Structures Under Shock and Impact II PDF

Structures Under Shock and Impact
Acknowledgment is made to A. Miyamoto et al for the use of Figure 7a,

p.305, which appears on the front cover of this book
Structures Under Shock
and Impact II
Proceedings of the Second International Conference, held in

Portsmouth, U.K., 16th-18th June, 1992
Editor: P.S. Bulson
Computational Mechanics Publications

Southampton Boston
Co-published with
Thomas Telford
1 London
P.S. Bulson
Wessex Institute of Technology
Ashurst Lodge
Southampton
S04 2AA, U.K.
and
Mott MacDonald Group, U.K.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
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from the British Library
ISBN 1-85312-170-3 Computational Mechanics Publications, Southampton

ISBN 1-56252-099-7 Computational Mechanics Publications, Boston, USA
ISBN 978-0-7277-1681-1
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 92-70435
Co-published and distributed by Thomas Telford Services Ltd, Thomas

Telford House, 1 Heron Quay, London E14 4JD, U.K.
First published in 1992
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Computational Mechanics Publications 1992

Thomas Telford 1992
See p50, pl87, pl97, p210 and p220
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PREFACE
In July 1989 a first international conference on structures under shock and
impact was held in Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA. It was described as
a multi-disciplinary meeting held with the object of bringing together re-
search workers from a number of related areas of structural dynamics. Two
particular fields were strongly supported by the delegates, the response of
concrete and steel structures to blast loading from local explosions, and to
penetration by high velocity missiles or high velocity fragments that result
from explosions. At the end of the conference, organisers were told that
the majority of those present would willingly support a second conference
in 1992, to be held in Britain.
This book is the edited versions of most of the papers presented at the sec-
ond conference, which was held at Portsmouth, U.K., in June 1992. Much
of the work described by the delegates was analytical in nature, aimed
mainly at the correct modelling of loads and material properties in various
computer simulations, but there were also useful reports of experimental
studies and design techniques. The conference programme included ses-
sions on missile impact and penetration, the blast loading of surface and
underground structures, impact loads on concrete and steel structures, colli-
sion mechanics and the residual strength assessment of damaged structures.
The last subject is an important field of research that is being given an in-
creasing amount of attention, and which involves the analysis of residual life
as well as the residual static strength of structures damaged by blast or im-
pact. This, and other developing fields, were discussed by the delegates, and
their collected presentations help to make a stimulating book that should
interest structural dynamicists in a number of areas of engineering, physics
and advanced mechanics.
P.S. Bulson
June 1992
CONTENTS
SECTION 1: MISSILE IMPACT AND PENETRATION

Methods for the Assessment of Hazards from Free-Flying Missiles 3
G.J. Attwood, K.C. Kendall
DYNA3D Analysis of Missile Impacts on J-Shaped Pipes 15
C.J. Bazell
Impenetrable Ceramic Targets Struck by High Velocity Tungsten 27
Long Rods
S.J. Bless, M. Benyami, L.S. Apgar, D. Eylon
Impact and Perforation of Mild Steel Pipes by Low Velocity
Missiles 39
M. Brown, M. Jacobs, M. Mihsein
Simulation of the Impact of a Tool Steel Projectile into Copper, 51
Mild-Steel and Stainless-Steel(304) Test Specimen
A.M.S. Hamouda, M.S.J. Hashmi
3-D Oblique Impact of an Earth Orbiting Satellite with 63
Floating Debris
K. Kormi, B.C. Webb
Scaled Underground Computer Center Test and Analysis 77
J.A. Collins, F.A. Maestas, B.L. Bingham, R.W. Cilke
J.A. Keller
The Resistance of SIFCON to High Velocity Impact 89
W.F. Anderson, A.J. Watson, A.E. Kaminskyj
Simply-Coupled Penetration Analysis System 99
J.A. Collins, S. Teal, F.A. Maestas, W.L. Hacker, K.C. Frew,
D.P. Kitzinger
SECTION 2: COLLISION MECHANICS
A Fully Coupled Elastoplastic Damage Modeling of 113
Contact-Impact Between Two Deformable Bodies
Y. Y. Zhu, S. Cescotto
Rollover Analysis of Heavy Vehicles 133
I.M. Allison, R. Mackay
Modeling of Lateral Collision between Adjacent Structures 145
J.R. Tao, A. Krimotat, K. Sun
Analytical and Experimental Evaluation of Finite Element 155
Models for Crash Analysis
G. Sala, M. Anghileri
SECTION 3: BLAST ANALYSIS AND MODELLING FOR
CONCRETE STRUCTURES AND EARTH MATERIALS
Blast Loaded R.C. Slabs: A Binary Response Model for Shear 177
and Flexure Interaction
J. Luckyram, B.M. Stewart, G.M. Zintilis
An Analysis of Shear/Flexure Coupling Applied to the Failure 189
of Reinforced Concrete Structures
A.J. Sheridan, C.A. Cowdery
The Search for a General Geologic Material Model for Application 199
to Finite Element Methods and Hydrocodes
A.J. Sheridan, A.D. Pullen, J.B. Newman
SECTION 4: DYNAMIC RESPONSE, RESIDUAL LIFE
AND DAMAGE ASSESSMENT
An Approximation Method for Dynamic Response of 213
Strain-Hardening Structures
C.K. Youngdahl
Fracture and High Loading Rate Effects on Concrete Response 223
D. Chandra, T. Krauthammer
Dynamic Response of Concrete Structures Under Direct Impact 235
H.L. Riad, A. Scanlon
Response of Reinforced Concrete Structures Exposed to 247
Transient Loadings
K. V. H0iseth
Simulated Estimation of Residual Life of Impactly 259
Loaded Structures
J. Cacko
Combined Symbolic-Numeric Structural Damage Assessment for 271
Post-Attack Conditions
T. Krauthammer, R. Muralidharan, W. Schmidt
SECTION 5: IMPACT LOADING ON REINFORCED
CONCRETE STRUCTURES
DYNA3D Analysis of Cone Crack Formation due to Heavy 285
Dropped Loads on Reinforced Concrete Floors
B.J. Broadhouse
Nonlinear Dynamic Layered Finite Element Procedure for 297
Soft Impact Analysis of Concrete Slabs
A. Miyamoto, M.W. King, M. Fujii
RC Cantilever Columns Under Lateral Impact Load: 309
An Experimental Investigation
J.M. Louw, G. Maritz, M.J. Loedolff
Local Fracture Analysis of a Reinforced Concrete Slab by the 321
Discrete Element Method
H. Morikawa, N. Kobayashi
Modified Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Structures Under 333
Localized and Distributed Impulsive Loads
T. Krauthammer, H.M. Shanaa
Direct Impact Testing of Reinforced Concrete Structures 345
A. Scanlon, A. Aminmansour, A. Nanni, M. Faruqi
SECTION 6: IMPACT LOADING ON METAL, GLASS
AND COMPOSITE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
The Use of Mathematical Models of Ceramic Faced Plates 357
Subject to Impact Loading
R. Cortes, C. Navarro, M.A. Martinez, J. Rodriguez,
V. Sdnchez-Galvez
Semi-Empirical Equations for the Perforation of Plates Struck 369
by a Mass
H-M. Wen, N. Jones
Dynamic Response of Window Glass Plates under Explosion 381
Overpressure
D. Makovicka, P. Lexa
Surface Wave Propagation due to Impact in Cross Ply 393
Composite Plates
M.B.J. Walters, E.R. Green
Validation of Computer Modelling Techniques for Predicting 405
the Impact Performance of Containers for the Transportation
of Radioactive Materials
G.J. Attwood, N. Butler
A Contribution to the Formulation of Realistic Design Rules for 419
Equipment Subject to Impact Loading
A. Barbagtlata, C. Vardanega
Predicting the Onset of Necking and Hence Rupture of Thin 431
Plates Loaded Impulsively - An Experimental View
G.N. Nurick, R.G. Teeling-Smith
Experimental Damage Diagnosis of Steel Frames Using 447
Strain Mode Shape
G.C. Yao, K.C. Chang
Behavior of Four Legged Platforms Subjected to Storm Waves 469
H.B. Poorooshasb, M.M. Douglass
SECTION 7: BLAST LOADING OF SURFACE STRUCTURES
Response of Real Structures to Blast Loadings 483
- the Israeli Experience
R. Eytan
A Non-Linear Finite Element Approach to the Assessment of 497
Global Stability of a Military Vehicle Under Shock Wave Impulse
A. Barbagelata, M. Perrone
Damage to Reinforced Concrete Slabs due to the Combination of 509
Blast and Fragment Loading
R. Forse'n, M. Nordstrom
Nonlinear Rigid-Plastic Analysis of Stiffened Plates under 521
Blast Loads
R.B. Schubak, M.D. Olson, D.L. Anderson
Design of Blast Hardened Control Rooms: A Case Study 533
D.D. Barker, M.G. Whitney
Offshore Role for Lightweight Aluminium Armour 545
M.J. Bay ley
Computation of the Warhead Blast Effect on a Structure: 555
Experimental Validation
Ph. Cabridenc, P. Garnero
Experimental Modelling of Explosive Blast Effects on Structural 571
Steel Cladding
AJ. Watson, B. Hobbs, S.J. Wright
SECTION 8: BLAST LOADING OF UNDERGROUND
STRUCTURES AND SOILS
Evaluation of Impulsive Loadings due to Explosions in 589
Underground Structures
S. Corti, G. Colombo, P. Molinaro, G. Mazzd
Analysis of a Buried Dome Under Blast and Gravity Loads 601
H. Sucuoglu, P. Gillkan
Evaluation of Explosive Cratering Simulations 613
T. Krauthammer, M. Geer
Interaction of Ground Shock with Soil Pressure Transducers 625
Ph. van Dongen, J. Weerheijm
Dynamic Structural Inspection of Buried Pipes 637
Y. Diab
A BEM Program for Two Dimensional Transient Elastodynamic 651
Analysis of Underground Openings
E.K.S. Passaris, K.N. Kostoglou
Centrifuge Modelling the Protection of Buried Structures 663
Subjected to Blast Loading
M.C.R. Davits, A.J. Williams
SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE
ON
STRUCTURES UNDER SHOCK AND IMPACT
SUSI 92
INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC ADVISORY COMMITTEE
C.A. Brebbia
P.S. Bulson
I. Cullis
M.C.R. Davies
N. Jones
T. Krauthammer
S.H. Perry
S.R. Reid
D. Ruiz
J. Sheridan
B.E. Vretblad
A.J. Watson
S. Wicks
SECTION 1: MISSILE IMPACT AND
PENETRATION
Methods for the Assessment of Hazards
from Free-Flying Missiles
G.J. Attwood, K.C. Kendall
Impact Technology Department, AEA Reactor
Services, AEE Winfrith, Dorchester, Dorset,
DT2 8DH, U.K.
ABSTRACT
Safety studies for plant include assessments of the hazards

to safety related components from free-flying (airborne)
missiles. Missiles considered include those generated by the
disruptive failure of components, both inside and outside the
confines of plant containment buildings. Missile/target
interactions are identified which could result in
unacceptable hazards, for example, failure of engineered
safeguard systems, failure of essential services, breach of
containment etc. The frequencies of target failure are
estimated and, where this is judged to be unacceptably high,
recommendations for added protection are made to reduce the
frequency. This paper outlines the methodology and
illustrates the use of available guidelines for estimating
missile ejection energies, target threshold damage energies
and target failure frequencies.
INTRODUCTION
Safety studies for hazardous plant include assessments of the

potential effects of free-flying missiles. These effects are
addressed in safety assessments for UKAEA nuclear
installations, to satisfy the Nuclear Installations
Inspectorate (Nil) licensing procedures. Such assessments
include the vulnerability of (target) safeguards systems and
essential services to impacts from missiles.
The extent of a study depends on the plant and the

requirements of the safety assessment. Scenarios considered
include:- the effect of single or multiple missile ejections
and their impact on single or multiple targets; cascading
effects due to missiles ejected from .targets and secondary
effects due to missile damage (fire, flooding etc).
Missile sources to be considered include the disruptive
4 Structures Under Shock and Impact
failure of pressurised plant (pressurised pipework, valves,
vessels etc), the disruptive failure of rotating machinery
(pumps, turbines, generators etc), dropped loads (crane
failure etc), windborne structures (building structures,
cladding etc), aircraft impact (civil and military) and
chemical explosion.
Safety assessments performed by the Impact Technology

Department (ITD) at AEE Winfrith have ranged from the effect
of a single component failure on a single target, to studies
for a complete plant involving many missile sources and
targets. Predominant in these studies has been the effects
and containment of potential missiles generated from the
disruptive failure of pressurised metal components.
Considerable research (focussed on the nuclear industry)

has been undertaken in the UK, and elsewhere, to define
guidelines which characterise the velocities of missiles
ejected from pressurised metal vessels and to define
guidelines for the design and assessment of steel and
concrete structures subjected to impact. In the UK, this
research was carried out within a joint programme between the
UKAEA, Nuclear Electric and the National Nuclear Corporation.
The guidelines are used to estimate upper limit missile

kinetic energies and lower limit target perforation energies.
Target integrity is assessed by comparing missile kinetic
energies against target perforation energies with respect to
missile impact diameter. Parameters for potential missiles
are estimated assuming normal plant operating conditions or,
more pessimistically, assuming some accident conditions.
This paper outlines the route of assessment used by ITD

and illustrates the use of some of the guidelines by
considering, as an example, the effect of the failure of a
pressurised (nominal) vessel on a liquid-filled pipe target
which is shielded by a concrete barrier and a steel plate
barrier. Parameters are listed in the Appendix.
The following stages are considered in turn:-
(a) missile/target interactions,

(b) characterisation of missiles,
(c) retention of missiles and target integrity and
(d) failure frequency of target.
MISSILE/TARGET INTERACTIONS
When the assessment involves a complete or an extensive part

of the plant, a systematic survey of the plant is required to
identify potential missile sources and targets. For
convenience, and to assess the relevance of identified
Structures Under Shock and Impact 5
components, the survey can be divided into plant areas (plant

confined within containment, plant adjacent to barriers etc).
At this stage obvious hazard mitigation (missile retention,
trajectory and range etc) can markedly reduce the number of
critical interactions to be considered.
Potential missile/target interactions are identified by

geometric and spatial considerations. Computer
representation of the plant, providing a three-dimensional
model, is advantageous especially when missile sources are
clearly defined and targets relatively few. Such a model
allows an enhanced comprehension of plant layout, a rapid
supply of geometric data (distances and angles between plant
items) and a rapid recognition of target shielding by
intervening plant and barriers.
CHARACTERISATION OF MISSILES
In order to assess missile kinetic energy, the velocity and

mass characteristics of the missiles are required. For this
purpose, some assumption of the failure mode of the
pressurised component is necessary.
Three failure modes are relevant to a disruptive failure

of a pressurised vessel, namely; brittle failure,
ductile/brittle failure and ductile failure. Guidelines
prepared by Berkeley Nuclear Laboratories (eg Baum [1])
define upper-limit fragment velocities for these failure
modes, for missile(s) ejected from steel pressure vessels.
These guidelines assume the vessel contents are an ideal gas
or a liquid at a temperature such that rupture initiates
flash evaporation.
To illustrate the characterision of missile ejection

velocities, the guidelines are applied to the disruptive
failure (brittle and ductile) of the nominal vessel.
For brittle failure, a large number of small fragments

are ejected following distintegration of the vessel. The
ejection velocity of fragments is given by,
V = 0.88F b - 55 a o . (1)
Where the sound velocity in the pressurised fluid is
a0 - (7R C T) 0 - 5 . The dimensionless parameter, Fb, is defined
in the notation.
This yields an upper limit fragment-velocity,

independent of fragment size. Using the values listed in the
Appendix, the ejection velocity for brittle or
ductile/brittle failure (many fragments) is 105.9 ms"1 .
For ductile failure, fewer relatively large fragments

are ejected. Two formulae are given for the ejection of a
single fragment.
For a fragment, where A-5>RY, the velocity is given

by,
V - 2.0Fd-5ao. (2)
Similar to brittle failure, this formula yields an upper

limit fragment-velocity independent of fragment size. The
ejection velocity estimated (single fragment) is 279.4 ms" 1 .
For smaller fragments the velocity is given by,
f r - 3 8 1
V = 2 I Fd ( _ ) ja 0 , (3)
where r and R^ are the fragment and vessel radii
respectively. The ejection velocity is a function of the
fragment radius; as the fragment radius increases, the
ejection velocity increases until equation (2) becomes valid.
Thereafter, the ejection velocity remains constant.
Consequently, equation (2) represents the highest estimate of
fragment velocity achieved with ductile failure.
A range of fragment sizes, relevant to the component

geometry, is used to compute a range of missile kinetic
energy values, each value associated with a particular
missile impact diameter. The predominant mode of failure
assumed depends on the state of the material toughness, which
in turn depends on the plant operating conditions
(temperature etc). However, for a particular assessment, it
may be expedient to consider several failure scenarios. For
example, brittle failure (with many small and low velocity
fragments) and ductile failure (with a few large and high
velocity fragments). Clearly, when the study requires the
simultaneous failure of more than one target multiple missile
ejection needs to be considered. Scoping studies are also
valuable in demonstrating the degree of pessimism
incorporated in the worst-case scenario.
RETENTION OF MISSILES AND TARGET INTEGRITY
In assessing the retention of missiles ejected from the

disruptive failure of a metal component, the following
pessimistic assumptions are often made.
(i) Missiles are assumed to be "hard" and not to

sustain deformation on impact.
(ii) Normal impact is assumed, although impact is often

oblique. When oblique impact is considered, the target
thickness can be increased to the "effective" thickness to
account for the increased path of the missile through the
target.
(iii) Minimum missile impact diameters are assumed. This

includes edge impacts of fragments since, for example, the
disintegration of a pressurised vessel can result in plate-
like fragments of varying shape which may spin in flight so
that impact occurs on the "sharp" edge. For metal barriers,
the missile shape is important since in most cases the
missiles are large compared with the barrier thickness.
Experimental evidence (Neilson et al [2]) for steel barriers,
suggests that sharp missile impact can reduce the perforation
energy by about one third of that for a flat-faced missile.
For concrete barriers, the barrier thickness is usually
comparable with the missile size and measured data suggests
there is little effect of missile sharpness on perforation
energy. For concrete no reduction on the perforation energy
is usually applied.
An assessment of the minimum missile size to perforate a

given barrier (or target) can be made using empirical
correlations derived from experimental data eg (UKAEA Design
Code - DG3 [3]), (Neilson [4]) and (Neilson et al [2]). These
correlations incorporate appropriate target and barrier
characteristics.
The missile kinetic energy and the target perforation

energy can be plotted as a function of missile impact
diameter eg Figure 1. Comparison of these two plots indicates
whether a missile, with a particular impact diameter, is
assumed to be contained or not. If the missile energy falls
below the perforation energy, the missile is assumed to be
contained by the target; if the missile energy is above the
perforation energy, the missile is assumed to perforate the
target. The minimum impact diameter for perforation is
indicated by the crossing point, where the perforation and
missile energies are equal. When more than one barrier is to
be considered, the residual kinetic energy of a missile which
has perforated a barrier is evaluated as the kinetic energy
at impact less the target perforation energy.
The empirical correlations for target perforation

include guidelines for estimating the perforation energy of
missiles impacting concrete, steel plate and steel pipe
barriers. An example of the use of the guidelines for each
type of barrier is illustrated, related to the effects of the
disruptive failure of the nominal vessel on a liquid-filled
pipe target shielded by the intervening concrete wall
(primary barrier) and the intervening steel plate (secondary
barrier). Brittle failure of the vessel with missile edge
impact is assumed.
For reinforced concrete barriers, impacted by hard

missiles, the missile perforation velocity (Vc) can be
estimated using the empirical formula derived within the
joint UK programme (UKAEA Design Code -DG3 [3]),
2 1/3 f0e2 W 3
V c = 1.7pc *c{-J- J (r*+0.3) (4)
The perforation energy for the concrete barrier is thus,
Ep hM V c 2 . A lower bound perforation velocity is usually
assumed, approximately 15% less than the formula prediction.
Figure 1 compares the lower bound perforation energy for

the concrete barrier against missile impact kinetic energy,
for a range of missile impact diameters (0.001 m to 1.0 m ) .
The minimum missile impact diameter for perforation is
calculated to be 0.0326 m; thus perforation by missiles with
impact diameters greater than this value cannot be ruled out.
For steel barriers, the perforation energy for hard missiles

can be estimated using the formula derived at the Ballistics
Research Laboratories, USA, (eg Neilson [4]),
Ep - l.44xlO9(e0)1 -5 (5)
The lower bound energy for this formula is about 40%

less than the value predicted.
Figure 2 compares the residual missile kinetic energy

(for the missiles of size assumed to perforate the primary
concrete barrier) with the perforation energy of the steel
plate. Since the missile shape is assumed to be "sharp",
the lower bound perforation energy calculated for the steel
plate is reduced by one third. For this barrier, perforation
by missiles with impact diameters greater than 0.0421 m
cannot be ruled out.
The correlation for the perforation of a steel pipe by a

hard missile is given by (Neilson et al [2]),
s ........ft]1-'{;)''
Figure 3 compares the residual kinetic energy of the
missiles reaching the pipe target against the perforation
energy of the target. Similar to the steel plate, the lower
bound perforation energy is reduced by one third to allow for
sharp impact.
In addition, a further reduction of one third is made to

account for the presence of liquid in the pipe. Equation (6)
was derived from measured data with tests involving solid
billets and sections of pipe impacting empty pipe targets.
Tests with liquid-filled pipes (Neilson et al [2]) have shown
that the perforation energy is reduced since the liquid
provides support to the pipe walls, reducing the deformed
area. Consequently, less energy is absorbed in deforming the
target pipe and perforation is achieved at a lower velocity.
The experimental evidence suggests that the presence of
liquid in a pipe can be accounted for by reducing the
perforation energy by one third.
The assessment indicates that fragments of diameter

greater than 0.0495 m could reach the target pipe and that
damage to the component cannot be ruled out.
ASSESSMENT OF FAILURE FREQUENCY
The probability of failure of a target as a result of a

disruptive failure of a component can be expressed as: -
p(overall) = p-j x p 2 x other terms
where p1 is the frequency of component failure

p2 is the probability that missiles will strike and
fail the target
Other probabilities can be included as appropriate.

