migration
28
model. In this 'per ascensum' model, the lightest (and
most mobile) products (Cl-Cl2) migrate vertically to
the shallowest reservoirs, whereas the heaviest (C13+)
products are more concentrated in the deepest reser-
voirs. HC would be generated in the vicinity of the
transition zone, and below, in the overpressured zone.
Oil generated in the overpressured zone would crack
into gas because of delayed expulsion, enhancing the
opening of micro-fractures. The resulting gaseous
petroleum would then percolate vertically into the
transition zone, solubilize liquid HC generated in situ
at moderate maturity (a mechanism developed by Price,
1989; see also Leythaeuser and Polchau, 1992),
penetrate into the hydrostatic zone and finally ascend
across the stacked hydrostatic reservoirs, retro-
condensing a liquid petroleum. The GOR in reservoirs
would then primarily be controlled by the more or less
overpressured character of the effective sources and the
distance from the source: high GOR would go along
with highly overpressured sources.
The principal drawbacks of this model are twofold.
First, deep overpressured shales have a very low
petroleum potential (around 1-2 kg/t rock), a situation
not favourable for a good expulsion efficiency. Also,
organic matter is dispersed in the deep overpressured
zone, where coal beds are mostly absent. Expulsion
would be considerably easier from the normally
pressured, much richer (potential of 5-10 kg/t) and
more permeable sandy facies interbedded with coal
beds in a syncline position. Second, the 'per ascensum
model' is qualitative. It remains to be checked if the
driving forces (overpressure gradients, buoyancy) are
greater than resistance forces (permeability and
capillary barriers) in overpressured shales.
to from laboratory observations the
expulsion efficiency in organic shales or in coals were
(Durand et 1987), because Of the
great difficulty of discriminating migrated HC from
indigenous HC at the scale of samples.
Following the previous review, the following questions
still remain open and are discussed below:
- When evaluating the timing of HC generation,
can we use the present day (recently cooled)
temperatures to compute the maturity, or does the
cooling.post-date the maturity?
- Can we estimate the permeability of shales in the
transition zone and below from the observed over-
pressures? If yes, can petroleum generated in these
regions migrate vertically upward following the
previously proposed 'per ascensum' model?
- Provided that synclines are probably more mature
than originally thought before, could normally
pressured sandy facies with high TOC located in
the synclines contribute significantly to the accumu-
lations, as an alternative to the 'per ascensum'
model fed by deep shales?
MODEL RESULTS
Geometrical decompaction:
Figure 3 displays the decompacted section at present-
day, at 2.8 Ma (during the uplift-erosion phase), and at
10 Ma (before the uplift). The distribution of litho-
facies appears consistent with the basin shape. The
eastward shift through time of the depocenter is also
well documented. The present-day structural axes of
Tambora, and also Sanga-Sanga and Sambodja to the
west, appear to have ancestral precursors visible as
early as 10 Ma on decompactedlrestored sections. This
is consistent with the persisting tectonic instability of
the whole region since mid-Miocene.
Overpressures, hydrodynamism and permeability:
Figure 6 shows the d'evelopment of overpressures at
10 Ma, 2.4 Ma and present-day. The zone colored in
white represents the region of hydrostatic pressures
(mud density less than 1.15). It coincides very well with
the sandy facies extent in Figure 3. The compaction
driven water flow is found vertical in the overpressured
shales, parallel to bedding and oriented from east to
west in interbedded sand-shales, due to their high
permeability anisotropy (see Table 1). We discuss
elsewhere (Burrus et al., 1992b) the sedimentological
constraints which support the very. high - permeability
.
anisotropies introduced for all facies, but marine or
transgressive shale. When an uplift is modelled (middle
of Figure 6), meteoric water penetrates in the basin at
the uplifted edge, and circulates in specific aquifers
from west to east, a direction of flow opposite to
compactional flow. The meteoric flow appears particu-
larly-activein the FWS, where it reaches the Sisiregion.
These features are consistent with the distribution of
observed salinity. When the uplift is mostly eroded
(present-day simulation, top of Figure 6), most of the
meteoric flow has vanished. This shows how much
sensitive regional hydrodynamics is to tectonic activity
and erosional processes. The Darcy velocities found in
the FWS are found around 1-2 m/y, obtained with an
horizontal permeability of around 1 D. The discharge
zone is represented by the normal fault zone east of
Sisi.
Figure 7 shows that the vertical permeability of shales
in the transition zone and below is precisely constrained
 29