These may include; the probability of missiles of a given
size being in the correct orientation to be propelled towards
the target; the probability of missile production following
the vessel failure; the probability that missiles of the
required size will be produced; the probability that missiles
will impact barriers in the assumed orientation etc.
For illustrative purposes, the two parameters p.j and p 2

are considered; the other probabilities are assumed unity.
The disruptive (random) failure frequencies of a component

(p-j ) can be estimated by assessing the structural reliability
of the components from available historical evidence of plant
failure. Interpretation of the evidence requires the
distinction between "incipient" and "disruptive" type
failures. Incipient failures are associated with potentially
damaging defects (eg defects flagged during inspection) and
the requirement to withdraw the component from service.
Disruptive failures are associated with a catastrophic in-
service failure of the component, which necessitates
replacement or major repair and which poses a threat to other
components and the safety of the plant.
Evidence indicates that disruptive failures are rarer

than incipient failures. Phillips [5] provides a review of
published estimates of in-service failure rates for metal
pressure vessels and associated pressurised components
(pipework, pumps, bursting discs and bellows). The review
lists the historical reliabilities for pressure vessels for
power plant and chemical plant. For example, incipient and
disruptive failure rates of 3 x 10"^ per vessel-yr and
3 x 10"5 per vessel-yr respectively are listed for vessels.
Since plant design, component design and plant

conditions vary widely, and because of a general lack of
historical data, failure rates can be subject to large
uncertainties. Indeed, the failure rates may be non-
conservative when known mechanisms dominate (stress corrosion
etc). For a failure rate to be meaningful, such factors
should be taken into account when estimating appropriate
values for the particular plant and plant conditions and age.
The assessment of the probability (p2) of strike and

failure of a target following the disruptive failure of a
vessel can be addressed using geometric data and the results
of the perforation analyses. For a pressurised vessel
failure, the treatment depends on whether the missile
originates from the end-caps or the cylindrical part of the
vessel. In each case the angle of expansion of a missile is
determined by the sector occupied by the missile at the
failure of the vessel. This dimension is obtained from the
perforation analyses as the minimum size of fragment which
can perforate all the barriers present and fail the target
under consideration.
For missiles originating from the spherical end-caps, it

is assumed that a single fragment forms part of a cloud of
fragments expanding in a spherical manner; for missiles
originating from the cylindrical part of the vessel,
cylindrical expansion is assumed.
Figure 4 illustrates the principle adopted for spherical

expansion. If the angle subtended by the missile before
rupture is 9, then the fragment, having travelled a distance,
R, could be anywhere within the solid angle 6. A single
fragment would be in the area R 2 9 2 since none of the adjacent
fragments at the time of rupture can subsequently stray into
this region. The failure probability (p2) for a target which
falls within one fragment sector is therefore the ratio of
the projected target area to the sector area; conversely the
non-failure probability, p 2 n , is l-p2. If the target extends
outside one fragment sector, p 2 for the whole target is
derived from unity minus the product of the p 2 n values for
each fragment sector covering part of the target. Similar
rules can be derived for cylindrical expansion.
For the simple example of the disruptive vessel and the

pipe target, the strike and fail probability p 2 - 0.1. This
assumes, pessimistically, that a missile with the minimum
impact diameter perforating the steel plate can reach and
damage the target. Assuming a vessel disruptive failure rate
of 3 x 10"5 per vessel-yr, the estimated overall failure
frequency for the target is thus ~ 3 x 10"6 per year.
Typically, the limiting failure frequency might be set at
1.0 x 10" 7 per year and thus the assessed frequency is
greater than this criterion; on the basis of this assessment
and the assumptions made, some extra protection would be
recommended.
CONCLUSION
The method outlined for the assessment of the hazards from

airborne missiles makes use of a collection of guidelines,
rules and assumptions. Appropriate guidelines are chosen
according to the particular study and the application of some
are illustrated in this paper. The implementation of the data
on a computer base facilitates the assessment method and
there is an incentive to fully automate the process. For
this purpose, the development of a computer "expert system"
is planned.
REFERENCES
1. Baum, M.R. Disruptive Failure of Pressure Vessels:

Preliminary Design Guidelines for Fragment Velocity and the
Extent of the Hazard Zone. The 1987 Pressure Vessels and
Piping Conference. San Diego, California. June 28 - July 2,
1987.
2. Neilson, A.J., Howe, W.D., Garton, G.P. Impact Resistance

of Mild Steel Pipes: An Experimental Study. AEEW R-2125.
June 1987.
3. UKAEA Design Code - DG3. Design and Assessment of Concrete

Structures to Impact (Part 1 -Guidelines for the Designers).
September 1987.
4. Neilson, A.J. Empirical Equations for the Perforation of

Mild Steel Plates. Int.J.Impact Engng. Vol.3, No.2, pp.137-
142, 1985.
5. Phillips, D.W. Structural Reliability of Pressurised Metal

Components. IMECHE Seminar "Learning from Experience".
London, May 1990.
NOTATION
A Area of vessel wall detached to
form missile m2
a0 Sound speed in high pressure gas ms" 1
D Pipe diameter m
e Effective thickness of barrier m
Ep Perforation energy of barrier J
Q 2 , dimensionless parameter
for brittle failure
Fd = P 0 A R v / M a 0 2 , dimensionless parameter
for ductile failure
L Length of pipe target m

m Mass per unit area of vessel wall kgm" 2
M Mass of missile kg
p1 Frequency of component failure yr" 1
P2 Probability missiles will strike

and fail target
Po Rupture pressure pa
r Missile radius r (A/?r)H m
r* Reinforcement parameter % ewef
R Distance travelled by missile m
R^ Radius of vessel m
Rc Universal gas constant Jkg" 1 K"1
tp Pipe wall thickness m
T Temperature K
V Ejection velocity of missile ms" 1
Vc Missile velocity for perforation

of barrier ms' 1
7 Ratio of specific heats

pc Density of concrete kgm" 3
ac Compressive strength of concrete Pa
0 Missile "impact" diameter m
9 Angle subtended by missile before
vessel rupture
BRITTLE FAILURE OF VESSEL: EDGE IMPACT

^ CONCRETE BARRIER
5 THICKNESS: 0.10O0 on
MINIMUM DIAMETER FOR MISSILE PERFORATING BARRIER: 0.0328
S CONTINUOUS LINE IS PERFORATION ENERGY OF BARRIER
2. BROKEN LINE IS MISSILE KINETIC ENERGY
MISSILE DIAMETER (RANGE 1 . 0 E - 0 3 m t o l.OE+OOxxx)
Fig. 1: Energy vs Missile Diameter for Concrete Barrier
I STEEL PLATE BARRIER

X ^ THICKNESS: 0.OO63 m
I 3 MINIMUM DIAMETER FOR MISSILE PERFORATING BARRIER: 0.0421
+ CONTINUOUS LINE IS BARRIER PERFORATION ENERGY
' S BROKEN LINE IS MISSILE KINETIC ENERGY
MISSILE DIAMETER (RANGE 1 . 0 E - 0 3 m t o l.OE+OOm)
Fig. 2: Energy vs Missile Diameter for Steel Barrier,

STEEL PIPE TARGET
-y DIAMETER: 0.3OOO ao.
_ TTALL THICKNESS: 0.0034, m
,r MINIMUM DIAMETER FOR MISSILE PERFORATING TARGET: 0.04-95
S CONTINUOUS LINE IS TARGET PERFORATION ENERGY
ir 2 BROKEN LINE IS MISSILE KINETIC ENERGY
MISSILE DIAMETER (RANGE 1.0E-O3m t o l.OE+OOm)
Fig. 3: Energy vs Missile Diameter for Pipe Target

STEAM DRUM END-CAP
RADIUS R o
TARGET PIPE ft ss PROJECTILE DIAMETER

LENGTH L
DIAMETER D
LD
STRIKE PROOADILITY
RV
PROJECTED AilEA = LD1 ARC LENGTH = Re

ARC LENGTH = Ro
Fig. 4: Strike Probability for Spherical Expansion
APPENDIX - PARAMETERS
VESSEL
Contents Steam
Length 20.0 m
Inside radii 0.6 m
Area, spherical end-cap 2.26 m2
Density 7900 kgnf3
Wall thickness 0.07 m
Steam pressure 18 MPa
Steam temperature 640 K
Steam 7 1.3
Steam universal gas constant 461.9 Jkg"1K"1
CONCRETE BARRIER
Thickness 0.10 m
Density 2500 kgnf3
Compressive strength 30 MPa
Reinforcement parameter 0.0
STEEL PLATE
Thickness 0.0063 m
PIPE TARGET
Wall thickness 0.0034 m
Diameter 0.3 m
Length 1 m
Distance between vessel and target 25 m
DYNA3D Analysis of Missile Impacts on
J-Shaped Pipes
C.J. Bazell
Services, Winfrith Technology Centre, Dorchester,
Dorset, DT2 8DH, U.K.
ABSTRACT
The structural response of thin-walled pipes

subject to impact by hard missiles has been
investigated experimentally for Nuclear Electric
pic in the Horizontal Impact Facility (HIF) at
Winfrith Technology Centre. The data from the tests
have been used to validate the finite element code
DYNA3D as a structural design and assessment tool.
The DYNA3D analyses accurately predict the

global and local deformations of the pipes, and the
induced strains near to, and distant from the site
of impact.
INTRODUCTION
A series of DYNA3D [1] finite element analyses has

been carried out at Winfrith Technology Centre as
part of an on-going exercise to extend the range of
validation of the code as a design and assessment
tool. The analysis work is carried out in parallel
with impact tests, and the results are compared
with the experimental observations and measurements
in order to validate the code and develop
appropriate modelling techniques. The work is
carried out for Nuclear Electric pic, as part of
their on-going programme of experimental and
theoretical studies to develop design and
assessment methods for plant subject to potentially
hazardous loadings.
The analyses described in this paper are for

impacts of solid cylindrical steel billets on j -
shaped steel pipes, at a range of impact velocities

and impact sites.
EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
Details of the test pipes and missile are shown in

figure 1. The pipes were of nominal bore 150mm, and
wall thickness 11mm. Each pipe had a 90 bend, such
that there was a long leg of 3.75m and a short leg
of 1.5m. The ends of the pipes were welded to
flanges, which were bolted to a stiff reaction
frame. The outer surfaces of the pipes were
liberally instrumented with strain gauges, and
facilities were available for accurate measurement
of residual deformation profiles.
The missile was a solid cylindrical steel

billet of 80mm diameter, mounted on a tubular steel
make-weight and guidance system. The billet was
mounted such that it impacted the pipe with its
axis normal to the axis of the pipe in each case.
Analyses for three tests are reported here,

and are illustrated in figure 2. Two tests impacted
the pipe in the mid-span of the long leg at
different velocities; the third test impacted the
pipe at the higher velocity, at a site adjacent to
the bend.
DYNA3D MODEL
The finite element meshes for the pipe and missile

are shown in figure 3. A preliminary series of
analyses on different pipe impact tests had
compared the various element formulations available
in DYNA3D, and had indicated that the Co triangular
shell element gave adequately accurate results at
reasonable computing cost. Thus the Co element,
with 5 integration points through the thickness,
was used for all thin-walled components. The 8-
noded continuum element was used for the missile
head and guide plates.
The welded flanges were not modelled

explicitly, but were simulated using fixed node
boundary conditions at each end of the pipe.
Because of the symmetry of the problem only half
the geometry was modelled, as shown in figure 3.
The isotropic elasto-plastic material (Type

12) was used for the mild steel pipes and missile
components. The material data, and actual wall

thicknesses were obtained from material tests
carried out on samples from each individual pipe.
The data were as follows:
TEST 1 TEST 2 TEST 3
Shear Modulus (GPa) 78.74 78.74 78.74

Bulk Modulus (GPa) 144.9 144.9 144.9
Yield Stress (MPa) 350 330 335
Hardening Modulus (GPa) 1.018 1.046 1.043
Wall Thickness (mm) 10.9 11.3 10.7
GLOBAL DEFORMATIONS
The global deformations for the three test pipes

were measured after releasing the flanges from the
reaction frame. Consequently, stored elastic energy
is released, and some discrepancy with the
analytical results can be expected. Figure 4
compares the measured and calculated global
deformations for the three pipes.
In Test 1, at the lower impact velocity,

DYNA3D slightly over - predicts the final
deformation; in Test 2, at the higher velocity,
DYNA3D slightly under-predicts the deformation. In
Test 3, in which the impact was near the bend,
there appears to be a significant discrepancy in
the deformation of the bend. However, in this case
there was a significant release of energy when the
flanges were released.
LOCAL DEFORMATIONS
Local deformations are measured from a straight

line between the two gauge positions either side of
the impact point. Figure 5 compares the measured
and calculated deformations for the three pipes.
DYNA3D appears to overestimate the local
deformations by about 10% in all cases, and there
is a lateral shift in the peaks. The results are
presented making the assumption that the impacts
were central between the gauge positions. Small
deviations from central impact, such as that
illustrated in the inset to figure 5, could be
responsible for the apparent shift and twist of the
measured results.
The small systematic over-estimate by DYNA3D

could arise from the use of low strain rate
measured data in the material model.
TRANSIENT STRAINS
Figure 6 compares the calculated and measured

transient strains for one of the tests at positions
close to, and far from the impact site. All the
gauge results in all the tests have been examined,
and this result is typical of the level of accuracy
obtained from DYNA3D. The timing and magnitude of
significant transient events are predicted very
accurately, both in the small strain and large
strain regions, and in compression and tension.
PLASTIC STRAINS
Figure 7 compares the DYNA3D plastic strain fringes

with a photograph of the deformed pipe for test 3
(higher velocity impact adjacent to bend). In this
test, small splits are seen at either end of the
indentation left by the missile. Also, the target
pipe is painted, and regions of high plasticity are
indicated by flaking of the paint.
The DYNA3D result indicates the same local

shape of the pipe; small regions of very high
plastic strain (65%) in exactly the location of the
splits; and the same non-symmetric shape of the
general plastic region.
Note that although half the pipe was modelled

for symmetry reasons, the display in figure 7 has
been graphically reflected to show the whole pipe.
CONCLUSIONS
The finite element structural dynamics code DYNA3D

has been used to analyse tests of solid missile
impacts on J-shaped pipes. The code accurately
predicts the global and local deformations of the
pipes, for impacts at different velocities and
impact locations. The transient response of the
pipes is also modelled accurately, and transient
strains are predicted accurately in compression and
tension, and in regions of high and low strain.
No failure model was included in the analyses,

but examination of plastic strain profiles produced
by the code enable the analyst to predict the
location and extent of pipe failure.
The results indicate that DYNA3D is a valid

design and assessment tool for analysing the impact
of plant generated missiles on mild steel
pipework.
REFERENCES
1. Hallquist J.O., Theoretical Manual for DYNA3D,

UCID-19401, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory,
Livermore, CA, USA, 1982.
Figure 1 s Target Pipe and

le Geometry
Test 1 Test 2 Test 3
H=l
k=i
c/o
Impact Velocity - 49.74 m/s Impact Velocity - 66.36 m/s Impact Velocity - 67.70 m/s 5
in
oo
FT
F i g u r e 2 s Impact O r i e n t a t i o n s
Figure 3 Finite Element Model

c
o
CD
hO E
L
O
CO
CD
CD
Q
(D
_Q
O
CD
O
9 e C
O
) j CM 0)
CO L
CD CD
Q_
E
O
Q)
L
c D
o CO
._ e c
+> e CD ^ LL_
_co E +
0) D L
O CD
Q_
CD X
C_J LJJ
o f f centre Impact central Impact
Test 1
+
. +0
9 J
265 mm
catculatIon
Test 2 + +
e experIment
230
Test 3 o +
o +
395 mm
Figure 5 Comparison of Local

Deformat i ons
1 -I 1 1 1 1 1
3.0
V
^ " ^ ~ - ^
2.5
2.0
1.5-
1.0-
0.5-
0.0-
(
j L
Experiment j
Calculation :

, ,.
1 ( 1 1 1
0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025
CO
TIME (S)
Figure 6 s Comparison of
Transient Strains
to
Plastic Strain = 65 %
- ?y, WML'^' "H,'*' \
V o
\ . \ \
c
11
O
o
FT
Sp Li t
Figure 7 Damage in Local Deformation Zone

Impenetrable Ceramic Targets Struck by
High Velocity Tungsten Long Rods
S.J. Bless (*,**), M. Benyami (***), -
L.S. Apgar (**), D. Eylon (**)
(*) Now at Institute for Advanced Technology,
University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78731,
U.S.A.
(**) Graduate Materials Engineering, University
of Dayton, 300 College Park, Dayton,
OH 45469-0240, U.S.A.
(***) Visiting Scientist at the University of
Dayton
ABSTRACT
A target that was practically impenetrable to scaled long-rod tungsten
alloy projectiles was constructed by stacking steel faceplates over a
thick titanium diboride substrate in a specific way. The target was
also designed to capture the erosion products from the faceplate,
penetrator, and the ceramic for further study. Detailed analysis of the
captured debris and material flow lines allowed estimation of state of
stress, pressure, and temperatures at the penetrator/target interface.
It was concluded that a hydrodynamically compressed cushion was
formed during impact at the faceplate/ceramic interface which
suppressed shear and tensile failure in the ceramic substrate.
BACKGROUND
In recent years, there has been considerable interest in penetration
of ceramics by military projectiles. Most studies have concerned
impacts onto relatively thin tiles, in which tile failure is usually
dominated by tensile stresses that develop on the rear tile surface1-2.
When tiles are relatively thick, then penetration must involve failure at
the impact face. It has been shown that there exists a critical velocity
for penetration of thick ceramic tiles3. Specifically, it was found that
penetration occurred when the impact pressure, given by pV 2 /2
exceeded a quantity approximately equal to the Tate target
resistance 4 , Rt, the ceramic was penetrated. (Here p and V are
projectile density and velocity, respectively.) In this study, we
examined the penetration of tiles that were covered by metallic
plates. Metallurgical examination of the debris produced by non-
penetrating impacts has clarified the mechanism by which
penetration initiates in thick tiles. The observations also point to
ways that the penetration threshold velocity can be raised.
Impact Experiments
A W-4.9Ni-2.1Fe (weight percent) rod penetrator (5mm diameter)
was launched from a 30mm diameter, smooth bore barrel at normal
attack against the ballistic targets. The nominal impact velocity was
1400m/s. Three types of ballistic targets were used in this
investigation: (1) a baseline target without a faceplate; (2) a target
with a SAE 4130 tempered martensite faceplate, 480 BHN
(hardness), and (3) a target with a SAE 4130 annealed faceplate,
167 BHN. See Fig. 1, target schematic for details. The target
consisted of a square TiB2 ceramic tile, thick in comparison to the
diameter of the projectile. It should be noted that the faceplate
consisted of a larger cross-sectional area than the ceramic substrate
which enabled the faceplate to be supported on an annealed SAE
4150 steel ceramic confinement plate and not on the ceramic target
surface. Four (4) 6061-T6 aluminum alloy bars surrounded the
square faceplate which were designed to recover the lateral
penetration by-products generated between the interface of the
faceplate and the ceramic tile. A 6061-T6 damper plate was placed
above the faceplate to absorb some plastic deformation during
penetration to prevent the formation of a plug which could have been
sheared from the faceplate during impact. The assembly was
fastened together with steel bolts to a predetermined torque which
exerted a pressure of 0.93kg/mm2 on the faceplate.
Metallurgical Techniques
After a shot, there was a perforation dome cavity in the faceplate, and
craters in the ceramic and faceplate at the impact site. Metallurgical
examinations were conducted on: (a) the cross-section of the
impacted faceplate, (b) the material accumulated in the impact crater
zone and interface between the ceramic and faceplate, and (c) the
material captured by the aluminium recovery bars. These tests
consisted of optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy
(SEM), backscatter scanning electron microscopy (BSEM), and
energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) to determine both the
microstructure and elemental composition of selected areas.
OBSERVATIONS
Ballistic Experiments
In all three types of targets no fragment of the penetrator could be
found in the recovery chamber around the target after the shot.
Therefore, it was concluded that the projectiles were entirely eroded
during the penetration process. Both the hard 480 and soft 167 BHN
faceplates were completely perforated and a crater was formed.
Projectile
I I Pressure Plate, 015.24cm, I

Recovery Bars, 6061-T6
' ' SAE1020 '
Uy\ Damper Plate, 10.2cm x I Ceramic Confinement Plate,
^ 10.2cm x 1.6cm 6061-T6 Plate ' SAE4150, Annealed
PSSS 10.2cm x 10.2cm x 6.35mm I Ceramic Tile, 7.6cm x 7.6cm, TiB2

^ Faceplate
A Thin Layer of Epoxy, 0.025mm thick
Fig. 1 : Target schematic
Table 1 lists the experimental parameters and the recorded

penetration depths. The penetration was greatest in this case of the
annealed faceplate, and it was greatly reduced with the martensitic
faceplate. Fig. 2a and b shows the cross-section of one side of the
faceplate and material accumulation at the bottom for both the 480
and 167 BHN faceplates, respectively.
TABLE 1: Ballistic Test Results
Penetration
Face Depth (mm)
Plate Yaw Into Below Plate Weight
Target Hardness Angle Face TIB 2 Rise1 Gain2
Type (BHN) () Plate Surface (mm) (g)
Baseline NA 1 NA 20.1 NA 0.63
Tempered 480 3.4 6.35 5.5 2 3.96
Martensite
Annealed 167 5.4 6.35 40 3 7 0.03
1
Also denotes the height of the crater.
2
Weight of debris (material captured) in the recovery bars.
3
Part of this was in the substrate below the tile.
Metallographic Evaluation
Tempered Martensite. 480 BHN. Hard Faceplate - Metallographic
examination of the crater surface on the inside of the faceplate
indicated the presence of an outer layer of TiB2 debris, a rapidly
solidified region, and a heat affected zone (HAZ) of untempered
martensite, as shown in Fig. 3. No W particles were found in this
Fig. 2: Cross-sections of the (a) tempered martensite, 480 BHN

and (b) annealed, 167 BHN, faceplates after the shot. The
projectile entry is at the top of the plate. Etchant: 2% Nital.
A-Tempered Martensite
Structure
B-HAZ
C-Rapidly Solidified
Layer
D-TiB2 Debris
Fig. 3: BSEM photomicrograph of the crater surface form the hard

faceplate. Etchants: 2% Nital followed by Murakami.
material. The TiB2 debris and solidified material were not uniform
along the crater. In some locations both were found while in other
locations only the solidified phase was found. The TiB2 particles
ranged up in size to 5^m and the thickness of this layer is up to 2(Vm.
Qualitative chemical composition, determined by EDS, of the rapidly
solidified region indicated the presence of three zones (See Fig. 3):
(1) a Fe-Ti phase containing 62%Fe and 36%Ti , (2) Fe-Ti phase
containing 17 %Fe and 75 %Ti, and (3) a mixed phase containing Ti,
Fe, and traces of W. In addition, cracks can be seen in zones 1 and 2
of Fig. 3 which extend from the surface to the HAZ.
Metallurgical examination of the interface region revealed three

types of deposits: A,B, and C in Fig. 4a. A (Fig. 4b) consists of
rounded and equiaxed shaped tungsten particles similar in
composition to the original penetrator material. Many of the particles
were significantly deformed and elongated in different directions. B
(Fig. 4c), is a mixture of TiB2 aggregate. The particles ranged in size
from a fraction of a micron up to 30 urn. EDS examination indicated
29%Ti, SSôB1 , 7.5%Fe, and 5.5%AI. The presence of Al is probably
a by-product of the alumina polishing abrasive. C (Fig. 4d) consists
entirely of larger fragments of TiB2 particles.
Fig. 4: (a) The interface region of the 480 BHN faceplate showing
zones A, B, and C; (b) Zone A, primarily W particles; (c)
Zone B, mixed phase region; and (d) Zone C, TiB2 particles.
Etchants: 2% Nital followed by Murakami.
1
The element boron cannot be detected by EDS; however, the composition of the
ceramic material is known to be TiB 2> so the amount of B present can be deduced.
Cracks and shear bands indicating the degree of deformation was

observed in the interior region of the faceplate near the crater as
shown in Fig. 2a and 5a. The fine white lines appear to be adiabatic
shear bands. Fig. 5b is an enlargement of the crack near the center
of Fig. 5a. The crack is open, and SEM analysis shows that titanium
has penetrated at least 60 urn into the steel. Fig. 5c shows the
adiabatic shear zone beyond the region where the titanium has
penetrated. In this region there is no change in the composition, but
the high temperature has annealed the martensitic structure.
**#
Fig. 5: (a) Low magnification photomicrograph of Fig. 2a of the 480

BHN faceplate near the crater; (b) SEM photomicrograph of
the crack near the center of Fig. 5a; and (c) SEM of the HAZ
beyond the crack extension in Fig. 5b. Etchant: 2% Nital.
According to Table 1, 3.96 g of material flowed between the surface

of the ceramic tile and the faceplate which created a narrow
longitudinal crater of by-product material in the recovery bars as
shown in Fig. 6a. The white zone (Fig. 6b) consists of equiaxed W
particles. Fig. 6c shows another region where the W particles are
highly deformed. Surrounding the W particles (Fig. 6a), is a loose
aggregate mixture of small TiB2 debris and highly deformed W
particles. EDS examination of the by-product material in the
recovery bars indicated the presence of W, Ni, Fe, Al, Ti, and B. The
proportion of these elements varied from location to location.
Fig. 6: (a) Material embedded in the recovery bars after penetration

of the 480 BHN faceplate; (b) Higher magnification detail of
Fig. 6a showing predominantly equiaxed W particles; and (c)
Higher magnification detail of Fig. 6a showing deformed W
particles. Etchants: 2% Nital followed by Murakami.
Annealed. 167 BHN. Soft Faceplate - Metallographic examination of

the crater surface indicated a significant amount of plastic
deformation of the faceplate (Fig. 2b) and the presence of W and
TiB 2 particles adhering to the crater surface (Fig. 7a and 7b). The
microstructure of the annealed 167 BHN faceplate (Fig. 7a) consists
of a banded layers of ferrite (white) and pearlite (black), typical for
rolled plate material. Both structures are deformed as a result of the
penetration process (Fig. 7a and 7b). The band spacing becomes
smaller toward the crater surface and the density of the flow lines
increases. This extensive banding and the short distances between
the flow lines are due to a significant amount of plastic deformation in
the steel near the crater surface. The W particles close to the steel
surface were significantly deformed and distorted while the ceramic
particles were fragmented. A TiB2 layer was found adhering tho the
faceplate as indicated by the arrows in Fig. 7. No molten or rapidly
solidified phase was observed .
Fig. 7: (a) Crater area of the annealed 167 BHN faceplate; and (b)
Higher magnification of the crater area showing the highly
deformed microstructure of the faceplate and W and TiB 2
particles. Etchants: 2% Nital followed by Murakami.
Metallurgical examination of the interface area revealed four regions:

(A) the steel plate, (B) the adjacent deformed W particle layers, (C)
the mixed phase (dark areas), and (D) TiB2 particles as shown in Fig.
8a. No fractured zones or cracks were evident in the annealed plate
as seen the in the tempered martensite faceplate. The steel plate
exhibited a banded microstructure of ferrite and pearlite (Fig. 8a A
region) similar to the as-processed undeformed plate structure. Fig.
8b depicts some of the W particles which are highly deformed and
distorted as a result of the penetration process. The microstructure of
the mixed phase of region C is shown in the BSEM photomicrograph
in Fig. 8c. This region consists of TiB2 particles in a matrix of Fe + Ni
+ W, and larger ceramic TiB2 particles. Fig. 8d depicts the TiB2
particles of region C in Fig. 8a.
The banding of the carbide particles in the annealed faceplate

enables easy visualization of the impact-induced flow. Fig. 2b is an
etched cross section of the faceplate. At the top surface, material
flowed up. However, next to the penetration cavity, material has
flowed inward. The crater was formed by uplifting material and not
by excavation. The total amount of the debris which was lodged in
the four recovery bars was only 1% of the debris accumulation in the
recovery bars of the 480 BHN faceplate target (Table 1).
Fig. 8: (a) Interface zone of the annealed 167 BHN faceplate

showing A-steel faceplate, B-W particles, C-mixed phase,
and D-TiB2 particles; (b) Higher magnification of regions B,
C, and D of Fig. 8a; (c) BSEM photomicrograph of the
mixed phase region C in Fig. 8a; and (d) TiB2 particles of
region D in Fig. 8a.
DISCUSSION
One can apply the analysis of reference 3 to TiB 2 . Substitution of

measured values of Rt results in threshold velocities which are well
below the impact velocity in these studies. Based on this analysis
the projectiles should always penetrate substantially into the
ceramic. This was the case with the baseline design (no faceplate).
The tempered faceplate resulted in even more penetration.
However, penetration was greatly reduced with the hard faceplate.
Consideration of the metal log raphic observations suggests probable
causes of these variations.
The baseline case is the expected result and requires no

explanation, as this represents the intrinsic penetration resistance of
the ceramic. In the case of the annealed faceplate, the relatively
large penetration cavity and the large crater (uplift) of the plate
around the impact site indicates that very large pressures caused
substantial distortion of the faceplate. The hard steel faceplate, on
the other hand, exhibits relatively little deformation, but considerable
excavation. The extrusion of finely paniculate material was projected
through the tight faceplate/ceramic interface by a high pressure zone
at the impact site. Most crucial: We also observed a highly deformed
composite of metal and ceramic deposited on the inside of the
faceplates that closely resembles rapidly solidified material.
Based on these observations, we propose that the combination of

high pressure and high temperature at the impact site produces a
material with liquid properties consisting of W grains, Ni-Fe matrix
material, iron, and ceramic particles. This material is the source of
the extremely fine grained deposits in which these components are
mixed together and found on the inside of the martensitic faceplate.
We refer to this heated fluid-like material as a hydrodynamic cushion.
The relative stiffness and small penetration cavity associated with the
martensitic faceplate help confine the hydrodynamic cushion, which
does not occur in the highly deformable and weaker annealed
faceplate.
Fig. 9 is a sketch of how this mechanism is presumed to function.

Impact produces a pressurized region between the faceplate and
ceramic. With a sufficiently stiff and strong faceplate, this material is
confined and leads to pressurization of the ceramic substrate.
Pressurization of the ceramic may prevent penetration by at least
1111 mi 1111 A y ii ilYfl II11 A. YTlW*
Fig. 9: Stages of penetration of faceplate and ceramic: (a) Impact,

which may produce shock damage in the ceramic, (b)
Penetration of faceplate, (c) Formation of high pressure
region on ceramic surface, (d) Formation of hydrodynamic
pillow under the hard faceplate, or (e) Deformation of softer
faceplate and penetration of ceramic.
two different means. Recently it has been shown that the

compressive strength of TiB2 increases substantially with pressure5.
Higher strength may raise the penetration resistance, preventing
penetration onset, as found in reference 3. On the other hand,
pressurization may also prevent ejection of the material outside the
Hertzian (conical) cracks, as shown in Fig. 10. When this happens,
the ceramic directly under the penetrator remains supported, and

penetration is inhibited because of the greater strength associated
with the confined ceramic. Indeed, the form of the cracks in the
ceramic, and the formation of a ring of deposits around the impact
site observed are consistent with the mechanism sketched in Fig. 10.
conical
cracks
Fig. 10: Proposed mechanism: conical cracks form beneath the

penetrator but ejection of material outside of the crack is
inhibited by the hydrodynamic cushion.
The reason why there was relatively more penetration under the
tempered steel faceplate was probably due to preshocking of the
ceramic. Steel and TiB2 have nearly the same shock impedance.
Thus, the impact shock, which is well above the Hugoniot elastic limit
(HEL) of the ceramic, will propagate through the faceplate into the
ceramic. TiB2 shocked above the HEL is microcracked, and thus, in
the absence of pressurization, provides less penetration resistance.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The penetration of a ceramic tile by a tungsten rod was
strongly affected by a steel faceplate. Penetration increased when
an annealed faceplate was used, and reduced when a martensitic
faceplate was used.
2. Deformation of the faceplates indicated that a region of very

high pressure was created at the impact site.
3. Deposits of ultra fine grained material under the faceplates

and to the sides of the ceramic indicated that the debris trapped in
the high pressure field became very hot.
4. Consideration of the metallographic evidence suggested that

the decreased penetration associated with a martensitic faceplate
was due to suppression of tensile failure in the tile by the trapped
high pressure material, which forms a hydrodynamic cushion.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge Dr. J. A. Snide, head of the

Graduate Materials Engineering Department, The University of
Dayton, for his technical and financial support. The technical
assistance and helpful advice of Dale Grant, Fred Pestian, and Doug
Wolf of UDRI is greatly appreciated.
REFERENCES
1. M. L. Wilkins, Third Progress Report of Light Armor Program,
Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Livermore, CA, UCRL-50460,
July 1968.
2. R. L. Woodward, NA simple one-dimensional approach to

modelling ceramic composite armour defeat,1* Int. J. Impact
Engng., 9,455-474, 1990.
3. Z. Rosenberg and J. Tsaliah, "Applying Tate's Model for the
Interaction of Long Rod Projectiles with Ceramic Targets," Int.
J. Impact Engng., 9: 247,1990.
4. A. Tate, "Further Results in the Theory of Long Rod
Penetration," J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 77:141,1969.
5. Z. Rosenberg, N. S. Brar, S. J. Bless, "Shear Strength of

Titanium Diboride under Shock Loading Measured by
Transverse Manganin Gauges," Presented at the APS 1991
Topical Conference on Shock Compression on Condensed
Matter, Williamsburg, VA, USA, June 17-20, 1991, to be
published by Elsevier.
6. D. P. Dandekar, "Effect of Shock Reshock on Spallation of

Titanium Diboride," Presented at the APS 1991 Topical
Conference on Shock Compression on Condensed Matter,
Williamsburg, VA, USA, June 17-20, 1991, to be published by
Elsevier.
Impact and Perforation of Mild Steel Pipes
by Low Velocity Missiles
M. Brown, M. Jacobs, M. Mihsein
Engineering Research Station, British Gas pic,
Killingworth, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, NE99 1LH,
U.K.
ABSTRACT
Empirical formulae are often used to determine the perforation resistance

of plates and shells impacted by missiles travelling at sub-ordinance veloc-
ities (25 > 350T715"1). There is little validation data available for missiles
travelling at the lower velocities which are more typical of dropped objects.
This study has considered the perforation resistance of a 300mm nominal
bore steel pipe to low velocity (4.4 14.Iras"1 ) impact. The effects of
the missile nose shape and the impact position (1/2, 1/4 and 1/10 span)
on the perforation resistance were considered. Comparisons have been
made with published empirical perforation formulae, it was found that
some predictions of perforation energy significantly differed from the ex-
perimental results, however the failure modes found were typical of those
seen in other studies.
INTRODUCTION
Although a number of studies have examined the response of cylindrical

shells to high velocity impacts (AOms"1 and higher), there has been less
work reported on the low velocity impacts (< 20ra5~1) which are more
typical of dropped objects. In order to provide experimental data in this
range, the Engineering Research Station of British Gas has carried out a
number of low velocity impact tests. The results obtained were compared
with those obtained by other researchers and with empirically derived
perforation formulae.
Neilson et al [1] proposed a correlation for pipe perforation based on a

series of 43 impact tests on 150mm nominal diameter pipe using a variety
of types of missile. The missile impact velocities were in the range 46

to 325 7715"1. Stronge [2], has also presented an empirical perforation
formula. This formula is based on the results of a study using cold drawn
mild steel tubes of 51mm diameter impacted by spherical missiles. Impact
velocities were in the range 50 to 200 ms" 1 .
Palomby and Stronge [3] and Corbett et al [4] examined the effect of missile
nose shape on the modes of failure of mild steel tubes. Non dimensional
parameters were proposed by Palomby and Stronge to examine the rela-
tionship between perforation energy and the missile nose shape. Corbett
et al [4] used the Stronge [2] perforation formula to compare predictions
of perforation energy with the energies obtained in their tube perforation
tests. The formula was found to give a good estimate of the perforation
energies of cold drawn tubes under static and dynamic loads, however the
formula underestimated the perforation energy of the more ductile seamed
tube which was also tested.
Xiaoqing and Stronge [5] investigated the perforation of thin walled tubes
by spherical mssiles. A change in mode of perforation was identified at a
diameter to wall thickness {V/7i) ratio of about 20.
As discussed later, Ohte et al [6] have obtained the perforation energy

of flat plates using missiles which were flat nosed, hemispherically nosed
and conical nosed. Corran et al [7], examined the effect of a number of
parameters on perforation resistance of plates. Of particular relevance to
the present study were the investigations into the effect of nose shape,
target thickness and support restraint.
The objectives of this study are:
to determine the validity of published perforation formulae at low

velocities and large scale.
to examine the effect of impact position on the perforation energy
of a span of pipe.
to determine the effect of the nose shape of the striker on the striker
perforation energy.
For the purposes of this study, the striker is considered to 'perforate' when
its' tip has passed completely through the pipe wall. The 'perforation
energy' of the pipe is considered to be the mean of the highest energy
impact which did not perforate and the lowest energy impact which did
perforate.
EXPERIMENTAL
Test Specimens
All tests used the same size and specification of pipe, see Table 1. The
pipes spanned 3.2m between end clamps.
Pipe Specification
Nominal Size 300mm
Outside Diameter (V) 323.8 mm
Wall Thickness (H) 9.52 mm
Material Specification BG/PS/LX5
Material Grade Grade X46
SMYS 317.17 MNm~2
Measured Quantities
Yield Stress 370 MNm-2
Ultimate Stress 508 MNm-2
Elongation at failure 40%
7.4mm Charpy (@-15C) 113 Joules
Table 1: Details of Test Pipes
Test Procedure
A schematic of the test facility is shown in Figure 1. The facility consisted
of a 36 inch outside diameter pipe contained vertically within a steel sup-
port frame. At the top of the pipe was an electrically driven winch, used
to raise the striker. Attached to the end of the winch was a quick release
mechanism. The test rig was built on a foundation of reinforced concrete.
In order to support the test pipes a bed plate was securely located on
the concrete foundation directly below the 36 inch diameter pipe. Onto
the bed plate two mounting blocks were bolted, the position of the blocks
could be altered so as to allow impact at mid-span, one quarter span and
one tenth span. Whatever the impact position, the total pipe span was
3.2m. Expanding inserts inside of the pipe ends were used to prevent the
pipe being crushed by the tightening of the end clamps.
Two wire ropes were stretched from the bed plate up through the inside
Electric winch
36 inch OD
pipe
Steelwork support
Remote controlled
quick release
mechanism
Steel wire
guide ropes
Tie bars
Access staircase
Weight (Maximum 1000kg)
and ladder
Upper mounting block
Test pipe
Bedplate^ ^ .
/ Striker Reinforced concrete base
Lower mounting block
Figure 1: Diagram of Test Rig
of the 36 inch diameter pipe to the top of the test rig. These ropes, when
tensioned, acted as guides for the drop weight assembly.
The drop weight, complete with tie bars was located on the guide ropes
by four brass bushes and held in position on the end of the winch via
the quick release mechanism. The maximum drop height of the rig was
10.1m. For these tests the dropped weight was 967kg. The end of the drop
weight assembly was designed to enable different strikers to be attached.
Sketches of the four strikers used are shown in Figure 2. The strikers were
manufactured from a tool steel, BS 4659 and then hardened to an average
value of 650 Hv.
A total of 27 tests were carried out in this test series. The minimum drop
height was 1.0m and the maximum was 10.1m. The impact position for
the tests was varied between mid span, quarter span and one tenth of the
span. No significant damage to any of the strikers was observed at the
end of the test series.
185 185 185
90 included
R35 spherical
[ 50*1 All dimensions in mm
h 0 70I
Flat ended cylinder Heavy gauge pipe Pointed nose Hemispherical nose
Figure 2: Striker Geometries
A summary of the results of these tests is given in Table 2. Figure 3

presents the key results, from Table 2, which bound the perforation energy
for each geometry of impactor. Closed symbols indicate no perforation,
open symbols denote perforation. Figure 3 also shows perforation energies
obtained from the Nielson [1] and Stronge [2] correlations for flat ended
and spherical impactors respectively.
EFFECT OF IMPACT POSITION
The energy required to perforate the pipe reduced as the impact point
neared a support, Figure 3. From the results obtained from the flat nosed
strikers, it can be seen that the drop in perforation energy becomes more
rapid as the support is more closely approached. The perforation energy
of the flat nosed striker at one tenth span was 35.6 kJ, about 60% of
the mid span figure of 61.7 kJ. Assuming a similar relationship for the
hemispherically nosed striker, the perforation energy at one tenth span
of 61.7 kJ suggests that the perforation energy at mid span would be
approximately 107 kJ. This is consistent with the results obtained. At mid
span, using a hemispherically nosed striker, the maximum energy which
the rig could produce, 95.8 kJ, was insufficient to perforate the pipe.
Tests 1 to 5 and 29 to 31 are reported elsewhere
TEST Drop Point of Impact Striker Impact Kinetic Perforation

No Height Span Nose Velocity Energy
m m/s kJ
6 2.0 0.10 FNC 6.3 19.0 NO
7 4.0 0.10 FNC 8.9 37.9 YES
8 3.0 0.10 FNC 7.7 28.4 NO
9 3.5 0.10 FNC 8.3 33.2 NO
10 4.0 0.50 FNC 8.9 37.9 NO

11 8.0 0.50 FNC 12.5 75.9 YES
12 6.0 0.50 FNC 10,9 57.0 NO
13 7.0 0.50 FNC 11.7 66.4 YES
14 4.0 0.50 HNC 8.9 37.9 NO

15 8.0 0.50 HNC 12.5 75.9 NO
16 10.1 0.50 HNC 14.1 95.8 NO
17 4.0 0.50 CNC 8.9 37.9 YES

18 2.0 0.50 CNC 6.3 19.0 YES
19 1.0 0.50 CNC 4.4 9.5 NO
20 1.5 0.50 CNC 5.4 14.2 NO
21 4.0 0.50 HGP 8.9 37.9 NO

22 8.0 0.50 HGP 12.5 75.9 YES
23 6.0 0.50 HGP 10.9 57.0 NO
24 7.0 0.50 HGP 11.7 66.4 YES
25 4.0 0.25 FNC 8.9 37.9 NO

26 8.0 0.25 FNC 12.5 75.9 YES
27 6.0 0.25 FNC 10.9 57.0 YES
28 5.0 0.25 FNC 9.9 47.5 NO
32 10.0 0.10 HNC 14.0 94.9 YES

33 6.0 0.10 HNC 10.9 57.0 NO
34 8.0 0.10 HNC 12.5 75.9 YES
35 7.0 0.10 HNC 11.7 66.4 YES
FNC = Flat Nosed Cylinder, ]iNC = Hemispherical Nosed Cylinder

CNC = Conical Nosed Cylinder HGP = Heavy Gauge Pipe simulated)
Drop weight = 967 kg
Table 2: Summary of Test Results

Impact Energy (kJ)

100 r
No perforation hemispherical
nose
80
60
40
Flat nose
Hemispherical nose O
20 Conical nose A
Neilson[1] formula
Strange [2] formula
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Impact Position (proportion of span)
Open symbols perforation
Closed symbols no perforation
Figure 3: British Gas Impact Tests
Moving the point of impact closer to a support, effectively increases the

stiffness of the pipe under the striker. As [8] found for flat plate targets,
more rigid support conditions can reduce perforation energy.
EFFECT OF NOSE SHAPE
As noted by Stronge [2], when flat nosed cylinders impact plates and shells,
the stress field favours plugging. When the impact is of a hemispherical
nosed striker shear strain localisation, the effect which produces plugging
failure, is reduced by the continued deformation of the pipe around the
striker nose. This local deformation is referred to as bulging. Presuming
that the reduction in shear stress gradient is sufficient to prevent perfo-
ration at an early stage of the contact, bulging and dishing of the pipe
continues with perforation resulting from tearing due to tensile stretching
under the striker nose.
The four nose shapes employed on the British Gas strikers produced 3
different failure modes.
All of the flat nosed impact tests, that is the impacts of the flat nosed
cylinders and the simulated heavy gauge pipes, which resulted in perfora-
tion, punched out an almost round disc of pipe material of approximately
the same diameter as the striker. The appearance of the failed pipe and
the perforation energy due to these two nose shapes, was indistinguishable.
The hemispherical nosed striker caused dishing and bulging under the
striker nose. For those tests where perforation was achieved, 1/10 span
impacts only, examination of the failed pipe showed some thinning of the
region at the tip of the striker nose. Failure was due to radial tears in the
bulged region, with limited extension of the tears into the parent pipe.
Figure 4 shows the longitudinal and meridional deformation produced by

tests 10 and 14. These were mid span impacts from a drop height of
4m for a flat nosed and hemispherically nosed striker, respectively. The
difference in the deformed shapes of the pipes is evident. It is clear from
the longitudinal results, that the flat nosed striker has not quite struck
square. Although it is not quite so evident, the hemispherical nosed striker
also appears to have been slightly angled when it struck. It is not believed
that this has had a significant effect on the results.
Non-perforating impacts with the conical nosed striker caused bulging

under the nose similar to that produced by the hemispherical nose but
more localised. At higher energies, perforation occured due to a tear in
the meridional direction, which spread into the parent pipe material. The
striker body perforated the pipe by widening this split and forcing apart
the body of the pipe.
Figure 5 compares the relationship of nose shape to perforation energy

obtained from the British Gas tests, with the results of Palomby and
Stronge [3], Corbett et al [4] and Nielson et al [1].
The non-dimensional perforation energy parameter proposed by Palomby

and Stronge [3] Jo a ^ 2 where (?m is the mass of the striker, Vo is the
velocity of the striker at the ballistic limit, ay is the yield stress of the
target material, 7i is the wall thickness of the pipe and 7m is the radius
of the missile, is shown plotted against the non-dimensional nose radius
parameter pn = 7i / 1Zn where lZn is the radius of the nose of the missile.
The British Gas results are similar to those of some of the tested duc-
tile pipes [2] [4] i.e. an enhancement in perforation resistance when a
hemispherical nosed rather than a flat nosed striker is used, this trend is
reversed in the Nielson et al [1] results.
Because of the close agreement between the results from the British Gas
and Neilson et al [1] studies, for flat nosed and conical nosed strikers, see
Radial displacement (mm)

0
-20
-40
-60
-80
Rat Nosed
-100
Hemispherical Nosed
-120
-120 -80 -40 0 40 80 120
Or Meridional distance (mm)
-20
-40
-60
-80
Rat Nosed
-100
Hemispherical Nosed
-120
-120 -80 -40 0 40 80 120
Longitudinal distance (mm)
Figure 4: Pipe Residual Deformation 4.0m Drop Height : Flat and Hemi-
spherical Nosed Strikers
Table 3, the difference in the results for hemispherical nosed strikers is

notable.
Xiaoqing and Stronge [5] found a transition in failure mode for steel tube
impacted by spherical strikers, at V / H > 20. Thinner walled tubes
impacted by spherical missiles failed due to radial stretching of the surface
during dishing, whereas thicker walled tubes impacted by similar missiles
failed due to plugging. The British Gas pipes have a V / TL ratio of
about 32 which places them in the Xiaoqing and Stronge thin-walled tube
regime. Using the dimensions given by Nielson et al [1], the V / H ratio
of two of the three pipes tested using hemispherically nosed strikers were
22.7 and 19.8. The wall thickness of the third pipe was not measured. The
pipes may be close to a change in failure mode. The two pipes for which
the V I H ratio has been calculated were impacted at the same energy.
Jo
Seamed [3]
Annealed [4]
Drawn [3]
As Received [4]
Mid-span BG Tests
Neilsonetal[l]
(Resultsfrom60mm
diameter cylinders)
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
H/Rn
Figure 5: Non-dimensional Energy Jo versus pn
The thicker walled pipe failed, the thinner walled pipe did not. It is this
energy, non-dimensionalised, which is shown in Table 3 and Figure 5, as
the perforation energy for this striker.
A similar non-linearity was found by Corran et al [7] for plate perforation.