by observed overpressures and porosity anomalies. Not Figure 9. Distribution of HC saturation along the
only is the observed overpressure trend in the transition section is represented at 5.5 Ma, 2.4 Ma and present-
zone well reproduced in depth and magnitude by the day. Arrows represent Darcy velocity for the H C
model (solid line), but also, qualitatively, the phase.
anomalous porosity-depth profiles that can be derived
from log data (compare with Figure 4). The dotted and - The calculated present-day distribution is consistent
dashed lines in Figure 7 fit less satisfactorily observed with proven accumulations at Tunu and Tambora,
overpressures (dotted line) or porosity (dotted and but not at Sisi. The Tunu field is well reproduced by
dashed line) by a permeability change of a factor 5 to 10 the model, with its specific asymmetrical shape,
only. This is very little, and demonstrates how precisely related to eastward permeability decrease. No H C
shale permeabilities (in the nD range) can be adjusted accumulation is found at South-Tambora. This is
against pressure/porosity anomalies. clearly solely due to an absence of closure, since
westward migration occurs in the model between
Temperatures and coal maturity. 5 Ma and present-day west of South-Tambora,
consistent with the observed presence of H C
Figure 8 displays observed and calculated temperatures
accumulation at Tambora. The main kitchen which
and transformation ration at the top of Tambora. Three
sources the Tambora and Tunu structures is the
theoretical thermal assumptions are tested. The steady
syncline in between them. We notice that no H C
state constant heat flow of 45 mW/m2 (dotted line) fits
are drained toward Tunu from the syncline between
well the maturity trend, but results in present day
Tunu and Sisi, which has no mature sandy coal-rich
temperatures in excess of 20C. The constant heat flow
facies in our model. In contrast with the gas (and
of 30 mW/m2 (dashed line) is compatible with the
minor oil) shows found during drilling, Sisi has in
present-day temperatures, but results in a 1 km too
our model no H C accumulations. The fact that H C
deep an oil window. Such discrepancy indicates that the
generated in the overpressured shales are immobile
present-day temperatures are about 20" too cool to
(see below) suggests that the absence in the model
explain the present-day maturity. The third solution
of H C accumulations in the Sisi region is due to an
(solid line, Figure 8) combines a subcrustal heat flow of
underestimation of the organic content of the
50 mW/m2 below the Tambora structure, with a
sandier facies in the Tunu-Sisi syncline. A more
convective cooling of around 15-20" due to the meteoric
detailed mesh should incorporate a locally higher
circulations shown in Figure 6 (middle part). Both
coal content in this syncline.
calculated temperatures and maturity fit much better
with present-day observations. Hydrodynamics respon- - Most arrows showing migration paths are parallel
sible for the cooling is concentrated in the FWS; it
to bedding, and not vertical upwards. The huge
however also affects deeper horizons by diffusion with
volume of overpressured shales has H C saturations
lower Darcy velocity than in the FWS. We assumed the
around 10-15%, but most of these are immobile,
topography of the western flank of Tambora to be
due to too low a permeability for the shales. This is
around +600 m during uplift, to persist between 3 and
very much conflicting with the classical idea that
0.5 Ma, and to progressively disappears between
gas is generated in the very deep, overmature and
0.5 and 0 Ma. The influence of convective cooling
overpressured shales ('per ascensum model'),
progressively decreases toward Tunu, and Sisi (where it
is negligible). To fit the present-day temperatures and - The timing of H C expulsion and structure filling
maturity at Tunu and Ski, we have to increase the sub-
appears extremely recent. The filling of Tunu has
crustal heat flow east of Tambora to 85 mW/m2. The
started two Ma ago only. The more permeable
rapid increase of the heat flow, 50 to 85 mW/m2, over
Tambora flank was first invaded by HC; the
25 km only east of Tambora is surprising. We believe
invasion started around 5 Ma. At this moment,
that it has neither a crustal nor a geodynamic origin.
surface uplift has not yet been introduced in our
The lower value at Tambora might well be attributed to
model. However, the ancestral Tambora axis was
a blanketing effect due to the thick (6 - 8 km ?) pre-mid
already visible on dccompacted sections as early as
Miocene delta, not taken into account in our thermal
10 Ma ago (Figure 3 ) . This suggests that the
model. This ancestral delta had its depocenter below
absence of H C accumulation at South-Tambora is
Tambora (Duval et al., 1992), where the present-day
not a problem of too late a structuration, when
heat flow is consistently most reduced.
compared with migration timing. It is a lack of
HC expulsion and migration: closure.

Simulation of HC generation and migration, using the - A sensitivity study described elsewhere (Burrus et.
initial petroleum potential of Table 1, is illustrated in al., 1992b) indicates that the H C contribution from
30
overmature, overpressured shales located below
the transition zone is very small, whereas the con-
tribution of sandy, coal-rich, moderately mature
(TR,0.65) hydrostatic facies located in the syncline
is dominant. A small, not negligible H C contribu-
tion toward the South-Tambora axis (and therefore
lost) is found from rich organic shales located over
the Tambora eastern flank (Figures 2 and 9) in the
transition zone.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION:
This study suggests that the classical 'per ascensum'
model of HC migration needs some revision to be con-
sistent with constraints derived from basin modelling,
and observations. The main elements of this revision
are the following.
1. Incorporating present-day temperatures and coal
maturity distribution suggests that some 20" C
cooling has occurred 'recently' along the Tambora
axis and that this cooling postdates the coal
maturity. Although in the region of Handil, part of
this cooling can be attributed to the 600-800 m
recent (Pliocene to recent ?) erosion inferred from
logs and seismic, this explanation cannot apply to
the Tambora-Nilam region, where erosion is much
too low.
2. Shape of measured present-day thermal profiles
and distribution of waters with a meteoric character
suggest very strongly that west to east circulations
took place in the FWS and caused this cooling to
be coeval with the structuration of the region.
Numerical constraints indicate that the 15-20' C
cooling is compatible with an horizontal permeabi-
lity of the FWS around 1 D , and a palaeotopo-
graphy of around 600 m along the west-Tambora
flank. Permeability measurements in sand cores,
and regional structural context suggest that both
are reasonable. Models indicate that hydro-
dynamism has been considerably reduced at
present-day, due to rapid erosion of topography,
which today peaks at 50 m only. This could explain
why, although evidence of ancient to 'recent' (ie.
circa 0.5 Ma) circulations is abundant, evidence of
active flowing at present-day (oil-water contact
tilting) is uncommon.
3. The high overpressures observed in the Mahakam
delta shales, in particular the high overpressure
gradients in the transition zone, imply that present-
day and past permeability of the shales were very
small, in the nD range. This is compatible with
permeabilities usually measured in the laboratory
on shale samples. The overpressure distribution is
clearly controlled by rock facies distribution.
4. The expulsion of H C from overpressured, lean
shales appears then considerably more difficult
than from shallower sandy, coal-rich and normally
pressured facies. This suggests that, contrary to the
view of the 'per ascensum' migration model, the
most prolific plays should be associated with the
presence of such coal-and sand-rich kitchens, which
are not present at great depth. Migration would
then mostly take place parallel to bedding and not
perpendicular to bedding.
5. The main weakness with this new model is that the
maturity of the sandy facies located in synclines
might be insufficient (TR<0.65 according to our
model) t d allow considerable volume of gaseous
H C to be generated. It remains to be tested if, as
needed here and already proposed previously by
Monnier et al. (1983), significant amounts of
thermogenic gas can be produced from coals at
such relatively moderate maturity.
6. Provided this new model is correct, we infer that
the quality of the drainage system (i.e. the sand
content) and the relative proportion of coal and
organic shales in the hydrostatic part of the synclines
will control the GOR of any accumulation. We
expect that kitchens with high coal content,
generally associated with high sand content, having
therefore a good 'drainage' potential, would go
along with low GOR petroleum (oil), whereas
kitchens with dominantly organic shales, less well
drained, would go along with high GOR petroleum.
To make this picture more precise, an experimental
comparison of the nature of products generated by
coals, and by organic shales at similar moderate
maturity seems necessary.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We thank PERTAMINA, INPEX and TOTAL for
permission to publish this study. Colleagues from
TOTAL and TOTAL-INDONESIE who participated
in data synthesis are acknowledged (MM. Bois, Loiret,
Piazza, de Seguin-Pazzis). We also thank G. Bessereau
from IFP (palaeo-bathymetry reconstruction). The
paper was usefully commented by B. Durand (IFP)
before submission.
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31
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32
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 33