A kink was found in the relationship between perforation energy and plate
thickness. Near to the plate transition thickness, increasing the target
thickness could actually reduce the perforation energy. The transition is
thought to be due to a change from energy absorption predominately by
plastic deformation of the plate, with a small proportion of the energy
absorbed by plugging, to energy absorption primarily by plugging. The
latter occurs when local shearing requires less force than that to deform
the target.
Consideration of the Nielson et al [1] test geometry shows that the ax-
ial restraint of the pipes was considerable. This restraint was provided
by bracing a welded end flange on the test pipe against substantial end
supports. For some tests this end flange was stripped by the axial forces
generated. The British Gas tests relied on the friction between the pipe
wall and the inner and outer end clamps to provide axial restraint. In-
spection of the pipes after a number of tests showed that the pipes tended
to pull through the end clamps.
The very rigid axial restraint of the Nielson [1] test rig would tend to
inhibit gross bending and perhaps, favour plugging.
Flat Nose Conical Nose Hemispherical Nose

British Gas Tests 28.8 13.4 > 44.9
Nielson et al [1] 32.1 11.2 22.9
Comparison withL 60mm diameter missiles fromNielson et al [i]
Table 3: Comparison of Jo values, British Gas and Nielson et al [1]
The Ohte et al. [6] results for projectiles impacting steel plate, showed
that hemispherically nosed projectiles required more energy to penetrate
flat plates than did flat ended cylinders of the same diameter. Since this
series of experiments did not report failure in the test plate due to impact
by hemisperical nosed projectiles, the enhancement in required perforation
energy due to the hemispherical nose shape cannot be quantified. This is
also true for the British Gas mid span tests. The study [6] showed a ratio
in perforation energy between flat nosed missiles and 90 conical missiles
of 0.2, Nielson et al [1] gives this ratio as 0.3, the British Gas tests show
a ratio of about 0.27.
CONCLUSIONS
1. For flat nosed projectiles, the correlation derived by Nielson et al [1]

provides a good estimate of perforation energy for the low velocity
impacts of this study.
2. As was shown [1], at higher velocities, the perforation energy of an

axially impacting pipe missile can be estimated from that of a solid
cylinder of the same diameter.
3. The perforation energy drops rapidly when impact position closely

approaches a clamped support. Further research is needed to quan-
tify the relationship.
4. The perforation energy of missiles with a 90 included angle nose can

be estimated from the Neilson correlation [1], provided the predicted
value is multiplied by a factor of 0.2.
5. For the thin pipes ( V / 7i > 30 ) used in this study, the Nielson
et al [1] correlation provides a conservative estimate of perforation
energy for hemispherically nosed missiles. It has been shown [1] [5]
that for pipes with a lower V / H ratio, that the perforation energy
may be significantly less than that given by the correlation.
6. The Stronge correlation [2] does not provide a good estimate of per-
foration energy for these tests. The correlation was developed using
spherical missiles and appears to predict cthick wall' behaviour for
the hemispherical nosed missiles used in this study.
British Gas pic
References
[1] A.J.Neilson, W.D.Howe and G.P.Garton,'Impact Resistance Of Mild
Steel Pipes', AEE Winfrith, AEEW - R 2125, June 1987.
[2] W.J.Stronge, 'Impact And Perforation Of Cylindrical Shells By Blunt
Missiles', Metal forming and Impact Mechanics, W Johnson Com-
memorative Volume, Ed S.R.Reid.
[3] C.Palomby and W.J.Stronge, 'Blunt Missile Perforation Of Thin
Plates And Shells By Discing', Int.J.Impact Engng Vol7, pp 85-
100,1988.
[4] G.G.Corbett,S.R.Reid and S.T.S.Al-Hassani, 'Static And Dynamic
Penetration Of Steel Tubes By Hemispherically Nosed Punches',
Int.J.Impact Engng Vol 9, No2,ppl65-190,1990.
[5] M.Xiaoqing and W.J.Stronge, 'Spherical Missile Impact And Perfora-
tion Of Filled Steel Tubes', Int.J.Impact.Engng Vol 3(1), 1-16, 1988.
[6] S.Ohte, H.Yoshizawa, N.Chiba and S.Shida, 'Impact Strength Of
Steel Plates Struck By Projectiles', Bulletin of the Japan Society
of Mech Eng, Vol25, No.206, Aug 1982.
[7] R.S.J.Corran, P.J.Shadbolt and C.Ruiz, 'Impact Loading Of Plates
An Experimental Investigation', Int.J.Impact Engng Vol 1, No 1, pp3-
22,1985.
Simulation of the Impact of a Tool Steel
Projectile into Copper, Mild-Steel and
Stainless-Steel(304) Test Specimen
A.M.S. Hamouda, M.S.J. Hashmi
School of Mechanical & Manufacture Engineering,
Dublin City University, Dublin 9,
Republic of Ireland
ABSTRACT
This paper examines the deformation behaviour when an elastic steel projectile
is impacted against a deformable cylindrical test specimen placed on an elastic
anvil. The response was simulated using a PC based finite difference numerical
technique. Three different materials were tested. The variation of force, strain
and strain rate with time of the specimens are presented. The force-time
history in the projectile and the anvil are also presented and discussed. The
theoretical and experimental results are compared in terms of the final
dimensions of the cylindrical test specimen.
INTRODUCTION
The subject of impact mechanics has long been of interest for military
application and is currently being applied to a number of industrial application
such as the integrity of nuclear reactor pressure vessel, crash worthiness of
vehicles, protection of space craft from meteoroid impact and high velocity
forming and welding of metals.
With the advent of numerical methods in the deformation analysis, such as

finite difference and finite element techniques, many different computer codes
were developed to simulate the impact of two or more solid bodies. Johnson1
developed a computer code EPIC-2 for dynamic analysis of impact and
explosive detonation problems. This code is applicable for axisymmetric and
plane strain problems. It also has the ability to handle the effect of spin for
the axisymmetric case. It is based on a lagrangian finite element formulation.
A three dimensional version of EPIC has also been developed2. Wilkins3
presented a computer simulation of the impact process HEMP code which uses
a finite difference numerical technique.
This paper is concerned with the development of a PC based finite

difference code. This code has the ability to study the materials response to
impact loading. The deformation was simulated using material properties and
constitutive equation previously outlined in Reference[4].
The basic experimental technique used in this investigation involved firing

of a cylindrical projectile at speed ranging from 50 to 140 m/s at small
cylindrical test specimen placed upon an elastic anvil. Compressed air was
used to propel the projectile whose speed before impact was measured using
a laser-beam interruption devices. The detailed description of the experimental
procedure have been given in Reference[4] and will not repeated here.
FORMULATION
Frist mass of
The developed code employs projectile
a finite difference numerical
technique in conjunction with yE Mass(M)
lumped mass parameter Mass (i)
model. The whole system ii Mass(i+1)
was represented by lumped

mass model as shown in ii Frist mass of specimen
Figure(l). The principal
'l
Q_ 05
feature for this system is that,

the projectile and the anvil Frist mass of anvil
deforms only elastically due
to their high yield stresses.
However, the specimen
deforms both elastically and
plastically.
The equations of motion 11
Anvil Support
listed below are those used in
the computer code. The Mirror Image
derivation of the equations
Figure 1 Lumped Mass Model for the System.
can be found in a paper by
5
Hashmi and Thompson .
Equation of Motion
The general equation of motion of an element of the specimen, soon after
impact, can be derived by consider the internal and inertia forces acting on the
element and is given by;
dN ....
= Mu
(1)
dS
where N is the axial force, S is the length, M is the mass and ii is the
acceleration.
Strain and Strain Rate

The strain increment and strain rate occurring in each link during the time
interval is given by;
.. i. ^
and
e. . = ^ U l i (3)
l J
* 6t
where e and e is strain and strain rate respectively, i refer to the mass point
and j to the time instant.
Stress and Force

The stress in the element is determined from the strain, strain rate, internal
energy and the material property. Since the strain and strain rate are constant
within the element during the time interval 5t, the stress is obtained from the
appropriate constitutive equation given by,
(4)
In order to facilitate the calculation of stress which, due to friction and

inertia effect, may vary across the cross section of the specimen. It is
necessary to idealize the actual cross section to an equivalent cross section
model which consists of a number of layers at which the stress is assumed to
be uniform. In order to describe the elastic-plastic stress state in a layer of the
model section, further idealization is made and each layer is assumed to
consist of a number of sub-layers. The axial force is used to update the
displacement and is given as,
where a is the stress and A is the sub-layer area.
Constitutive equation
The constitutive equation developed by Hamouda and Hashmi6 is used ;
(-) (6)
od = 'l l+(me)1
where
= (|) (7)
where G and R representing the effect of temperature rise and strain rate on
strain hardening respectively. K is the strength coefficient, n is the strain
hardening index, G{ representing the
effect of temperature on the strength Table I Material Constants in the
Coefficient, is the natural Strain, i Constitutive Equation.
is the strain rate, and m and p are
the strain rate sensitivity constant. Material K n m(sec) p - . : , ; ; ; '
;: ;;
The material constants for all the Copper 350 0.07 0.0024 0.020
materials tested are presented in Mild-steel 750 0.115 0.333 0.030
Stainless-steel 1040 0.102 0.005
Table [I]. The main aspect of this
strain rate sensitivity equation is that
it takes into account the effect of
strain, strain rate, strain hardening, and temperature rise during deformation.
Code Description
The first step in the process is to represent the system with lumped mass and
link assembly and assign the velocity to represent the motion at impact. After
the initial conditions are established, the integration loop begins as shown in
Figure(2). The first step is to obtain displacement of the lumped mass. If it is
assumed that the links connecting the masses remain straight, the displacement
must vary linearly.The net force is used to update the element displacement.
Code Input
Input to the code consists of a specification of the geometry of the problem,
the appropriate initial velocity, strain rate sensitivity and the static stress-strain
properties of the material involved.
Code Output
Output from the code consists of a detailed space-time history of all the
important physical quantities such as force, strain, strain rate, etc. Thus it is
an extremely valuable tool for providing a dynamic analysis required for the
whole system up to the end of the deformation. Numerous comparisons
between the predictions from the developed code and experimental results tend
to show excellent agreement when the appropriate material properties are
employed.
Termination of Computation
The duration of the simulation process(deformation) for all three materials is
defined according to Reference[7] as the time from the instant of the impact
(Maximum energy) to the instant when the kinetic energy of the projectile is
almost zero.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Deformation History of Mild steel Specimen
When the elastic projectile strikes the test specimen, immediately after impact,
a compressive stress wave will travel through the 19.5mm tool steel projectile
which subsequently is reflected from its free surface as a tensile wave. The
reflected tensile wave will have a reducing effect on the incident compressive
wave. Figure(3) shows the predicted force time-trace for a typical impact test.
This figure shows the variation of the force on the contact faces of the
projectile and the anvil( upper and lower face of the specimen ). It can be seen
that during the initial period, up to 7.5 fts following the impact, the force on
the upper face is higher and subsequently the lower force becomes higher than
the upper force after 7.5 /xs. The most likely explanation to this is probably the
stress wave effect.
The relationship between the force ratio (upper and lower force) generated
at the specimen with the contact time is illustrated in Figure(4). The ratio was
found to be high during the initial period following the impact and then
dropped in a linear manner between the range of 1.2 to 1.0 for up to 20% of
the total deformation. However, subsequently, this percentage ratio varies with
a ripple manner due to the effect of stress wave.
The variation of the strain with the contact time for two different impact
speeds is given in Figure(5). It is clear that as the contact time increases the
strain increases in non-linear manner. This increase in the strain depends on
the impact speed. It can be seen that, most of the deformation of the specimen
occurs within the first 26 /xs of the contact time.
Figure(6) shows that, the strain rate increases sharply and immediately after
the impact to a maximum value, and then decrease gradually during the later
stages of the deformation.
The instantaneous values of the forces at the projectile specimen interface

were computed for all three materials and plotted against the contact time, as
shown in Figure(7). It can be seen that the force acting on the upper face of
the specimen was found to be higher for stainless-steel and lower for copper
specimens.
Figure(8) shows the relationship between the kinetic energy spent to deform
the specimen and contact time for the three materials. All the specimens are
deformed at the same impact speed. The results obtained show that, at the
same contact time of 20 us the kinetic energy used up was found to be 86.4%,
78.4% and 48.6% for stainless-steel, mild steel and copper respectively.
The relation between the contact time and impact speed for all three
materials is shown in Figure(9). It is indicates that as the impact speed is
increased the contact time increases. It can be seen that for the same impact
speed the contact time is longer for softer material like copper and shorter for
harder material like stainless-steel. This is due to the fact that a higher
deformation is obtained for copper than others.
Figure(lO) shows the relation between the impact speed and maximum
adiabatic temperature rise during deformation. Again the temperature rise in
the copper specimen is higher at all the impact speeds.
Variation of the force in the projectile and anvil

Figure(ll) shows the variation of the force along the projectile at time 6,
16 and 30 us after the impact against Mild steel specimen. It can be seen that,
at time 6 us the force varies in wavy manner up to distance equal to 50% of
the total length of the projectile. As the distance increases the force also
increases until it reaches its maximum value at distance of 16mm from the free
face. However, at time 16 us the force seems to be varying in periodic
manner( less wavy than at time 6 us) and reaches its maximum at the contact
face with the specimen. At time 30 us which is nearly at the end of the
deformation ( kinetic energy nearly zero) a considerable decrease in the force
occur on the contact face.
Figure(12) shows the variation of the force along the distance of the anvil
bar at time 6, 16 and 30 us after the impact. At time 6us, it can be seen that
as the distance increases from the contact face with the specimen, the force
increases in a periodic manner. At time 16us the force is lower than that at
time 6us and it is nearly uniform upto overt 50% of the total length, after that,
the force decreases sharply. The force at time 30us is lower than at time 16us
and it decreases as the distance increases to upto 70% of the total length, then
the force increases sharply reaching its maximum just before the end of the
anvil bar. After that the force starts to decrease. The force distribution curve
in all the cases are wavy shaped.
Comparisons of code predications with experimental impact test data

The ballistic test specimens were machined from Copper, Mild-steel and
stainless-steel bars. These were all of diameter 5.1 mm and had length-to
diameter ratio of unity. Before the impact test was conducted, the contact faces
of the specimen, anvil, and the projectile were lubricated with polythene sheet.
The basic experimental technique used in the investigation involved firing the
projectile directly onto the test specimen placed upon the elastic anvil. For
each test the final height and final diameter of the deformed specimen were
measured. A number of impact speeds were selected ranging between 50 to

120 m/s. Three specimens were deformed at nominally same impact speed.
Tables (II),(HI) and (IV) show the experimental and predicted dimensions at
different impact speeds. Figure (13) and Figure (14) show comparison between
predicated and experimentally obtained final heights. It is evident from these
figures that there is very good agreement between the code predication and the
test data.
CONCLUSION
A modified numerical analysis has been presented for axisymmetric solids
subjected to impact loading. Different specimens have been tested with the
developed computer code to demonstrate the effect of the stress wave. The
code show generally a good agreement with the experimental data in terms of
the final dimension of the deformable test specimen.
REFERENCE
111 Johnson, G.R. " EPIC-2, a computer Program for Elastic-Plastic Impact
Computations in 2 Dimensions Plus Spin" Tech Rep ARBRL-CR-00373,
1978
111 Johnson, G.R." Three dimension computer code for dynamic response of
solids to intense Impulsive Loads" Int J Num Meth Engg. Vol 14. 1965-
1871, 1979.
Ill Wilkins L.M " Calculation of Elastic-Plastic Flow," Methods in

Computional Physics, Vol 3 eds., Alder, B., Fernbach, S and Rotenberg,
M., Academic Press. New York 1964, pp 211-263.
14/ Hamouda, A.M.S. " High Strain Rate Constitutive Equation for Metallic
Materials" Msc Thesis Dublin City University Oct-1991
151 Hashmi. M.S.J and Thompson, P.J. "A Numerical Method of Analysis for
the Mushrooming of Flat-Ended Projectiles Impinging on a Flat Rigid
Anvil", Int J Mech Sci Vol.19 pp. 273-283, 1977
161 Hamouda, A.M.S and Hashmi, M.S.J. " Dynamic flow stress constitutive
equation for stainless-steel type(304)" To be Published.
Ill Hamouda, A.M.S and Hashmi, M.S.J. " High Strain Rate Constitutive
Equation for Copper and Mild Steel At Room temperature" llrish
Material Forum Conf Sept-1991
MAIN PROGRAM
I
I
C/3
INDATA SLOPE WAVE CHECK INTTAL LOOP
Check the input Define the initial O
Define Geomatry, Calculate the Computes the Performs the o
slope of each line data. condition. computation. FT
mechanical and time needed.
in the stress-strain
physical properties curve.
J-0
J- J+l
I
o
i NO YES |
Strain & Strain Rate Program Terminate
T
Stress & Force Write Result
Update Displacment
1
Kinetic Energy
INTEGRATION LOOP
Fig. (2) Hierarchy Chart for the Finite Difference Code

1.
At Impact speed
1.2 120 m/sec
0.2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
TIME(micro-second) DEFORMATION (%)
Figure 3 Load-Time History During Figure 4 Variation of Load Ratio with

Deformation of Specimen. Deformation in the Specimen.
0.7
At Impact Speed
Max. Strain rate
0.6 120 m/sec
2.5-
At speed 120 m/sec
Total deformation 44%
At speed 82 m/sec
Total deformation 20%
6 16 26 31 10 15 20 25 30
TIME(micro-second) TIME(micro-second)
Figure 5 Variation of Strain with Time Figure 6 Variation of Strain rate

During Deformation. with Time During Deformation.
(1) Copper
V (2) Mild steel
50 V\ (3) Stainless-steel
60
\ \
w
48.6% \ \ \
ENE
\
'20
20
78.4% \ \
10 \(2) \
All deformed at same impact speed 86.4% _\
Vk \
o-
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
CONTACT TIME(micro-second) TIME(micro-second)
Figure 7 Force-Time History During Figure 8 Energy-Time History During

Deformation for the Three Material. Deformation.
50
Copper
(1) Copper
(2) Mild-steel
7
200 (3) Stainless-steel
/ ^ ~
/
o40
o
uT Mild-steel
P30 /
' ^^^^Stainless-steel 100
50
10
I I I I I n I I I I
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

IMPACT SPEED(m/sec.) IMPACT SPEED(m/sec)
Figure 9 Variation of Contact Time Figure 10 Variation of Temperature

with the Impact Speed. Rise During Deformation and Impact
Speed.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 26 31 36 41 46 51 56 61
Distance along projectile(mm) Distance along the anvil(mm)
Figure 11 Variation of the Force along Figure 12 Force Variation along the
the Projectile Distance. Anvil.
* Experimental (Copper) + Exp. (Stainless-steel)

* Experimental^ steel)
\
Experimental (curve)
Experimental (curve) Theoretical(Fit Line)
Theoretical (fit line)
i i i i i 1
40 60 80 100 120 140 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Impact SpMd(m/a) Impact Speed(m/a)
Figure 13 Comparison Between the Figure 14 Comparison Between the

Experimental and Predicated Result in Experimental and Predicated Result in
terms of Final Hight of Mild steel and terms of Final Hight of Stainless-steel.
Copper.
Table II Result of the experimental and theoretical final dimension of the

Copper specimens.
Impact Speed Experimental Final dimension Theoretical Final dimension

(m/s) Height(mm) I)iameter(mm) Heiht(mm) Diameter(mm)
51.4 3.84 5.90 3.89 5,84
52.2 3.75 6.01 3.84 5.88
52*9 3.69 6.12 3.78 5.92
77.2 2.86 6.81 2.92 6.74
77.9 2.86 6.82 2.88 6,79
78.6 2.88 6.79 2.86 6.81
92.8 2,32 7.56 2.36 7.50
94.1 2.29 7.62 2.24 7.70
95.8 2.24 7.74 2.22 7.72
Table III Result of the experimental and theoretical final dimension of the
Mild steel specimens.

i/s) Height(mm) Diametei :(mm) Height(mm) Diameterfmm)
52.4 4.14 5.66 4.20 5.60
52.9 4.08 5.71 4.12 5.66
54.0 4.16 5.64 4.18 5.62
80.1 3.81 5.89 3.84 5.88
82.1 3.82 5.89 3.86 5.85
82.9 3.84 5.84 3.82 5.91
97.1 3.26 6.36 3.32 6.32
97.7 3.34 6.29 3.34 6.29
98.0 3.28 6.32 3.20 6.40
120.9 2.86 6.81 2.90 6.78
122.2 2.84 6.82 2.88 6.80
124.2 2.82 6.84 2.85 6.82
Table IV Result of the experimental and theoretical final dimension of the

Stainless-steel specimens.

(m/s) Height(mm) Diameterfmm) Height(mm) Diameter(mm)
50.2 4.5 5.42 4.38 5.49
52.7 4.44 5.49 4.36 5.52
50.9 4.58 5.36 4.38 6.50
74.1 4.14 5.69 4.18 5.64
76.6 4.10 5.66 4.08 5.71
80.1 3.98 5.74 3.94 5.82
100.1 3.40 6.26 3.48 6.18
98.7 3.38 6.22 3.52 6.12
102.2 3.32 6.18 3.45 6.22
118.9 3.01 6.54 3.00 6.64
120.8 2.94 6.65 2.92 6.75
122.4 2.88 6.72 2.84 6.82
3-D Oblique Impact of an Earth Orbiting
Satellite with Floating Debris
K. Kormi, D.C. Webb
Centre for Advanced Research in Engineering,
Leeds Polytechnic, Calverley Street, Leeds,
LSI SHE, U.K.
ABSTRACT
The Finite Element Method is used to simulate the impact of a small
(6.25g) object on the shield of an Earth-orbiting spacecraft. As a first
step in the understanding of the effects of such an impact it is essential
to acquire an appreciation of the magnitude of the forces likely to occur
in these circumstances. The FEM offers an opportunity to investigate
these effects relatively easily, an experimental investigation of the
process, in either an actual or a laboratory environment, being a
challenging task for the researcher. The computed results indicate many
novel features of stress wave generation, propagation, transmission,
reflection and refraction which appear to be meaningful and will hopefully
give rise to some constructive discussions. However, they will remain
unconfirmed until actual measurements are available for comparison.
INTRODUCTION
In the last two years the CARE team have been involved in the simulation
of structural responses to impulsive and impactive loading using the Finite
Element Method. The range of pressures and impact velocities
investigated covers an entire spectrum of possible loading cases. The
scope of the study is wide and includes an analysis of the effects of the
impact of a cylindrical billet with rigid or deformable surfaces and covers
an impact velocity range from 5 to 1500 ms"1 [ 1 - 4 ] . The inquiry has been
extended to investigate the impact of a v-shaped rigid surface with beams
and grillages [5, 6] and the axial impactive loading of thin, closed section
columns with regular or irregular geometry, leading to dynamic collapse
and wrinkle formation [7, 8]. A similar situation of a bullet penetrating
a circular plate has also been reported [9]. Whenever relevant
experimental data is available, a comparison between these and the FEM

simulation has proved to be quite acceptable [10 - 12]. In most cases,
however, especially those involving high velocity impacts in excess of 350
to 1,000 ms"1, no corresponding experimental results are available and so
our computed results must remain unproven despite their apparent
acceptability. In this paper we extend the scope of our investigations to
include the impact of a small object on an orbiting spacecraft.
Satellites orbiting the Earth at a height that neutralises the Earth's

gravitational field, circle the globe every 80 to 90 minutes at an average
velocity of about 30,000 km hr*1 (mach 25). The collision of even a minute
object at this velocity may result in a substantial degree of local
indentation and give rise to severe damage - thereby threatening the
functioning of the vehicle and the safety of any passengers on board. We
model the impactive loading of the vehicle shield by a small, 6.25g, mass
attached to a spherical nosed cylindrical rigid surface of 10 mm radius.
The impact is made at an oblique angle of 30 and at a velocity of
8 kms*1. The vehicle shield is represented as a steel plate 300 x 150 x 35
mm in width, breadth and thickness respectively. At its lower side, the
plate is supported on an elastic foundation - the interaction with a super-
structure is ignored for reasons that shall be explained below.
MODEL DISCRETISATION
initial point of rigid surface missile impact

y plane of symmetry
zfbe along the line 1, 501,521, 541,41
supported on elastic foundation
Figure 1 - Spacecraft impact simulation using FEM.
Figure 1 shows the model of a selected part of the spacecraft shield. A

single symmetry is assumed to exist and hence only half is discretised.

The model consists of 300 8 noded brick elements with a reduced
integration scheme (ABAQUStype C3D8R). The mesh density is graded
so that the smallest elements occur at a position that corresponds to the
most pronounced change in the field variables. A cylindrical rigid surface
with a spherical nose profile of 10 mm is positioned so that its axis is
inclined at 30 with the negative z global axis. To facilitate the
establishment of a definite positive structural stiffness matrix and a
unique single structural entity with proper connectivity between the plate
and the rigid surface, 44 2 noded interface elements (ABAQUStype IRS 13)
are incorporated in the model. A reference node (number 4000) is
associated with the rigid surface at which a mass element (ABAQUStype
MASS1) is positioned. The mass element is activated with an initial
velocity of -7 and -4.04 kms 1 in the global z and x directions respectively.
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Half the system is modelled because of the existence of a single plane of
symmetry. To accomodate this, the boundary YSYMM (in the global y
direction) is constrained (see Figure 1). The other boundary conditions -
ZSYMM (global z fixed) and XSYMM (global x fixed) are also shown in
Figure 1. The rigid surface via node 4000, which carries the mass
element, have all their degrees of freedom suppressed except those in
which the mass element is active.
MATERIAL
a) Plate
The plate - the structure that receives the impact - is linear elastic, of
density 7830 kgm"3, and has a modulus of elasticity E =2.07 x 105 Nmm'2
and a Poisson's ratio v =.3. The plastic work hardening characteristics of
the material are as follows:
Stress/N mm'2 aT 238 275 341 383 406 420

Plastic strain e^ 0 .05 .104 .15 .2 .30
The material strain rate dependency is defined by the Cowper-Symonds

empirical power law as reported by Symonds [13]:
1 +
D for a >a n
where a is the current effective stress, a 0 is the effective yield stress, ePl
is the equivalent plastic strain rate per second, o0(e) is the static stress-
strain relation beyond yield and D and P are constants chosen to describe
the strain rate dependency of the material (in this case, D =1.05 x 1 0 7 s 1
and P =8.3).
b) Interface Property
At the contacting faces the coefficient of friction, \it is made equal to
0.1, the stiffness in stick (ss) is given a value of 2 x 104N and the
maximum shear force that can be transmitted is set at 150 Nmm"2. These
values govern the penalty that the software internally imposes on
prevailing slip conditions, i.e. when 6 jiF/ss the stretching between
two targetted nodes is provided by the programme and, once
6 ^ liF/ss, slipping between the targetted nodes is permitted to take
place.
MESH CONVERGENCE STUDIES

In our previous studies the selection of the following ABAQUS element
types failed to produce any results:
C3D15, C3D15V, C3D20, C3D20R, C3D27 and C3D27R
However, the use of 3-D 8 noded elements with reduced integration

scheme (ABAQUS type C3D8R) produced the results presented here.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The model is loaded and constrained as described previously and as shown
in Figure 1. The response of the model to the impactive loading is
initially concentrated at the point of impact. However, as time
progresses, the rigid surface penetrates the plate asymmetrically. Close
examination of the assembly response shows that the lateral extent of the
model is such that any interaction between the plate and the
superstructure is well attenuated within a central portion of the plate.
The exclusion of superstructure interaction is therefore well justified and
the presentation of the computed results is restricted to the plate central
portion.
Figures 2 and 3 show contours of stress in the global z direction (S33)

superimposed on the deforming profiles of the model at times from .45 to
100 microseconds after impact. It can be seen that the stress does not
increase monotonically but fluctuates sometimes increasing and at others
decreasing in value. Meanwhile the plate material is piled up in front of,
and above, the rigid surface. In this way, from about 29.9^s (Figure 2)
onwards, the upward acceleration in the material generates a tensile
3.17|is 4.04ns
Figure 2 - Global SS3 stress contours (N mm2) on deforming

central portion of plate for indicated times after impact
E .285E4
D.143E4
C19.4
B-.139E4
A-.281E4
lOO.^s
Figure 3 - Global S33 stress contours (N mm2) on deforming

contribution to the overall (S33) stress field.
From the moment of impact to about 6 pis only a denting of the upper
plate surface occurs. After this time a crater is formed and develops
causing a pronounced bulge to form on the lower plate surface. It can be
seen that the pile up of material above the projectile coincides with this
deformation phase of the lower surface.
Figure 4 shows the stress contours plotted for the whole model and
demonstrates the justification for ignoring any interaction of the model
with a superstructure. It also illustrates how the region of defomration
is restricted to the central portion of the plate, as mentioned above.
68.4jis
93.4ns
lOO.iis
Figure 4 - Global SJ3 stress contours on deforming shape of

whole plate model at indicated times
Figures 5 to 8 show how the nodal displacement, equivalent plastic strain,
global z (S33) stress and Vonmises stress vary along the line of nodes from
3602 to 3641, on the upper surface of the plate and passing through the
centre of the crater, at a time of 100pis after impact. The variations in
the same parameters along the line of nodes from 1 to 41, on the lower
surface of the plate, are shown in Figures 9 to 12.
Figures 13 and 14 show global z (S33) component stress and Vonmises

Figure 5 - Nodal displacement Figure 6 - Equivalent plastic

along a line of nodes on top strain along a line of nodes
surface of plate after 100}is on top surface of plate after
100us
Figure 7 - Global z (S33) Figure 8 - Vonmises stress

stress along a line of nodes along a line of nodes on top
on top surface of plate after surface of plate after IOOJJS
100us
stress contours on the deformed profiles respectively at corresponding

times. A comparison of these plots shows a high value of the S33 stress
component compared with the much smaller value for the Von mises
stress. This is a clear indication of the existence of a triaxial stress state
generated by the impactive loading of the plate by an oblique impact.
Interpretation of Results
On impact, the missile possesses a considerable Kinetic Energy by virtue

of the mass element it carries. This K.E. dissipates into plastic work as
the rigid surface penetrates the plate. During this process the material
\ A
t:; \ /\
i \ i \
I )
J
\
\
j
Dtet.no. (mm) ^
Figure 9 - Nodal displacement Figure 10 - Equivalent

along a line of nodes on plastic strain along a line
bottom surface of plate after of nodes on bottom surface of
100us plate after 100us
Figure 11 - Global z (S33) Figure 12 - Vonmises stress

stress along a line of nodes along a line of nodes on
on bottom surface of plate bottom surface of plate after
after 100vs 100us
ahead of the projectile piles up in front, while the material behind the
rigid surface moves downwards. As the deformation process continues the
crater gets deeper until eventually the missile and the plate separate.
During contact between the two bodies a compressive stress wave pattern
builds up within the plate and propagates away from the contact region
at a velocity of 5A4mm\Lsl. As the intensity of the stress i s 4 0 M P a p e r
metre of relative velocity, it becomes apparent that, in spite of the
influence of the strain rate effect on the magnitude of the dynamic yield,
the value of stress in the direction of the collision is several orders of
magnitude greater than the yield criterion requirement. The latter
21.5|is
100.

; - 4A\is
21.5jis
100.

inconsistency is only resolved by the simultaneous existence of a stress

field in all directions with a strong hydrostatic component and a
deviatoric value in line with the yield condition requirement.
To demonstrate this effect it is useful to decompose the General Stress

State (GSS) into a Spherical Stress State (SSS) and a Deviatoric Stress
State (DSS),i.e.
(GSS)=(SSS)+(DSS)
The part of the stress tensor associated with the (SSS) causes changes in
the volume and has no effect on the material yielding, whereas the (DSS)
causes distortion in the material with no change in volume and hence
governs the yield condition.
CONCLUSIONS
We have shown that it is possible to construct a model, by the Finite
Element Method, of the situation where an orbiting spacecraft suffers an
impact from a small mass. The velocity we have chosen is in fact quite
small - micrometeoritic impacts would be much more energetic - however
the major aim here is to demonstrate the application of the method. Of
course, whether the results we have obtained are as meaningful as our
intuitive understanding would have us believe, must await confirmation by
other workers ideally comparing results form the FEMwith experiment.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Authors would like to express their appreciation to the staff of the
Centre for Advanced Research in Engineering. The Centre wishes to
thank Hewlett Packard for their sponsorship and provision of the Apollo
DN10000 used for the computation.
REFERENCES
1. Kormi, K. and Duddell D.A. 'The Mushrooming of Flat, Ellipsoidal
and Torispherical ended projectiles impinging on a rigid surface1.
Presented at Applied Solid Mechanics-4, Leicester, April 1991 and
to be published in Applied Solid Mechanics 4, 1991.
2. Kormi, K. Shaghouei, E. and Duddell, D.A., '2-D Axisymmetric and

3-D Analysis of High Velocity Impact of a Flat-ended Cylindrical
Projectile with a Thick Plate, itself supported on an Elastic
Foundation1, submitted for publication to the International Journal
of Impact Engineering and presented at the Euromech Colloquium

281, Liverpool, July, 1991.
3. Kormi, K, Webb, D.C. and Etheridge, R.A., 'The 3-D Hyper

Velocity Impact and Superstructure Interaction of a flat ended
Cylindrical Projectile with a Thick Square Plate1, submitted for
presentation at the 18th International Congress of Theoretical and
Applied Mechanics, Haifa, Israel, August, 1992.
4. Kormi, K., Webb, D.C. and Shaghouei, E., 'The Response of a Pipe
Beam Structure to Static and Dynamic Loading and Unloading by
a Spherical Nose Rigid Surface and Internal Pressure', to be
presented at the ASME Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference,
New Orleans, June, 1992.
5. Kormi, K., Shaghouei, E and Duddell, D.A. 'Finite Element

Examination of the Dynamic Response of Clamped Beam Grillages
Impacted Transversely by a Rigid Mass at their Centre',
presented at the 1st European Solid Mechanics Conference,
Munich, September, 1991.
6. Kormi, K., Webb, D. C. and Duddell, D.A. 'Damage Assessment of

a Pipe Structure Subjected to Impact Loading using the Finite
Element Method', to be presented at the 2nd Int. Conf on Comp.
Aided Asses. &Cont. - Localised Damage '92, Southampton, U.K.,
1992
7. Kormi, K. and Webb, D . C , 'Dynamic Plastic Collapse of a Column

with an Arbitrary Thin Section Profile under Axial Impactive
Loading', to be presented at the International Conference on
Engineering Applications of Mechanics, Tehran, June 1991.
8. Kormi, K., Webb, D.C. and Adams, D.R., '2-D and 3-D Impact of
Torispherical Ended Cylindrical Projectile with a thick plate itself
supported on an Elastic Foundation' , to be presented at the Second
International Symposium on Intense Dynamic Loading and its
Effects, Chengdu, China, June 1992.
9. Kormi, K., Webb,D.C. and Adams, D.R., 'Finite Element Method -

a Panacea or an Exaggerated Claim in Relationto the Solution of
Problems in Continuum Mechanics?', to be presented at the 1992
ABAQUS Users Conference, Rhode Island, May, 1992.
10. Taylor, G.I., 'The use of Flat-ended Projectiles in Dynamic Yield

Stress, I: Theoretical Considerations', Proc. R. Soc, A194, 289-
299, 1948
11. Hawkyard, J.B., 'A Theory for the Mushrooming of Flat-ended

Projectiles impinging on a flat rigid Anvil, using Energy
Considerations', Int. J. Mech. Sciences, 11, 313-333, 1969.
12. Whiffen, A.C., 'The use of Flat-ended Projectiles for Determining

Dynamic Yield Stress, II: Tests on Various Metaalic Materials',
Proc. Roy. Soc., A194, 300-322, 1948.
13. Symonds, P.S., 'Viscoplastic Behaviour in Response of Structures

to dynamic loading', in Behaviour of Material under dynamic
loading, ed. N. J. Huffington, pp. 106-124, ASME.
Scaled Underground Computer Center Test
and Analysis
J.A. Collins (*), F.A. Maestas (**),
B.L. Bingham (**), R.W. Cilke (**),
J.A. Keller (***)
(*) Wright Laboratory, Armament Directorate,
Eglin AFB, FL, U.S.A.
(**) Applied Research Associates, Inc.,
Albuquerque, NM, U.S.A.
(***) Denver Research Institute, Denver, CO,
U.S.A.
ABSTRACT
A scaled test program was conducted by Denver Research Institute (DRI) for the Air
Force. The objective of the test effort was to validate methodology embodied in the
computer code Effectiveness/ Vulnerability Analysis in Three Dimensions (EVA-3D)
developed by Applied Research Associates (ARA). ARA performed the pre and post
analysis.
The test article, a scaled underground computer center (SUCC), was built and
placed in the DRI test facility. An instrumented projectile was fired at the article. Twenty-
four tests were performed. This paper provides the results of the penetration tests and
the analysis effort performed.
INTRODUCTION
Conventional penetrating weapons are being designed for increased depth of

penetration into complex underground targets. Existing methodology has yet to be
validated for the realistic multiple impacts/perforations that can result. Three-
dimensional changes in the weapon terradynamics and weapon effectiveness are
predicted by the EVA-3D code. The weapon terradynamics were determined from
SUCC test data and compared to calculational results; and where necessary EVA-3D
modified. This paper provides the results of this effort.
BACKGROUND
This section provides background information on EVA-3D and the test article.
EVA-3D
Effectiveness/Vulnerability Assessment in Three Dimensions is a Monte Carlo based
computer code that:
Samples the delivery statistics which are specified as input parameters;

Performs weapon trajectory calculations for the specified target;
Determines the burst points based on the trajectory calculations and the
specified fuze option;
Calculates various weapon effects;
Evaluates kill by comparing the produced environment to the components
capacity; and
Accumulates statistics
References 1 and 2 provide a detailed discussion of the methodology

incorporated in EVA-3D, however, pertinent terradynamic capabilities will be discussed
here.
Three-dimensional weapon terradynamics is accomplished in EVA-3D with a time

marching curvilinear trajectory module. This module is a modified version of the
computer code PENCO-3D developed by Waterways Experiment Station (WES). The
PENCO-3D module in EVA-3D calculates the penetration of a rigid non-spinning
axisymmetric weapon into various target media. It is used to track weapon behavior
(trajectory angles, angle of attack, angular acceleration, angular velocity and velocity)
through the concrete, soil, and air mediums within the target. The PENCO-3D module
uses empirically based equations to calculate the resistance to penetration and the
resulting force on the projectile itself. The forces acting on the rigid body projectile are
used to determine the projectile trajectory. Figure 1 provides a schematic
representation of the weapon loads approach.
Weapon Element
Area, da
where Fj a t j dA j
and a ti is the sum of the appropriate stresses
Figure 1. Schematic of Weapon Loads Approach.
Within PENCO-3D, empirically and theoretically based algorithms are used to

calculate the target's resistance to penetration. The resistance pressure is based on an
adaptation of cavity expansion models for concrete and soil (Reference 4 and 5).
Concrete Loading Algorithms

The concrete loading algorithms in the PENCO module of EVA-3D is based on Luk and
ForrestaPs cavity expansion model in concrete (Reference 4). The loading algorithms
are based on an application of both a locking and linear hydrostat model for all cavity
expansion velocities. The linear hydrostat concrete model is more appropriate at lower
cavity expansion velocities, whereas the locked is appropriate at higher velocities. A
concrete bulk modulus of 1.3 x 10 6 psi for the linear hydrostat and a locking volumetric
strain (T^*) of 0.04 and 0.10 for the locked hydrostat was used. The PENCO module
currently uses a value of 0.04 for T\C\ For this value of T|c*, the linear hydrostat model is
used instead of the locked hydrostat model in the range of 0 < (pb/YcJ^V < 1.8. The
variable definitions are presented in conjunction with equations (2) and (3). However,
the normal stress equation for a cavity expansion in a linear hydrostat model cannot be
explicitly written in the form
On = Ac + BcVn2 (1)
as the locking hydrostat model. Hence, values of Ac and B c are chosen to curve fit the
linear hydrostat model over the range of 0 < (po/Yc)1/2V < 1.8. The concrete loading
algorithms in the PENCO module are:
a n = 3.37YC + 1.018pcVn2 (psi) 0 < (Pb/Yc)1/2V < 1.8 (linear hydrostat) (2)
Gn = 2.81 Y c + 1.19pcVn2 (psi) (Pb/Yc)1/2V > 1.8 (locked hydrostat) (3)

where: a n = normal loading stress on the element (psi)
pc = initial concrete density (Ibsec 2 /in 4 )
Y c = concrete yield strength (psi)
V n = element normal velocity (in/sec)
For 5,000 psi concrete with a 150 Ib/ft3 density the linear hydrostat loading
equation is used when the element's normal velocity falls below 708 ft/sec. Note that
the loading equations are functions of the element's velocity in the normal direction.
Though the projectile might have a high velocity, many of its elements may have lower
normal velocities due to their orientation and thus are loaded using the linear hydrostat
equation instead of the locked hydrostat equation.
It should be noted that the concrete yield strength (Y c in equations 2 and 3)

changes with confining pressure. When the concrete is fully confined Y c is used and
when it is unconfined, such as near target edges, the unconfined concrete
compressive strength, f c \ is used.
In order to reduce the numerical oscillations that occur from the use of the
concrete loading equations at very low velocities it is assumed, that the stress
application from the concrete is never higher than that described by a perfectly elastic
encounter:
ace=PcC c V n (psi) (4)
where: Go = concrete normal stress application if the concrete remains elastic

C c = elastic seismic velocity of the concrete
The oscillation problem is solved by limiting the stress application to a c e when ace is
less than o n . This typically applies for normal velocities less than 40 ft/sec.
Soil Loading Algorithm

The soil loading algorithm is an application of Forrestal and Luk's cavity expansion
model in a Tresca-limit material (Reference 5). Using this model the normal loading
stress on each element of the projectile's nose is approximated by
an = A s + B s P s V n 2 (psi) (5)
Ai-[1-MV)]2Tb/3 (psi) (6)
Bs = 3/(2 - 2 V ) + fts*)1/3 - [1 + 3/(1 - T U * ) ] ( V ) 1 / 3 / 2 (dimensionless) (7)
where: V n = element's normal velocity component (in/sec)

TIS* m soil locking volumetric strain (dimensionless)
ps = initial soil density (Ibsec2/in4)
T 0 = soil shear strength (psi)
Values of V = 0.25 and T 0 = 1,600 psi are used in the PENCO module. With these
values the soil loading algorithm simplifies to
a n = 2,545 +1.055 P s V n 2 (psi) (8)
It should be noted that equation (8) applies to a silty clay material.
Reinforcing Bars with Concrete

Once a steel reinforcing bar is determined to be in contact with a weapon surface
element, then a stress in addition to the concrete stress is applied to the element. The
additional stress is the minimum of:
a s = PsC s V n (VA) (9)
and
(10)
where: o s = stress application from steel contact (psi)

ps = density of steel (0.000741 Ibsec2/in4)
C s = loading wave velocity of steel (200,000 in/sec)
V n normal velocity of the weapon at the location of the surface element
(in/sec)
fu = ultimate strength of steel (assumed to be 60 ksi or 100 ksi steel)
A, = cross-sectional area of the steel reinforcing bar (in?)
A area of the surface element (in*)
The Ar/Av ratio limits the stress transmission from small diameter reinforcement
against large area, weapon surface elements. If the normal velocity, V n , is less than
zero (i.e. the weapon surface element is moving away from the steel) then the steel
stress application is set to zero.
Friction
Frictional effects are included by:
(11)
where : ax\ = tangential stress on the element in the direction of the velocity vector's
projection onto the element surface (psi)
n dimensionless friction coefficient (ranges from 0.01 to 0.10)
TEST ARTICLES
Test articles are comprised of three precast reinforced concrete units stacked on each
other. Each unit is 140" x 140" square with 8" thick outside walls. There are two rooms
associated with each unit separated by a 4H interior concrete wall. The units have a 28
day concrete compressive strength of 5,000 psi. Figure 2 provides a plan view of the
units. Reinforcing bars (No. 4) were placed at 6" centers.
The test articles were stacked together and placed on 24" of sand over a 9"
concrete slab. A steel cylinder surrounded the article and sand backfilled around and
above the article. Figure 3 provides a sketch of the cross-section of the test article.
The entire assembly is then placed in the test facility. Figure 4 is a photograph of the
DRI test facility.
The test facility is comprised of a steel tower 66' high. The tower is connected to
the side of a hill with a steel walkway. A 105 mm howitzer is anchored above the tower
and positioned to fire vertically. The gun does have the capability of firing projectiles at
non-normal trajectories.
TEST EFFORT
The impact conditions for the testing program were varied according to the following
parameters:
Initial Velocity 796, 928, 1125 fps

Trajectory Angle 90, 80, 70
Angle of Attack 0
Several tests were run with the projectile ricocheting off the interior of structure.
The projectile was a generic penetrator with the following characteristics:
Length 25.8 in
Diameter 3.35 in O.D.
Weight 35 lbs
A single axis accelerometer was located in the aft section of the penetrator. An
ENDEVCO 7270A-200k piezoresistive accelerometer was included in the instrument
package. WES designed and manufactured the packages.
I
24H
\
51" 8" thick
ceiling
140" 3/4"'
_ L
30" 12"
56"
access 4" thick floor
hole /
3/4"
- -
140"- 51"
24" 140"
Figure 2. Plan View of Test Unit. Figure 3. Section of Test Article.
Figure 4. Photograph of a DRI Test Facility.