~'c~ ~

o'~

.]. 0 =

o
0
34

TABLE 2
16 -1
Kinetic parameters (A=2.77 10 s )

Initial petroleum
potential Xio
(mg HC /g TOC)

10
27
80
61
24
14
7
5
4
2
1
1
 35

FIGURE 1 - Location map of the Mahakam delta, situated at the edge of the
inverted Samarinda anticlinorium, to the east of the Kutai Basin. The 80
km long section studied crosses from west to east the Tambora structural
axis, the Tunu axis and the Sisi axis. The detailed view of oil and gas
producing fields is from Duval et al. (1992). AA: section studied.
36

W E
S.TAMBORA TUNU SlSl
0 0

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4
E
Y
5 5

6- 6

7- 1

0 5 10 15 2%
1 I I I J
8-
Initial Petroleum Potential
9-
m 5.5 TO 8.7 kg HC / t Rock
w 4.8 TO 5.5 AGE:0.0 MY
00.7 TO 1.4
Limit of marineltransgressive shales

FIGURE 2 - Computerized section, derived from an interpreted regional seismic section tied on wells.
The section includes 23 horizons (regional unconformities or condensed intervals). The limit
of the open-basin or transgressive shales is underlined by hachures (very low vertical and
horizontal permeability, see Table 1).The initial petroleum potential distribution underlines
the high prospectivity of the delta-plain facies in the syncline between Tunu andTambora.
 37

WNW ESE

WNW ESE

i
9 1 Krn

9 I .22.17
FIGURE 3 - Bottom : Present-day regional mesh derived from the regional section studied, with the distribution of the seven
lithofacies considered. Middle : decompacted section at 2.4 Ma, when the structural axes west of Tambora were
assumed to be uplifted. Top : decompacted pre-uplift stage at 10 Ma, showing some early instability below the axes
at Tambora and west of Tambora. The column with the blue color east of Sisi is a simplified representation of the
normal fault zone observed on seismic lines.
38

SONIC RHOBC
1. 160 120 80 1.5 2.0 2.5

2.

E
5rl

3.

I I I

30 40 50 6070 80 90 MPa
PRESSURE

FIGURE 4 - Typical pressure profile and compaction profiles at Bekapai, showing that the
development of overpressures across the transition zone ( 3 . 3 to 3.6 km) is co-eval
with the development of undercompaction (composite Density and Sonic logs for
shales).
 39

TEMPERATURES

1, A TM16
h

E lM17
W 2, o m
OMR
Ew 3-
9

'c

4,

5,
0 20 40 60 80 loo 120 140 160c
Or--
1,

2,
3,
4,

51

*.

FIGURE 5 - Corrected temperature distribution along the Tambora (top),

the Tunu (middle) and the Sisi structural axes (bottom). Open
symbols (triangles, circles, etc) refer to wells located in the
vicinity of the section. Points refer to wells more distant from
the section. The Tambora axis appears as colder than the other
axes.
40

S. TAMBORA TUNU s st
MPa
I + 72
64- 72
I l 56- 64
f-'q , - 5 6
40- 48
2 ~:~ 32- 40
24- 32
3 16- 24

4
E o 20Kin
I I

9 PRESENT

0" 0

1. 1

2. 2

3. 3

4 4
E
~"5 5

6. 6

7 7

8 8

9
9 2.4 Ma

0 0

! 1

"2 2

3 3
E
~4 4

6 6

7. . . . . . . . 7 10.5 Ma
FIGURE 6 - Distribution of calculated overpressures .and water flow at 10 Ma (bottom), 2.4 Ma (middle) and present-day (tOp). The present-day situation is consistent
with ovel aressures and porosity anomalies observed in wells (see Figure 7). Except in shales, water floors parallel to bedding, due to the high permeability
anisotropy introdu~d for the sandy facies. At 2.4 Ma, the uplift of the western Tambora flank is co-eval with the development of an hydrodynamic system,
flowing~from west to east, and most active in the Fresh Water Sands (where arrows are heavier), indicating more rapid flow.The fault zone indicated
in Figure 3 acts as a discharge zone for topography-driven flow.
 A P (MPa) POROSITY (%I
10 20 30 40 50 70 20 30 40 50
I 1 I I 1 0 I I 1 I 1

1
SlS!
2
......... K v x 10

3 - STANDARD
____ Kv SHALE + 5
4

FIGURE 7 - Comparison of overpressures and porosity profiles at east-Sisi for three assumptions on the vertical
permeability of shales. The solid line is the best fitting assumption. The dotted line gives too low
overpressures and too low undercompaction. The dashed line gives acceptable overpressures, but too high
undercompaction. These results illustrate how permeabilities can be adjusted againts observations.
42

n
2
x
W

F
4 3
n

TR ("/o)

10 20 30 40 50 60 70

TAMBORA
2 2
-__ CONVECTION + 50mW /m
n --- CONDUCTION 30mW /m2
E
s3 CONDuCT ION 45m w/m2
_____ __.__.
~

I
t-
b4
a

FIGURE 8 - Calculated an observed temperatures and coal maturity at Tambora. Three

theoretical profiles are shown. The dotted profiles (steady 45 mW/m2 heat
flow) shows that if the observed maturity trend is well accounted for, then
the fit of observed temperatures is poor. The reverse applies to the dashed
profiles (steady 30 mWlm2 heat flow). This suggests a recent cooling, which
postdates maturity. The solid profiles fit both temperatures and maturity.
They imply a 20C convective cooling, due to the meteoric circulations
shown in the middle of Figure 6.
 8

2.

FIGURE 9 - Calculated distribution of H C saturation, at 5 , 2.4. 0 . 5 Ma and present-day. The arrows represent HC migration velocity vectors. They are mostly parallel
to bedding. The result shown at present-day is consistent with thc asymmetrical Tunu gas field. The Absence of HC accumulation at South-Tambora is related to
the absence of closure. H C generated in the deep shales below the tran.;ition zone remain immobile, because the permeabilityof the shales is too low.The preferred
kitchens include the coal-rich (see Figure 2), sand-rich. normally pressured delta-plain facies in the syncline betwcen Tambora and Tunu.No HC accumulation is
tound to develop at Sisi, in contradiction with drilling recults.This wggests that thcTunu-Sisi syncline has more coals or organic shales than considered (Figure 2)
in our wurce rock distibution model.