TEST RESULTS
The location and path of the weapon were noted on each test. The instrument
package within the penetrator was downloaded to obtain acceleration, velocity, and
distance time histories.
Pre-test predictions were made using the PENCO EVA-3D module for each of
the tests before the test occurred. Table 1 provides the test condition and the pre-test
prediction for tests TTF3 through TTF12. Table 1 also provides the difference on the
final location of the projectile between the prediction and actual test location. Two
differences are presented; one that includes the air voids and one that deletes the air.
Figure 5 provides the path of the projectile through the test article for tests TTF3
through TTF12. Note that paths are not straight for those tests where there was normal
impact conditions. The projectile's path was altered due to the impact of the reinforcing
bars in the concrete. Figure 6 is a photograph of the ceiling of the top test unit on
TTF3. The deformation of the reinforcing bars can be seein in the photograph.
Although the final position of the projectile was predicted with reasonable
accuracy, the effects of the reinforcing bars on the lateral loading of the projectile was
not included. Modifications to the load application due rebars were necessary.
Figure 7 illustrates a special case for the load application of rebar to the surface
elements of a weapon that was not considered by the preceding logic.
When the rebar is inside the weapon surface, then allowances should be made
for rebar deflection and load to the associated surface elements. Sixty ksi steel rebar is
typically very ductile; it can handle tensile strains of up to 20% and higher before
breaking. A 20% strain for the imaginary rebar position shown in Figure 7 corresponds
to a X angle (see Figure 7) of approximately 120. This corresponds to a 6^ ratio of
0.5. A value of 0.5 is a default value included in EVA-3D for parameter, WRAP, which
can be altered by the user. If the calculated ratio dbrb is less than WRAP, then the
surface element is loaded by the rebar. If the ratio is greater than WRAP, then the rebar
is assumed to have broken and the rebar does not load the surface element.
POST TEST ANALYSIS
Several post-test analysis were performed. An analysis, of TTF5 is provided here.
The velocity time history obtained from an integration of the accelerometer data
for TTF5 is provided in Figure 8. It should be noted that the baseline shifts in the
original data were removed. Also provided in Figure 8 is the interpreted velocity in the
air voids (this was calculated from known distance traveled over known times).
Calculations using the modified PENCO-3D module of EVA-3D were made. In

those calculations the reinforcing bars were placed in the actual position as occurred in
the TTF5 test. The resulting velocity time is shown and compared to the test results in
Figure 8.
The path of the projectile is shown in Figure 9. Note that lateral position of the
projectile changes as the projectile impacts the various reinforcing bars. The actual
lateral position compared well to the calculated lateral position.
Percent Percent
Difference Difference
Final Location of Penetrator In SUCC of Depth of
of Depth of
Penetration Penetration o
Through Sand
Test Impact Conditions Pretest Predictions Test Results into Target and Concrete
Nosewrthm 1 inch of -1%
I
TTF3 28 ft/sec Nose embedded 6 -2%
Cr traject c incnes into floor or exiting floor of bottom c
5 bottom section section
angle of
TTF4 ft/sec Nose extends 4 inches 29% 12%
trajectg inches into floor or below ceiling of bottom
bottom section section (hits exterior in
wall)
TTF5 28 ft/sec Nose embedded 6 Nose extends 2 inches 2% 8%
CPtrajectpry angle inches into floor of into floor of bottom
5 bottom section section
angleofa1tacK
TTF6 ft/sec Nose within 1 inch of Nose extends 2 inches 1% 2% m
trajectpry angle exiting! ceiling of bottom into ceiling of bottom
angle of aitacK section
TTF7 Nose extends 3 inches Nose embedded 5 inches -1% -2% P
'0 trajectory angle into bottom siab into bottom slao o
i angle of attacK
ID
TTF8 1.123 ft/sec Nose extends 3 inches Nose extends 3.5 inches 18% 61%
90 trajectpry angle into bottom slab into floor of bottom m
Wangle of attacK section
TTF9 ft/sec Nose embedded 6 Nose extends 3 inches 2% 6%
trajectpry angle incnes into floor or into floor of bottom I
angle of aitacK bottom section section
TTF10 96y ft/sec Nose, extends 1 - 45% - 23%
0
y
trajectpry angle inqn into ceiling
angle of attacK middle section
TTF11 J 23 ft/sec Nose within 1 inch of Nose embedded 6.5 ^ 0% 1%

it) trajecfpry angle exiting floor of bottom incnes into floor of bottom
Wangle
angle o of! attacK sectioti section
TTF12 28y ft/sec Nose embedded 6 Nose extends 1.5 inches 3% 9%
O trajectp angle inches into floor of into floor of bottom
angle of t bottom section section
TTF3 - TTF7 TTF8 - TTF12
Figure 5. Section of Test Article with Trajectories Shown.
Figure 6. Photograph, Ceiling of Top Section on TTF3.

Note the Deformed Reinforcing Bars.
Damage Vector
Imaginary Position
of Bent Rebar
Actual Position of
Rebar Subcomponent
rb = radius of
weapon body
Center Points of
Weapon Surface Elements
Cross Sectional View Looking Down

the Longitudinal Axis of the Weapon.
Figure 7. Conditions Where Rebar is Inside the Weapon Surface.
Test
EVA-3D pretest prediction
SAMPLL pretest prediction
EVA-3D post-test calculation
-100.0 J_ J_ _L
-10 0 00 10 0 20 0 30 0 40 0 50 0 60.0 70.0
Time (msec)
Figure 8. Velocity Comparison (TTF5).

1
1 South
North
\ V
/ /
Figure 9. Position Comparison.
CONCLUSION
The objective of the SUCC effort was to validate the terradynamics methodology
embodied in the EVA-3D computer code. A series of tests were performed at the DRI
test facility in Denver, Colorado. ARA performed pre-test predictions for each test
condition. The calculations compared well to the test results in all areas except the lateral
position of projectile. Modifications to the lateral loading algorithm in the PENCO-3D
module of EVA-3D were made. The modifications were specifically related to the
treatment of the loading due to the impact of reinforcing bars. A post test analysis of test
conditions was made using the modified EVA-3D. The results of the analysis are
encouraging.
REFERENCES
1. Maestas, F.A., Galloway, J.C., and Collins, J.A., Development of Target Models.
Vol. I EVA-3D Version 1.0 Methodology. Draft Report to Wright Laboratory, Armament
Directorate, Applied Research Associates, Inc., Albuquerque, New Mexico, 1 May
1989.
2. Maestas, F.A., Galloway, J.C., and Collins, J.A., EVA-3D Version 2.0
Methodology. Draft Report to Wright Laboratory, Armament Directorate, Applied
Research Associates, Inc., Albuquerque, New Mexico, 15 May 1989.
3. Young, C.W. and Young, E.R., Simplified Analytical Model of Penetration with
Lateral Loading. Sandia National Laboratories, SAND84-1635, Albuquerque, New
Mexico, May 1985.
4. Luk, V.K. and Forrestal, M.J., Penetration into Semi-Infinite Reinforced Concrete
Targets with Spherical and Ogival Nose Projectiles. Int. J. Impact Engineering, Vol. 6,
No. 4, pg 291 - 3 0 1 , 1987.
The Resistance of SIFCON to High
Velocity Impact
W.F. Anderson, A.J. Watson,
A.E. Kaminskyj
Department of Civil and Structural Engineering,
University of Sheffield, U.K.
ABSTRACT
Tests have been carried out to assess the damage to SIFCON

(slurry infiltrated fibre concrete) when impacted by a small
high level velocity projectile (9.6 - 9.9g mass, 860m/s
velocity). Preliminary tests were carried out on 300mm diameter
SIFCON cylinders to investigate the effects of using different
fibres and slurries and the thickness of SIFCON required to
prevent perforation. This led to tests on 300mm diameter x
125mm thick SIFCON specimens. From these tests SIFCON was found
to show much less front face spall damage than concrete, but
projectiles penetrated further into SIFCON than into concrete.
An alternative material was made by mixing a proportion of 10mm
aggregate with the fibres before infiltrating with slurry. The
aggregate improved the penetration resistance compared to
ordinary SIFCON, while the size of spall craters was still much
less than in conventional concrete. This material was slightly
less expensive than SIFCON but further economies were made by
placing a layer of fibres on the external faces and using
aggregate, or aggregate with a very small amount of fibres mixed
in, for the middle layer and infiltrating all three layers with
slurry. The aggregate improved the penetration resistance of
the material while the SIFCON layers exhibited little damage on
impact and retained damaged aggregate inside the target. Tests
were carried out on targets containing different thicknesses of
fibre layer on front and back. Comparisons between all targets
are discussed showing which materials are best for penetration
resistance and which are best for reduction of crater damage.
INTRODUCTION
When concrete is impacted by a projectile it may or may

not be perforated depending on the size and velocity of the
projectile and the nature and thickness of the concrete. The
damage to the concrete consists of an impact face crater
(spall), a projectile burrow and, if the projectile penetrates

to a distance in excess of 70% of the concrete thickness, there
is usually a back face damage zone (scab). Structures which may
be subjected to impact by small high velocity projectiles should
therefore have walls which are sufficiently thick to prevent
perforation by the projectile. It is also advantageous to
minimise the spall and scab damage so that the wall retains its
integrity, and its resistance to further impacts is not
significantly reduced.
One way of reducing front face spall and back face scab
damage is to add a proportion of fibres, usually steel, to the
concrete during mixing. Anderson et al [1] reported that
increasing amounts of fibre in the concrete reduced the volume
of the impact crater. The maximum amount of fibre which could
be incorporated during concrete mixing without causing non
homogeneity due to fibre "balling" was about 2% by volume. With
this amount of fibre in the concrete the impact crater volume
was reduced by up to 90%. However, the fibres were found to
have no significant effect on the penetration resistance of the
concrete.
Lankard and Newell [2] have described an alternative type

of fibre reinforced concrete which they called SIFCON (slurry
infiltrated fibre concrete) . SIFCON is produced by sprinkling
the fibres into a mould and then infiltrating them with cement
based slurry. Cheney et al [3] reported fibre concentrations of
up to 30% by volume in SIFCON. With the much greater steel
content than in conventional fibre reinforced concrete it was
argued that SIFCON may have better penetration resistance than
concrete, as well as greatly reducing the front and rear face
damage.
Dynamic loading tests on SIFCON have been reported

elsewhere [3, 4, 5, 6, 7] but most of this work has concentrated
on explosive loading or low velocity impacts. A limited
research programme to examine the potential of SIFCON to resist
high velocity impact of small projectiles has therefore been
carried out.
Preliminary tests
Although reference to the literature allowed the range of
variables to be examined to be reduced, it was still necessary
to carry out preliminary tests to identify the major influences
when SIFCON was impacted and penetrated by a small high velocity
projectile.
The slurry used in SIFCON must give adequate compressive

and bond strength when cured, have low enough viscosity to
infiltrate the fibres and have a setting time such that pouring
can be completed easily. Three types of slurry were used in the
preliminary tests and details of these are given in Table 1.
For comparison purposes a couple of concrete specimens (see
Table 1 for mix design) were also cast. Four types of fibre
were used and details of these are given in Table 2.
Table 1 Slurry and concrete used in preliminary tests
Cube Compressive
Type Mix Density Strength
kg/m3 MPa
A 1 part water/3 parts 1950 42 after 14 days

RHPC.
Superplasticizer at
2% of cement weight.
B 1 part water/2.1 part 1780 65 after 28 days
RHPC/0.9 parts PFA.
Superplasticizer 2%
of cement weight.
C 1 part water/I.7 1800 37 after 7 days
parts RHPC/0.43 parts
PFA.
Concrete 1 part cement/2.8 2300 48 after 28 days
parts sand/3 parts
10mm river gravel,
water cement ratio
0.6
RHPC - rapid hardening Portland cement

PFA - pulverised fuel ash
Table 2 Fibres used in preliminary tests
Fibre Type Dimensions Cross- % by Remarks

(mm) Section volume in
Shape SIFCON
Brass coated 20 x 0.3 circular 5.0 Sharp to

steel handle, slow
to sprinkle
evenly.
Melt extract 30 x 3 x 1 rectangular 9.2 Includes
steel shorter
fibres which
reduces gaps
in fibre
matrix
Long 35 x 0.5 circular 8.6
straight
steel
Crinkly 40 x 0.9 circular 14.1 Easy to
steel sprinkle
The cylindrical specimens, 300mm diameter and of varying

thickness, were prepared in oiled moulds into which the fibres
were sprinkled evenly until they were level with the top of the
mould. The slurry was then poured in, the moulds in some cases
being vibrated to aid infiltration. After curing the specimens
were fixed in an annular target holder which provided support
around the front and rear perimeters of the specimen, but
offered minimal lateral restraint.
The projectiles, which were 7.62mm diameter with a

hardened steel core and a mass of 9.6g to 9.9g, were remotely
fired from a fixed pressure housing, bolt and barrel arrangement
20m down range from the target specimen, and they impacted the
centre of the specimen normally, with an average velocity of 860
m/s.
In the preliminary tests four types of specimen were cast.

The majority were conventional SIFCON, consisting solely of
fibres infiltrated by slurry. Other specimen types were
prepared by infiltrating 10mm river gravel with slurry,
infiltrating a river gravel/fibre mix with slurry and
infiltrating a river gravel/fibre sandwich composite with
slurry.
These preliminary tests confirmed that SIFCON targets

suffered much less front and back face damage than conventional
concrete targets, but their penetration resistance was not quite
as good as concrete or slurry infiltrated aggregate. Targets
containing melt extract fibres appeared to perform slightly
better than those containing other fibres and they had the added
advantage of being easy to sprinkle. Slurry type B was found to
satisfy best the workability and strength criteria listed
earlier, and with the replacement of some cement by PFA was the
most economical mix.
MAIN TEST SERIES
Since only one 125mm thick specimen had been perforated in

the preliminary tests this was adopted as the thickness for all
main series tests. Melt extract fibres were used in all main
series SIFCON specimens, but since Reinhardt and Fritz [8] had
reported that there were advantages in mixing two different
fibre types together, some main series tests used a combination
of melt extract fibres and another type of fibre. Other main
series tests examined the impact resistance of specimens
prepared with a mixture of fibres and aggregate infiltrated with
slurry, and specimens prepared with a layer or layers of SIFCON
on the outside of slurry infiltrated aggregate. Details of the
specimens are given in Table 3. For each mix batch generally
three specimens were cast, and for comparison purposes an
average value of the damage parameters was used.
Table 3 Details of main test series specimens
Specimen Specimen mix details Fibre Specimen

type volume % Density kg/m
A Melt extract fibres only 7.9 2240
B Melt extract/crinkly 10.7 2450

fibres in 5:1 mix
C Melt extract/crinkly 11.0 2480

fibres in 2:1 mix
D Melt extract/brass 8.5 2310

coated fibres in 5:1 mix
E Melt extract/brass 9.8 2390

coated fibres in 2:1 mix
F Central 95mm thick 2265

layer of 3.2% melt
extract fibres and 96.8%
10mm aggregate sand-
wiched by 15mm thick
layers of fibre mix D
G Melt extract fibre and 2320

10mm aggregate in 7:3
mix by weight
H Central 105mm thick 2270

layer of 10mm aggregate
sandwiched by layers of
fibre mix D
I Central 95mm thick 2280

layer of 10mm aggregate
sandwiched by 15mm
layers of fibre mix D
J Central 75mm thick layer 2290

of 10mm aggregate sand-
wiched by 25mm layers of
fibre mix D
K Composite of 15mm layer 2265

of fibre mix D and 110mm
of 10mm aggregate.
Impacted on fibre face
L As K but impacted on - 2265

aggregate face
The front and rear face crater damage was quantified by-
taking the average of the maximum and minimum dimension on the
target surface, and the depth of the damage at the centre of the
crater. The volume of a cone with the average dimension as the
diameter of the base and the depth as the height of the cone was
then calculated.
In SIFCON targets most of the fibres were retained but the

slurry binding was damaged forming a crater. It was impossible
to assess the depth of this crater externally as the fibres got
in the way, so the target was cut in half. Cutting the target
also allowed the projectile path to be found and internal damage
to be measured.
The target was cut using a diamond tipped saw with a blade
about 3mm thick. Thus some of the burrow was lost. The plane
of cut was chosen by using a narrow steel rod to try and find
the initial direction of the burrow. The target was cut from
top to bottom along a line parallel to this direction, but a few
millimetres away, in order to try and avoid cutting through the
retained projectile core.
In practice the projectile often deviated from a straight

line but usually stayed very close to the plane of cut. If the
projectile strayed away from this plane, it was excavated by
following the burrow path. The burrow was very well defined in
SIFCON but not in slurry infiltrated gravel which exhibited a
lot of damage around the path of the projectile. In a number of
gravel specimens the projectile core could not be found.
Sometimes the hardened steel core of the projectile was found to
have broken into two or more pieces which had then gone their
separate ways. This was most likely to happen in targets
containing gravel.
In SIFCON the burrow damage was quantified by taking the

radius at several places to find an average and measuring the
path length of the burrow. The volume was calculated from the
volume of a cylinder of length equal to the path length of the
burrow and radius equal to the average radius of the burrow.
The total damage volume was calculated by adding the burrow
damage volume to the front and back crater damage volume.
In slurry infiltarated gravel targets, there was no

clearly defined burrow but the internal damage volume still had
to be estimated. On both cut pieces of the target there were
similar internal damaged areas. The internal damage volume was
calculated by assuming each of these areas was rotated round an
axis taken as a line through its centre as if it was a burrow.
The total damage volume was found by adding this internal damage
volume to the front and back crater damage volume.
Details of the damage are given in Table 4. In assessing

the average penetration depth when one or more targets in a
batch was perforated the depth was calculated as the thickness

of the perforated target plus an arbitrary 20mm. It was
difficult to assess the penetration path length but an
indication of the deviation may be obtained from the orientation
of the bullet when it came to rest relative to its original
flight path. This is given in Table 4.
DISCUSSION
Although there was a large amount of variation in the

projectile path lengths within a series of three tests on
similar targets, it can be seen from Table 4 that for the
'SIFCON only' targets (A to E) the best performance in terms of
penetration resistance was found in Specimen Batch D. This was
mainly due to significant projectile deviation which occurred
during penetration. The greatest deviation in all series was
found in specimens of type G which included gravel as well as
fibres. The intended purpose of the gravel was to deflect the
penetrating projectile, and it appears to have been effective.
The average penetration depth for this series of tests was also
lower than that for any of the SIFCON targets (A to E) .
Incorporation of gravel in a specimen significantly reduced the
chances of perforation occurring. Although 60% of 'SIFCON only'
targets were perforated, only 13% of targets containing gravel
were perforated.
The estimation of crater volumes was somewhat crude, but

examination of front face damage volumes shows that specimen
type L, which had gravel but no fibres in the impact area,
suffered significantly more damage than any of the other
targets. The effectiveness of fibres in reducing front face
damage is clearly demonstrated.
The average volume of rear face damage craters was

influenced by the number of perforations or near perforations
which occurred in a test series. It is interesting to note that
in SIFCON Test A2 the projectile came to rest about 10mm from
the rear surface, but there was no evidence of back face damage.
In concrete, if the projectile had penetrated to within about
40mm of the rear face, it is almost certain that scabbing would
have occurred.
The effectiveness of gravel in preventing perforation and

the effectiveness of fibres in reducing spall and scab damage
suggests that a composite including gravel and fibres would give
the optimum solution. This may be achieved by mixing the gravel
and fibres as in Specimen Batch G, or by having gravel to stop
the projectile sandwiched between SIFCON layers which would
minimise front and back face damage as in specimen types H-J, or
simply have a single fibre layer on the impact face as in
specimen type K.
D
Table 4 Details of damage in main series tests ON
Average Bullet Average Damage Volume cm O

Specimen Perforation Penetration Deviation
Type Depth mm Front crater Back crater Internal Total
A 2 out of 3 135 mm 44 48.0 33.1 6.0 87.1

in
B 2 out of 3 116 mm 28 42.2 28.9 5.9 77.0 o
o
C 3 out of 3 145 mm 25 38.3 75.9 5.0 119.2
D 1 out of 3 101 mm 49 67.0 10.4 8.1 85.5

t3
P
E 1 out of 3 122 mm 26 106.9 13.9 9.4 130.2 o
F 0 out of 3 70 mm 10 26.5 0 14.0 40.5
G 1 out of 3 99 mm 62 12.5 11.1 9.8 33.4
H 0 out of 3 77 mm - 42.9 0 200.3 243.2
I 1 out of 3 - 2 5 37.2 10.8 13.7 61.7
J 0 out of 3 - 37 22.1 0 11.2 33.3
K 0 out of 2 - 17 18.0 0.4 99.4 117.8
L 0 out of 1 - 57 1262.0 0 - 1262.0

In the layered targets considerable damage occurred in the

gravel layer and it was impossible to identify a burrow and
measure the penetration depth. From Table 4 it can be seen that
the specimens with 25mm thick SIFCON layers sandwiching a 75mm
thick gravel infiltrated layer were the most effective of the
layered targets, with no perforations and the smallest total
damage volume.
Because of the high cost of steel fibres SIFCON material

costs are approximately eight times those of conventional
concrete. By mixing some gravel with fibres, as in specimen
type G, the cost differential may be reduced, but the most
economical of the specimens tested were those using thin SIFCON
layers sandwiching slurry infiltrated gravel. Using 25mm thick
layers (Specimen J) halved the cost of SIFCON only, and using
15mm thick layers (Specimens I) reduced to cost to one third of
that for SIFCON only. Considering the ease of construction, the
optimum solution may be to place a layer of fibres in the mould
and infiltrate them with slurry, place conventional concrete on
top and cover this with another layer of SIFCON. The
conventional concrete is likely to be stronger than the slurry
infiltrated gravel and, providing casting is done (preferably
with vibration) before any curing of the concrete or slurry
occurs, there should be no segregation of the layers.
The mass of steel in a SIFCON/Concrete/SIFCON sandwich

construction with 25mm thick SIFCON layers is equivalent to a
2mm thick steel sheet on front and back of a conventional
concrete specimen. Tests on concrete specimens with steel sheet
of this order of magnitude on the front face have demonstrated
little difference to SIFCON/Concrete/SIFCON specimens in their
ability to prevent perforation, but behind the steel plate
considerable crater damage occurs in the concrete. It would
therefore seem that the most effective way of using steel to
enhance the resistance of concrete to impact by a small high
velocity projectile is to use SIFCON layers sandwiching a core
of conventional concrete.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The amount of front and rear face damage which occurs when
a SIFCON specimen is impacted by a small high projectile is
considerably less than that which occurs in concrete under
similar conditions.
2. SIFCON is less effective in stopping projectile

penetration than conventional concrete.
3. A sandwich construction of SIFCON and concrete may be the

most effective way of stopping small high velocity
projectiles and minimising damage to the impacted material.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work has been carried out with the support of the
Procurement Executive, Ministry of Defence (Defence Research
Agency, RARDE, Christchurch).
References
1. Anderson, W.F., Watson, A.J. and Armstrong, P.J. 'Fibre
reinforced concretes for the protection of structures against
high velocity impact' Proceedings of the Int.Conf. on
Structural Impact and Crashworthiness, Imperial College,
London, pp.687 - 695, 1984
2. Lankard, D.R., and Newell, J.K. 'Preparation of highly

reinforced steel fiber reinforced concrete composites',
Proceedings of the Int.Symp.on Fiber Reinforced Concrete,
Detroit, Michigan, ACI SP81-14,pp. 287 - 305, 1984
3. Cheney, S, Carson, J and Hallock, S. 'SIFCON impact

performance', Proceedings of the 3rd Int.Symp, on the
Interaction of Non-nuclear Munitions with Structures,
Mannheim, Vol.2,pp. 557 - 578, 1987
4. Carson, J and Morrison, D. 'The response of SIFCON

revetments to a Mark 83 General purpose bomb'. AFWL-TR-86-
42, Airforce Weapons Laboratory, Kirkland Air Force Base, New
Mexico, 1986
5. Schneider, B. "Weapons tests on a SIFCON defensive fighting

position" Proceedings of the 4th Int.Symp. on the Interaction
of Non-nuclear Munitions with Structures, Panama City Beach,
Vol 2,pp. 315 - 320, 1989
6. Naaman, A.E., Wight, J.K. and Abdou, M. 'SIFCON connections

for seismic resistant frames'. Concrete International,
Vol.9, No.11, pp. 34 - 39, 1987.
7. Mayrhofer, C. 'Experimentelle untersuchungen zum dynamiselen

tragoerhalten von sonderfaserbeton - SIFCON'. Proceedings of
the Int. Conf. on the Interaction of Conventional Munitions
with Structures, Mannheim,pp. 284 - 243, 1991
8. Reinhardt, R.W. and Fritz, C. 'Optimisation of SIFCON mix',

Fibre Reinforced Cements and Concretes; Recent Developments,
ed. by Swamy, R.N. and Barr, B., pp. 12 - 20, 1989.
Simply-Coupled Penetration Analysis
System
J.A. Collins (*), S. Teal (*), F.A. Maestas (**),
W.L. Hacker (**), K.C. Frew (**), D.P. Kitzinger (**)
(*) Wright Laboratory, Armament Directorate,
Eglin AFB, FL, U.S.A.
(**) Applied Research Associates, Inc.,
Albuquerque, NM, U.S.A.
ABSTRACT
The United States Air Force, through the Small Business Innovative Research (SBIR)
program, has funded Applied Research Associates, Inc. (ARA) to develop a simply-
coupled weapon analysis system. This system, Integrated Weapon fiesponse
Analysis (INTEGRA), will allow the user the option of empirical, semi-analytical, simply-
coupled, or fully-coupled weapon penetration and response analysis.
This paper describes the status of the INTEGRA development and provides
anticipated future capabilities.
INTRODUCTION
The design and development of a successful penetrating conventional weapon for

use against hardened concrete structures has two major requirements. First, the
weapon must be able to penetrate concrete slabs and remain intact. Second, the
fuze must withstand the penetration process and successfully detonate the
explosive. The effectiveness of a weapon that lacks either of these two capabilities is
extremely poor.
A successful design must consider the weapon response to the penetration

event. The response of the weapon includes the response of each of its major
components: the case, the explosive fill, and the fuze. If the weapon performance is
unsatisfactory, then the design must be modified. With the new design, the
response will be changed and a new assessment of the weapon performance must
be conducted. With the complexity of current weapon and fuze designs and
requirements, it is probable that many design iterations are necessary to attain the
desired performance. Thus, many performance assessments are required. These
can be accomplished analytically or experimentally with the most desirable approach
being a combination of the two. A previous effort demonstrated the feasibility of a
quick and cost-effective analytical procedure to assist in the design process.
Typically, the analytical tools used to evaluate the response of the weapon
have been two- and three-dimensional finite element computer codes such as EPIC
(Reference 1) or DYNA (Reference 2). These codes can account for the coupled
nature of the penetration process by modeling both the weapon and the target. For
problems where an axis of symmetry is present, two-dimensional calculations can be
used to assess the weapon performance, but any off-axis condition (whether due to a
non-normal trajectory angle or a non-zero angle of attack (AOA)) dictates a three-
dimensional analysis. These off-axis penetration conditions are actually more
important in the weapon design process because they are more detrimental to the
weapon and they represent the most common delivery conditions. Therefore, three-
dimensional calculations are necessary to accurately assess the weapon response for
actual delivery conditions.
These detailed, fully-coupled finite element calculations accurately model the

vast majority of the physical processes involved in the penetration event. As much as
90 to 95% of the physics that affect the weapon response can be modeled. A 95%
answer is desired for final weapon design verification. There are times, however,
when this level of accuracy is not necessary and 75% to 80% may be sufficient, such
as for trade studies. While there is usually not a large degradation in the 75% results
versus a 95% analysis, there can be very significant time and cost savings.
A less detailed analysis that includes most of the important physics of the
weapon response usually does not address the full coupling between the weapon
and the target during penetration. An analysis of this type determines the loads on
the weapon using semi-analytical penetration loading equations and applying them to
a finite element model of the weapon to calculate the response. The loads can be
applied in two ways. A decoupled technique, where a rigid body penetration code
such as Effectiveness/Vulnerability in Three Dimensions (EVA-3D) (Reference 3) is
used, can generate the forces for a rigid body penetrator which are subsequently
applied to the deformable model of the weapon. Or a simply-coupled technique can
be used in which the loading equations are embedded in the finite element code to
provide local (element) loadings given the local velocities of surface elements on the
weapon. Of the two, the simply-coupled approach is more desirable because it allows
the loadings to change as the weapon deforms.
BACKGROUND
The feasibility of performing decoupled or simply-coupled three-dimensional weapon

response calculations which provide sufficient information to influence a weapon (or
fuze) design was demonstrated in a SBIR Phase I effort. The penetration loading
equations developed from EVA-3D were used in the simply-coupled fashion with the
finite element code SPECTROM (Reference 4) to obtain weapon case stresses and
deformations, pressures in the explosive fill, and the weapon trajectory through the
target. The only test data available for comparison to the calculation was the change in
diameter of the aft-body of the weapon. Agreement between the calculated and test
results was not good. These loading algorithms have since been revised and are
described in a companion paper entitled "Scaled Underground Computer Center
Test and Analysis".
INTEGRA DEVELOPMENT
The SBIR Phase II has been divided into three major task areas; those being:
Task 1 - INTEGRA System Development

Task 2 - Lateral Loads and Free Surface Algorithms

Task 3 - Flexible Body Response Calculation
The status of INTEGRA in each of these task areas is provided in the sections
that follow.
Task 1 - INTEGRA System Development

The major thrust of the SBIR Phase II effort is the system development. INTEGRA will
offer weapon and fuze designers an automated system for generating or modifying a
weapon design and assessing its performance under various impact conditions.
Figure 1 provides a schematic representation of INTEGRA. The user is given the
option of empirical, semi-analytical, simply-coupled or fully-coupled analysis. Empirical
penetration analysis is performed using the Simplified Method for Penetration with
Lateral Loading in Three Dimensions (SAMPLL-3D) (Reference 5) under
development by ARA for Sandia National Laboratories (SNL). Semi-analytical
penetration is accomplished using EVA-3D. There are two options for simply-coupled
analysis; EPIC and DYNA, each modified to include the EVA-3D load algorithms.
There also is the option of performing a fully-coupled EPIC calculation as well. DYNA
and EPIC are the finite element computer codes selected for use by the U.S. Air
Force.
As depicted in Figure 1, the user inputs weapon geometry, target geometry,

impact conditions, and other run parameters only once. INTEGRA automatically
generates the necessary input for the analysis system chosen.
The graphical user interface was developed using Builders Xcessary (Bx)
(Reference 6). Using Bx, window screens were developed and the appropriate C
code was written. Figures 2 and 3 provide examples of the window screens
developed. Note that at the top of each screen are pull down "File", "Display", "Print",
"Return", "Quit", and "Help" menu options. At the bottom of each screen are the
types of analysis codes used. By "clicking" on the color-coded analysis option
appropriate areas are highlighted in color throughout the INTEGRA menus. In this
way, the user knows which input is critical for the analysis tool chosen. If a different
analysis tools is to be used, INTEGRA will highlight where additional data is required.
Throughout the INTEGRA menu system, tables, pull-down and pop-up

menus, toggle switches, help call backs and color coding have been used. INTEGRA
has been designed to be extremely user friendly.
Presently, pre- and post-processing of results is accomplished using

MOVIE.BYU (Reference 7). DYNA and EPIC output files have been modified to build
MOVIE.BYU geometry files. Additional routines were written to convert those
geometry files into MOVIE.BYU format. SECTION, UTILITY, and DISPLAY options in
MOVIE.BYU are used for final graphical display.
MOVIE.BYU can also be used to animate the penetration process. Figure 4

provides key frames of a sample penetration problem. The projectile is seen to
penetrate the concrete slab.
Visualization packages such as Application Visualization System (AVS)

(Reference 8) and EXPLORER (Reference 9) are currently being investigated.
These packages use data flow paradigms to display graphic images. It is anticipated
that one of these two powerful visualization systems will replace MOVIE.BYU in
INTEGRA.
o
to
MESH GENERATION
WEAPON GEOMETRY FEA preprocessor
Define weapon shape in

and mass properties (IMATERIAL MODEL 1 ANALYSIS
\ o
o
Detailed material \ EVA-3D FT
TARGET GEOMETRY | model parameters I P
SAMPLL-3D
Generate simple
3D target IMPACT CONDITIONS
FEA
Set up initial impact
environment
PRESENTATION
Call and control FEA
postprocessor
Generate time histories
Generate trajectories,
etc.
Figure 1. Schematic of INTEGRA.

Menu Features:
Clear, concise, easy to use Pop-up submenus
Color-coded input Save input data
On-line help Retrieve old input data
Predefined setup Hard copy of screens
Figure 2. Design User Interface Menus.

Figure 3. Example INTEGRA Menu.

o
3
C/3
O
o
Figure 4. Weapon Trajectory Animation Keyframes.

Task 2 - Lateral Loadings and Free Surface Algorithm Development

This task consists of the improvement, modification, and/or development of
algorithms to apply loads to the penetrator. These algorithms are used in the PENCO-
3D module of EVA-3D and is the simply-coupled version of DYNA and EPIC. Details
on the algorithms can be found in the companion paper entitled "Scaled
Underground Computer Center Test and Analysis".
The load algorithms had previously been validated with various test data.
Unfortunately, the majority of the test data was for impact trajectory angles greater
than 70. In this task comparison to SAMPLL with EVA-3D was made. SAMPLL has
already been verified by SNL for shallower trajectory angles. The following matrix was
used to perform the calculations.
Weapons
Long Cylindrical Penetrator (LCP), Hard Target Ordinance Package
(HTOP)
Targets
1 \ 3 \ Infinite
Trajectory Angles:
20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70
Angle of Attack
4 o ,-3 o f -2 f 0 l 1 o l 2 o ,3 I 4
Velocity
LCP-1000fps
HTOP-2000 fps
Figures 5 and 6 provide an example of the results from the comparison.

Plotted is the depth of the projectiles nose versus horizontal displacement. Note the
agreement in results is encouraging. As a result, further improvements will
concentrate on analytical methods for "sensing" proximity to free surface and the
appropriate modifications to the loads on the penetrator.
Also, EVA-3D results were compared to the results from simply-coupled

DYNA calculations. The results are provided in Figure 7. In the calculations, an HTOP
penetrator impacts a 3 foot concrete slab at 1,800 fps and at a 70 trajectory angle.
The center of mass (cm), velocity and trajectory time histories match well.
Task 3 - Flexible Body Response Calculations

The third task area is the determination of the realm of applicability of the simply-
coupled method to the weapon and fuze design and response analysis process. For
instance, interest has been shown in using accelerations generated by a simply-
coupled analysis to develop and/or refine smart fuze algorithms. Also, questions
have been raised as to whether or not this approach can provide insight into salvage
fuzing concepts. Additionally, the ability to perform detailed fuze response
calculations using loads from this type of penetration analysis may be desired. This
task has not yet begun.
SUMMARY
INTEGRA is a comprehensive weapon design and evaluation tool developed to be

extremely user friendly. INTEGRA allows the user to perform empirical, semi-
analytical, simply-coupled and fully-coupled calculations. INTEGRA is not yet
complete, but significant progress has been made.
1.0
EVA/PENCO, AV 53 ft/sec
SAMPLL, AV 110 ft/sec I
0.0
/
1 1 1 1
-1.0
-2.0 -
-3.0 -
-4.0 -
-4 to +4 AOA range -
1 1 1 1 1 i i i i 1 i i i i I i i i i I i i i i 1 i i i i
-5.0
-1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Horizontal Displacement (ft)
Figure 5. Nose Path: 40 Trajectory Angle, HTOP 1 Foot Concrete Slab, 2,000 ft/sec.
1.0 I I ' I
- EVA/PENCO
- SAMPLL
0.0
-1.0
-2.0
-3.0
-4.0
-4 to +4 AOA range
X indicates weapon failure
i i l! i i i i I i i i i I i i i i I i I i i
-5.0
-1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Horizontal Displacement (ft)
Figure 6. Nose Path: 40 Trajectory Angle, HTOP Infinite Concrete Slab, 2,000 ft/sec.
1800 1
I
3 foot concrete slab
70 trajectory angle
1,800 ft/sec
1700
EVA 3D/PENCO
DYNA3D
1600
I I I 1 1 1 I 1 l l 1 I l l l l
1500
2 3
Time (msec)
80 1
' ' I1 ' ' ' I i i i i
3 foot concrete slab

70 trajectory angle
1,800 ft/sec
en
S 75 EVA3D/PENCO
DYNA 3D
O 70
65 I I I I I 1 I I I I 1
I 1I . 1I 1I 1 iI I I I I I I I I
2 3 4
Time (msec)
Figure 7. Comparison of Velocity and Trajectory Time Histories at the Weapon c.g.
from the Simply-Coupled and EVA-3D/PENCO-3D Calculations.
Anticipated applications of INTEGRA include weapon response analysis,

environment definition, and decoupled response analysis of internal weapon
packages, investigation and development of salvage and active fuze algorithms, and
test matrix design. Both government personnel and contractors would benefit from
the capabilities afforded them by this package.
REFERENCES
1. Johnson, G.R. and Stryk, R.A., "User Instructions for the 1991 Version of the
EPIC Code", WL/MN-TR-91-16, Wright Laboratory, Armament Directorate, Eglin
AFB, FL, March 1991.
2. Hallquist, J.O., "DYNA User's Manual (Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis of Solids in

Three Dimensions)", UCID-19592, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory,
University of California, Livermore, California, November 1992.
3. Cilke, R.W., Maestas, F.A., Frew, K.C., Bingham, B.L., "EVA-3D Methodology
Validation Effort," Applied Research Associates, Inc., Albuquerque, New Mexico,
June 1991.
4. Key, S.W., "SPECTROM-331: A Finite Element Computer Program for the Large
Deformation, Elastic and Inelastic, Transient Dynamic Response of Three-
Dimensional Solids and Structures," RSI-0299, RE/SPEC Inc., Albuquerque, New
Mexico, November 1987.
5. Young, C.W., and Young, E.R., "Simplified Analytical Model of Penetration with
Lateral Loading", Sandia National Laboratories, SAND-84-1635, May 1985.
6. "Builder Xcessory User Guide", Integrated Computer Solutions, Inc., 1990.
7. "MOVIE.BYU - A General Computer Graphics System", Brigham Young University,

Provo, UT, January 1987, Version 6.
8. "Advanced Visualization System", AVS Consortium, 1991.
9. "Iris Explorer", Silicon Graphics Computer Systems, 1991.

SECTION 2: COLLISION MECHANICS
A Fully Coupled Elastoplastic Damage
Modeling of Contact-Impact Between Two
Deformable Bodies
Y.Y. Zhu, S. Cescotto
Department M.S.M., University of Liege, Belgium
ABSTRACT
In this paper a fully coupled elastoplastic damage theory at finite

strain is presented. An energy-based Von Mises yield criterion and a
damage evolution criterion with two damage variables are postulated
through the hypothesis of energy equivalence. The penalty method is
applied to incorporate the contact condition and Coulomb's friction
law is employed to set up sliding and sticking conditions. For the
appropriate time integration of the equation of motion, the general
explicit and implicit algorithms are suggested. Transient finite
element analysis results are presented for problems of contact-impact
between two deformable bodies.
1. INTRODUCTION
Contact problems including the collision or impact between
deformable bodies under the action of external shock loadings or due
to different initial velocities are of considerable interest. On the
contact surfaces, the materials cannot penetrate each other and
contact forces, which satisfy the friction law, are always compressive.
In addition since the contact area and the distribution of contact
stresses are unknown during the contact process, the problem is
highly nonlinear with unknown boundary conditions. In recent years,
many procedures based on the finite element method have been
developed to simulate contact-impact phenomena.
The dynamic contact conditions, which are defined from the

geometry on the contact surfaces and the impenetrability condition,
have been introduced by the Lagrange multiplier method [10, 12, 15,
18], penalty method [5, 6, 15, 17, 22, 30, 31], combined Lagrangian
multiplier and penalty method [4, 20, 27] and other special projection
methods [1, 2, 21]. For transient analyses, penalty methods have
received the most attention in literature and in commercial finite
element programs, although they can give only an approximate
solution, because they have several advantages for the numerical
treatment in comparison with Lagrange multiplier method, i.e. no
increase of unknowns and no zero diagonal components in the
stiffness matrix when considering the contact conditions. Impact-
contact and release conditions which have to be addressed in
Lagrangian multiplier techniques [4, 11, 12, 15, 18, 20, 27] do not
enter in some penalty techniques [5, 6, 15, 17, 30, 31].
Another very important characteristic in some contact-impact

problems is the spall fracture. The propagation of shock plastic wave
produces significant changes which affect the mechanical properties
of the materials. The dynamic deformation processes which describe
the dynamic fracture (spalling) are : (1) the plastic deformation wave
phenomena; (2) the nucleation and growth of microvoids; (3) the
coalescence of microvoids which leads to fragmentation process; (4)
full separation as a result of the propagation of macrocracks through
heavily damaged materials. Since these damage processes still remain
difficult to define and because of the numerical difficulties, most of
papers only deal with the contact-impact between elastic solids [4,10,
12,18, 20, 22, 30] or between elasto-plastic solids [15,17]. Nemes and
Eftis [24] proposed a viscoplastic constitutive theory that contains a
scalar variable for the description of damage. The model uses the
Perzyna viscoplastic constitutive formulation based on the nucleation,
growth, and eventual coalescence of the microvoids. The incorporation
of this model into a transient finite element computer code has
allowed numerical simulations of plate-impact spallation.
For the appropriate time integration of the dynamic

equilibrium equation, explicit or implicit schemes can be used.
Explicit schemes are often applied for short-duration impact-contact
problems [4, 6, 15, 17, 23, 24, 31]. Their drawbacks are the
dependence of the time step on the smallest element size. On the
other hand, the implementation is very simple and efficient. Implicit
schemes are usually utilized for long duration impact-contact
problems when the inertial effects are larger than shock-wave
influences [5, 6, 10,12, 18, 20, 22, 27, 30, 31]. The advantages are the
unconditional stability and the absence of restriction on the time step.
However, the numerical effort is substantially larger as a nonlinear
system of equations has to be solved for every time step perhaps with
iterations.
In this paper, a fully coupled elastoplastic damage theory is

used to simulate contact-impact between two deformable bodies. We
begin to briefly summarize the general dynamic equilibrium equation
in section 2. This formula is obtained for isoparametric solid and
contact elements by the principle of virtual displacements. In section
3, the explicit and implicit time integration schemes are reviewed. In
section 4, a new fully coupled elasto-plastic damage model is
presented. An energy-based von Mises yield criterion and a damage
evolution criterion with two damage variables (deviatoric and
volumetric components) are proposed through the hypothesis of
energy equivalence. In section 5, the contact element based on a
penalty method and on the Coulomb friction law developed by
Charlier, Cescotto et al. [7-9] is extended to the analysis of contact-
impact between two deformable bodies. With the penalty method, the
special impact and release conditions are not needed. In section 7,
several numerical examples are given to demonstrate the validity and
applicability of the technique developed with emphasis on the damage
processes. These include (1) the normal impact of two identical elastic
bars; (2) the impact between an horizontal cylinder and a thick plate;
(3) the dynamic contact between a cylindrical punch with high mass
density and a thick circular plate.
2. DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS
2.1. Spatial Discretization

For the sake of simplicity, we will only consider isoparametric
kinematically admissible solid and contact elements (see fig. 1 to 3).
contact elements
Fig. 1 Two bodies in contact
L L
I integration point
iiI
Fig. 2. Solid element Fig. 3 Contact element
The displacement field is approximated as
u (x,t) = Nk(x) l/ek\t) (2.1.)
where Nk is the matrix of global interpolation functions corresponding

to node k of a particular element e; u = (ux,uy) is the displacement
vector of the material point x = (x,y) at time t in the current
configuration y; f/^ = (UXfUy)^ is the displacement vector at node
k with respect of a global cartesian reference base; (^, r|) for solid
elements and ^ for contact elements are the relevant isoparametric
coordinates.
At a point of the contact element (an integration point in
practice), the local displacements can be described by
\u ^ 1 AT,(v\ Tte)(+\ (2.2.)

= RT?T N (x) III
k
= AT1t(e)
*y
where A is an assembly operator and R_ is an appropriate rotation
matrix.
2.2. Semi-discretized dynamic equilibrium equations
As usual in nonlinear analysis, the deformation process is
followed step by step. At each step, the equilibrium of the solid must
be satisfied. The equilibrium of the current configuration y is
expressed by the virtual work principle. After classical developments,
the following result is obtained.
MU + CU + Fint - Fext = 0 (2.3.)
M is the consistent mass matrix and C is the damping matrix.
The internal force vector is :
BT a dQ + [(AT - Al) a dTc (2.4.)
where the former part is for solid element and the latter is for contact
element, A . andAB are assembly operators for bodies A and B. The
external force vector is
pext = j^NT bdQ + ff NT PdTo (2.5.)

a
The equilibrium equation (2.3.) must clearly be integrated

forward in time to produce the transient response. Both explicit and
implicit time-stepping methods may be employed for this purpose.
3. TIME INTEGRATION
3.1. Explicit time integration

According to the central difference formulae
U = SLN ?* O (31)
AtN MN
U =U + U + U (3.2.)
Here, N denotes the time step number, AN being the time increment
between tN and tN+1. If the response is strongly nonlinear, the central
difference method should be used with a variable time increment A ^
for numerical stability. After each time step, a new time increment
AtN is established from the current stability criterion
min {p. L K I, to each element (3 3

- ->
E(l-v)
where the stability factor p is taken to be 0.5 for 2D analysis and 0.3
for 3D analysis; L is the smallest distance between adjacent nodes
of any element K with the same material; E is Young's elastic
modulus; v is Poisson's ratio; p is the mass density.
5.2. Implicit time integration

For implicit time integration, equation (2.3.) is usually written
as follows
RM = M UM , + C UM , - FeNx* + F =0 (3.4.)
N+l N+l N+l iV+1 iy+1
where RN+1 is the so-called out-of-balance force. The Newmark
integration scheme consists of following difference formulae :
UN^ = UN + AtN UN + _L At2N [(1-2(3) UN + 2 f t ^ t l ] (3.5.)
(LN+1 - HN + AtN [(1-y) ON - yUN+1] (3.6.)

Substituting (3.5.), (3.6.) into (3.4.), the out-of-balance force becomes
an implicit function of LLN+1 only :
RN+1 = ( W = 0 (3.7.)
This nonlinear equation is solved, at each time step, by the classical
Newton-Raphson method.
4. FULLY COUPLED ELASTOPLASTIC DAMAGE MODEL
4.1. Damage variables

The damage variables, based on various equivalence
hypotheses, represent the average material degradation which reflects
the various types of damage at the microscale like nucleation and
growth of void, microcracks and other microscopic defects. Ladev&ze
[19] suggested a damage model with two scalar parameters d
(deviatoric component) and 8 (volumetric component) by which not
only the elastic modulus but also Poisson's ratio can vary with the
damage growth. In this paper, these two damage variables are used.
The true stress tensor a can be transformed into the effective stress
tensor a with the help of the damage variables d, 8, viz
o' = A-, amm = fUL l)

1-d 1-8
- d m
with of the deviatoric stress tensor, om the hydrostatic stress. The
coefficients (1-d) and (1-8) in (4.1.) are reduction factors associated
with the amount of damage in the material.
4.2. Equivalence hypotheses
For continuum damage models, various equivalence hypotheses
have been proposed in order to transform the damage state into virgin
state, such as strain equivalence [3], stress equivalence [26], elastic
energy equivalence (Cordebois and Sidoroff) [14]. From the viewpoint
of energy conservation, the energy equivalence may be of more
physical significance. In this paper, we propose an extension of this
hypothesis, in the case of the two damage variables d, 8 model.
Finally we can obtain the following relations between damaged
material and virgin material.
I ' = e'(l-d), lm = em(l-S), ^ = e^(l-d)
* 4i- 5
Here, e/ is the deviatoric strain tensor, em the average strain, e? the
equivalent plastic strain.
4.3. Plastic yield surface

The yield function F used in this paper is made of the energy-
based Von Mises yield criterion with both isotropic and kinematic
hardening, in the form
- Ro - R(a) (4.3.)
in which, ;/ in the deviatoric component of the shift stress tensor x,

Ro denotes initial plastic hardening threshold; R is plastic hardening
threshold; a is accumulated plastic energy variable. Fig. 4 shows the
corresponding yield surface for different values of the damage
variables. We can see that with the growth of damage, the elastic
region is reduced.
Fig. 4 Plastic yield surface

4.4. Damage evolution surface
In order to describe the growth of damage, several damage
evolution criteria can be defined, such as, strain-based criterion [3],
stress-based criterion [13,29], energy-based criterion (Ladevze)[14].
In this paper, a modified energy-based damage evolution criterion is
proposed :
Fd = -Yd - (x)Yd - Bo -
(x)a (4.4.)
- Bo -
2G(l-d) 3 x(l-5) 3
With the definition,
hid, for am > 0
0 for am<0
the difference of mechanical effects observed under tension and
compression states can be described. Here BQ denotes initial damage
strengthening; B is the damage strengthening threshold; (5 is overall
damage. The physical meaning of (4.4.) is that the negative
hydrostatic component does not contribute to damage evolution. Fig. 5
displays the evolution of the initial damage surface in stress space.
elastic predictor
(0)
plastic - damage
corrector
(damage surface)
Fig. 5 Damage evolution surface Fig. 6 Return mapping algorithm

4.5. Computational integration algorithm by operator splitting
methodology
The return mapping algorithm has been used for the
integration of elastoplastic constitutive relations. However, the
classical integration rule which is in fact a particular case of the
trapezoidal and midpoint rule is restricted to simple plasticity model.
For complex models, Simo and Ortiz [25] proposed a new class of
return mapping algorithms with the operator splitting methodology.
General elastoplastic behaviour, with plastic hardening or softening,
associated or non-associatedflowrules and nonlinear elastic response
can be efficiently treated with this algorithm. Recently, Benallal and
Billardon [3], Simo and Ju [26] applied this operator splitting
methodology to their elastoplastic damage models. Although plasticity
and damage are coupled in rate equations, the algorithmic treatments
uncoupled plasticity and damage, because as soon as the plasticity is
corrected, all the damage variables are fixed. In this paper, we use a
fully coupled integration scheme with two steps (elastic predictor and
coupled plastic-damage corrector). In our model, there exists two
coupled surfaces, and for each iteration, the plastic surface and
damage surface should be corrected together (see fig. 6). The
computational aspect described in detail can be found in our recent
papers [32, 33].
5. CONTACT AND FRICTION LAWS
5.1. Penalty method

The analysis of contact problems with friction is of great
importance in many engineering applications. In the literature,
several attempts have been developed to deal with such problems.
These include the penalty method and the Lagrangian multiplier
method. For the Lagrangian multiplier method, the contact surfaces
satisfy the contact conditions in an integral sense, but additional
unknowns are required and the total number of unknowns in the
equation system increases. For the penalty method, the approximate
solution depends on the penalty coefficients. However, the penalty
method which allows a slight penetration between two bodies does not
require special impact and release conditions [5].
In this paper a penalty method proposed by Charlier, Cescotto
et al. is used [7-9]. Let d be the penetration distance between two
bodies (see fig. 7). If d is negative, there is contact.
yield surface
Body B
Fig. 7 Penetration Fig. 8 Yield and flow surfaces
5.2. Elastic and plastic law for contact with friction

The following is limited to dry friction, and is based on
Coulomb's friction laws [7-9]. As in classical plasticity theories, we
first define a yield surface F9 an elastic and a plastic zone in stress
space (see fig. 8), that is
(5 L)
F = |x| - (|>p -
where p is contact normal pressure and x is contact shear component,
<) is friction coefficient.
If F < 0, the stress point lies in the elastic zone (no sliding occurs);
if F = 0, the stress point lies in the plastic zone (sliding occurs);
if F > 0 is not possible.
If plasticity occurs, the relative displacement increment between the
points in contact can be split into an elastic and a plastic part :
Auc = &uec + Au
Aupc (5.2.)
c
and a flow surface (see fig. 8) is defined by :
g = |x| - a (5.3.)
where a is an arbitrary constant, and the flow rule

AuPc = AX *L (5.4.)
3a
where a c = (p,x). The consistency condition F = 0 allows the

determination of the hardening parameter AX and of the global stress-
strain constitutive relation, as for classical plasticity laws. This gives
the following final result :
Aa = C Au (5.5.)
c c c
The contact constitutive tensor has the following form
Kp O
(5.6.)
_L Kx(l-a)
a = 0, if elasticity occurs(sticking contact);

with {
a = 1, if plasticity occurs (sliding contact)
where 1SL K% are the penalty coefficients on the contact pressure p
and on the shear frictional stress x, respectively.
In this contact element, the pertinent variables (contact
stresses, relative velocity as well as penetrating distance between
both solids) are computed only at the integration points of the
element. Hence, equilibrium and compatibility are obtained in a
weighted average sense on the contact surface. The pertinent
variables of the contact element are adjusted by the equilibrium
condition if step by step methods are used. Therefore, special interface
conditions to model the impact phenomena are not needed when a
reasonably small time step is chosen. This has also been indicated by
other authors [15 ' 30 l In methods where contact conditions are treated
at nodal level with the help of Lagrangian multipliers, it may be
necessary to implement special impact and release conditions
[4,11,12,15,18,20,27]
7. NUMERICAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
In this section we present three simulations demonstrating the
applicability of the method developed in the previous sections to a
wide range of contact-impact problems.
7.1. The normal impact of two identical elastic bars

As shown in fig. 9, an elastic bar with initial velocity v - 0.1
cm Is impacts with another identical elastic bar at rest. The material
properties are taken as Young's modulus E = 1 N/cm, Poisson's ratio
v - 0.0 and mass density p = 0.01 kg I cm . The penalty coefficients
are K - K% = 100 N/cm and the friction coefficient is (j) = 0.
For comparison, 2D and 3D simulations are performed.
Fig. 9 shows that all the numerical results practically coincide

with the analytical solutions [28] and other numerical results
obtained by other investigators [11, 12, 18].
7.2. Impact between an horizontal cylinder and a thick plate
As shown in fig. 11 an horizontal cylinder with initial velocity
v = 200 mis impacts on a thick plate. The material properties and
geometrical sizes are listed in table 1 and fig. 10. The plane strain
state is assumed. The initial and deformed meshes at different time
stages are displayed in fig. 11. The displacements of two points
initially in contact (point 1 on the plate and point 2 on the cylinder)
are plotted versus time in fig. 12. The explicit time integration
scheme is used. From figs. 11 and 12, the rebound phenomena can be
observed clearly. Near t = 0.12 ms the first rebound appears, near
t = 0.20 ms the second impact occurs, about at t = 0.35 ms the second
rebound takes place and after that time, the two bodies move
separately with free vibration. Fig. 13 illustrates the propagation of
deviatoric damage and softening phenomena. Fig. 14 shows the
evolution of von Mises stresses.
7.3. Dynamic contact between a cylindrical punch and a thick circular

plate
The last example as shown in fig. 15 is a cylindrical punch with
high mass density with initial velocity u = 15 mis impacting a
circular plate. The 2D axisymmetric state is assumed and the explicit
time integration scheme is used.
The material parameters are listed in table 2 and fig. 10. The
initial mesh and the map of damage are shown in fig. 15. We can find
that the initial fracture occurs in the center of the plate, while the
final spall fracture appears near the edge of the impacting punch.
CONCLUSION
The incorporation of a fully coupled elastoplastic damage model
into the transient finite element computer code LAGAMINE
developed at the MSM Department of the University of Liege has
allowed numerical simulations of contact-impact between two
deformable bodies.
Based on the penalty method and on Coulomb's friction law, the

special corrections of velocity and acceleration on the contact surface
are not required when a reasonably small time step is used. Although
emphasis in the presentation has been on the analysis of two body
contacts, the method is directly applicable to multibody contact-
impact problems.
The constitutive relation for contacting bodies, which includes

plastic hardening and strain softening associated with damage
growth, appears to have sufficient generality to be applicable to a
wide variety of problems that involve the prediction of fracture
initiation sites, the propagation of fracture, the spall fracture and
penetration phenomena.
Several numerical examples are carried out and should be of
great interest to many engineers. Although no experimental results
are currently available for this study, the results of the numerical
simulations performed seem qualitatively correct and agree with the
expected trends. Certainly further comparisons with testing results
are necessary.
Table 1. Physical and geometric parameters for example 2
Horizontal cylinder Thick plate Contact with

friction
radius = 5 mm length = 120 mm
thickness = 15 mm
E = 1 . 1012 Pa E = 7.322 . 1010 Pa K = 1 . 109 Nlm
v = 0.3 v = 0.3 KT = 1 . 10? Nlm
p = 1 . 104 kglm3 p = 2.8 . 1O3 kglm3 <|> = 0 . 3
others see fig. 9
Table 2. Physical and geometric parameters for example 3
Cylindrical block Circular thick plate Contact with

friction
radius = 12.5 mm radius = 200 mm
height = 22.5 mm thickness = 7.5 mm
E = l . 1013 Pa E = 7,322 . 1010 Pa K = 1 . 1010 Nlm
v = 0.2 v = 0.3 Kx = 1 . 1010 Nlm
p = 5 . 105 kglm3 p = 2.8 . 103 kglm3 = 0.2
others see fig. 9
G(MPa) B(MPa)
(/.)
10- 15. 2. U. 6. 8.
Fig. 10 Material properties of aluminium
DEF(mm) .
-2
(BO.00 ,
t(ms
\
DEFORMATIOK VS TIME
POINT 1
V
1 / POINT 2
Fig.* 12 Displacement versus time

displ. (cm) d i s p l . ( cm)
10 3
IMPLICIT METHOD 3D EXPLICIT METHOD0
Stru
/
/
/ o
3 /
/
/
/
/ C
CO /
/
/
JO
%
%
BAR 1 BAR 3 oo
s BAR 2
o . i w i , . itii ,ig;.99
' b . UU ' l U . UU ' 1 b . UU 'ZU.1)0 ' b . UU 1U.UU 'lb.UU /DTDO
o
o
c+
03
O
oT
o
03
2D SIMULATION 3D SIMULATION
DISPLACEMENTS OF CONTACT SURFACE VERSUS TIME

t = 0 ms
t = 0.12 ms
t = 0.2 ms
t = 0.45 ms
t = 0.68 ms
Fig. 11 Meshes at different time stages

t =0.12mS
LAGAMINE
* 1.0000E-03
t =0.20mS 239
219
199
179
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
t = (U5mS
t =0.68 m S
Fig. 13 Map of deviatoric damage at different time stages
t =0.12mS
LAGAMINE
1.0000E-03
t = 0.20 m S 479
439
399
359
320
280
240
200
160
120
80
40
0
t = 0.68mS
Fig. 14 Map of von Mises stresses at different time stages
t = 0 ms LAGAMINE
1.0000E-03
550
500
450
400
350
_ _ 300
t = 1 HIS 1 1 1 250
200
150
100
50
0
t = 1.56 m s
Fig. 15 Initial mesh and damage variable evolution
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Rollover Analysis of Heavy Vehicles
I.M. Allison (*), R. Mackay (**)
(*) Department of Civil Engineering, University of
Surrey, Guildford, GU2 5XH, U.K.
(**) OMI Logistics, Fareham, Hants, P016 IAD,
U.K.
ABSTRACT
The motion of a vehicle rolling down a slope has been analysed using rigid body
mechanics. By defining a plastic collapse mode for the cab structure, and
assuming that the impact energy is dissipated entirely in plastic work, it has been
possible to make an assessment of the damage sustained during successive
impacts.
It has been possible to demonstrate why the impacts associated with

rollover down a 30 slope are very much more severe than the corresponding
motion on a horizontal surface.
Measurements made during an experiment involving rollover on soft

ground confirm that the rollover velocities are further reduced, and that impact
effects are almost completely cushioned. Film records illustrate the complexity
of the motion, and provide information to explain why this kind of test cannot be
used to confirm the structural integrity of the vehicle for the extreme design
condition.
NOTATION
Vn Velocity at start 01 n ul interval a yield strength of cab material
v* th
Velocity at end of n interval rotation at plastic hinge
n
t elapsed time W Weight of vehicle
Sn deflection of cab J Moment of inertia
Pn impact force g acceleration due to gravity
Mn magnitude of plastic hinge 0 angle of rotation
L length of cab support pillar angle of rotation about G
d
xr location of centroid of cab pillar ~A7 angular velocity around G
dd)
thickness of cab pillar material V = r n -rr velocity at centroid G
INTRODUCTION
Rollover of heavy commercial or military vehicles is an infrequent but potentially
dangerous manoeuvre. Calculation of the resulting damage is considered to be
difficult, because rollover is likely to involve a succession of impacts at different
locations on the vehicle. Each of these may involve permanent deformation or
plastic collapse of apart of the structure, and possibly penetration of the space
occupied by the driver and passengers. It follows that the correct sequence of
events must be reproduced faithfully if reliable predictions are to be provided by
either analysis or practical tests.
The analysis described in this paper was undertaken following the

decision to equip an armoured vehicle with a relatively light cab for training
purposes. There is an increased possibility that a crew undergoing training will
make mistakes which could lead to rollover of the complete vehicle. A typical
rollover sequence is illustrated in figure 1. It is assumed that an inadvertent
manoeuvre will cause the vehicle to tilt to the point of balance, before rolling on
its side and finally on to the roof of the cab. It is necessary to demonstrate that
this sequence will not result in such severe plastic deformation of the cab that the
safety of the occupants is prejudiced.
Vehicle travelling in 2. Point of balance 3. Free rotation 4. Impact on side

curve on slope under gravity rotation about 1
5. Impact at 2 followed 6. Impact at cab followed 7. Impact on roof followed 8. Subsequent motion
by rotation about 2 by rotation about 3 by rotation about 4
Figure 1. Typical rollover sequence on hard ground.

The hull of a tank is an extremely rigid structure, and it seemed likely that
rigid body mechanics could be used to describe the rollover process.
Experiments performed using a uniform block suggested the angular rotation will
be sufficient to ensure discrete impacts will occur as successive contact points
strike the ground, and this allows each impact to be treated as a separate event.
By taking the moment of momentum about the impact point it is possible to
calculate the angular velocity immediately after impact, and hence to estimate the
kinetic energy lost during the process.
By identifying a feasible collapse mechanism, which involves the

formation of plastic hinges at the extremities of the cab roof support pillars, the
distortion of the cab can be expressed in terms of the total work done by plastic
deformation. Equating the impact energy with the plastic work allows the cab
distortion to be evaluated.
These steps can be repeated for successive impacts in order to obtain an

estimate of the total damage to the cab.
The safety of agricultural vehicles and earth moving machines is the

subject of a British Standard, BS.5527.(D This requires that the rollover
protection provided for the occupants should be confirmed by practical tests, and
prescribes values for the loads which are to be applied, first to the side of the cab,
and then to the roof. In addition a value is specified for the total energy to be
absorbed during transverse loading of the cab.
For a tank with a weight W = 61 tonnes the test load to be applied is given
by:
F = 7O(yJ) =613kN.
and the minimum energy to be absorbed is;

W 1-25
U=13(-fk) = 125 kJ.
After testing under transverse load the cab is also required to sustain a
vertical load of 120 tonnes. Following these tests the cab structure must not
intrude upon the space occupied by the driver or passengers.
During discussion about the present design it was suggested that
compliance with BS 5527 might be a suitable criteria for ensuring that a
satisfactory safety standard had been achieved.
ANALYSIS OF ROLLOVER MOTION.
Velocity before impact.
(a) initial position. (b) position after time t
Figure 2. Rolling of vehicle around discrete contact point.

The equation of motion for a rigid block rotating about a fixed point P with
d0
angular velocity -JT will be;
(i)
When the block has rotated through an angle 0 the velocity of the centroid G will
be given by:
V= V ^ n <t>n - *in <<t>n

I n
Wt
and the time to reach this position can be obtained by undertaking numerical
integration of the relationship;
. Pi
Velocity after impact
Figure 3. Impact of rolling vehicle at new contact point

The velocity after impact at point P is obtained by taking the moment of
momentum about the point of impact which gives:
cos a n +
(4)
1+
so that the kinetic energy lost during the impact will be:
2 lv r*2
(5)
* 'V.
n-l <
Plastic deformation of cab support pillars for transverse loading
C\\- \r '
Figure 4. Plastic deformation of cab roof support pillars caused
by impact on the edge of the roof.
To make further progress it is necessary to postulate a deformation mode for the

cab structure. For simplicity it has been assumed that plastic hinges will be
formed at both extremities of the cab roof support pillars as shown in figure 4.
Assuming a yield strength a for the cab material the moment developed at each
plastic hinge will be:
M, = 2o I xdA = a x ^ tf
>* A
where the centroid of the pillar section is located at a position x
also the value of the transverse shear stress is given by:
and the total transverse force applied to the edge of the cab will be:
P3 cos p3 = \ Z x? tr (6)
where the summation is taken over the n plastic hinges developed in the cab roof
support pillars.
Transverse displacement of the cab roof.
The work done by the impact force P3 in deforming the cab structure will be:
f Z xjtr
By equating the kinetic energy lost during the impact on the edge of the cab roof
with the work done in plastic deformation of the support pillars the transverse
displacement of the cab may be obtained as:
Wr
(7)
2go L x 2 r t r
Plastic deformation of cab support pillars for axial loading.
Figure 5. Plastic deformation of cab roof support pillars caused

by normal impact on cab roof.
The work done in collapse of a support pillar with the formation of three plastic
hinges as shown in figure 5 will be:
W r = (MA+ M B + M c ) V = 4 xj t r o y
and the total work done by deformation of the m pillars loaded by the force P4
will be:
P454 = 4 a y Z x~ tr
The kinetic energy lost during impact at location 4 will be:
and equating this value with the plastic work done in deforming the cab support
pillars the angular rotation is obtained as:
V =" (8)
8og L x 2 r t r
and the displacement of the cab roof will be:
84 = L(l - cosy) (9)
ROLLOVER ON RIGID SURFACES
Details of the test vehicle which have been used in calculating the rollover motion
are given below:
W = 60964 kg , J = 68,550 kgm 2
r o = 2.088m, = 1.2578
r, 1 . 7 3 6 m , 1 + - ^ r = 1.3731, = 0.3055
Wr2
r2= 1.717m, 1 +-^-r = 1.3816, ^ = 0.3716

W 2 Wr2ri
r3 , 1.796m, 1+ -^-r = 1.3488, = 0.3648

Wf2 Wr 3 r 2
W?
ao=37.8, 00=11.6, a i = a o + a G = 49.4
a2=20.8, a3=19.9, a 4 = 75.5
Rollover down a 30 slope

The scenario for accidental rollover involves a vehicle traversing a steep slope,
and inadvertently changing direction, so that an additional toppling force due to
inertia acts down the slope. This manoeuvre is within the performance envelope
of the vehicle, and when executed upon hard or frozen ground represents an
extreme design case.
r Or ; K fit t
m/s m/ssees sees

0 90 67.8 0 4.50 2.39 2.39
1 108.4 23.7 3.13 3.86 0.21 2.60
2 111.3 11.3 3.65 3.94 0.09 2.69
3 102.7 55.0 3.81 5.49 0.39 3.08
4 82.2 55.0 2.44 3.76 0.62 3.70
Impact damage: Impact 3 83= 13.7mm, Impact 4.84= 147mm.
Note: Vehicle will continue to roll down slope.
Figure 6. Rollover on 30 slope.

The resulting sequence of impacts has been determined by successive
applications of the foregoing equations and is illustrated in figure 6, which shows
the path of the centroid as the vehicle rolls onto its roof. It is instructive to note
that the velocity of the centroid reaches 3.9 m/sec immediately before the edge of
the cab roof strikes the ground for the first time. The energy loss associated with
this impact causes a transverse deformation of 13.7 mm, because plastic hinges
develop in the cab roof support pillars. The vehicle continues to roll with the
centroid reaching a velocity of 5.5 m/sec as the cab roof strikes the ground. This
impact is considerably more severe and the roof height is reduced by 147 mm.
The vehicle then continues to roll down the slope, and it is likely that the
cab will sustain further permanent deformation during subsequent impacts on the
roof.
Despite the relatively severe damage sustained by the cab the energy
absorbed during the initial impact (57 KJ) is considerably less than the minimum
level (125 KJ) required to comply with BS 5527.
Rollover is a surprisingly slow process. The elapsed time from the point
of balance to the first complete inversion of the vehicle is 3.1 seconds.
Nevertheless the successive impacts of the cab with hard ground will involve high
forces and severe deceleration of the structure.
Rollover on hard flat ground
In this case the vehicle is assumed to have just reached the point of balance, and
then to continue rolling under the influence of its own weight. The motion
predicted by the simple theory is shown in figure 7. The trace showing the path
of the centroid confirms that the potential energy lost during rollover on a flat
surface is much less than was the case for rollover down a slope.
St
nvs m/s sees sees

0 90 37.8 0 2.61 2.06 2.06
1 78.4 23.7 1.83 1.86 0.39 2.45
2 81.3 11.3 1.77 1.70 0.20 2.65
3 72.8 55.0 1.64 2.64 1.08 3.73
4 52.2 5.2 1.17 0 0.28 4.01
Impact damage: Impact 3. 83 = 2.4mm, Impact 4. 64 = 8.5mm.
Note: Vehicle comes to rest on cab roof.
Figure 7. Rollover on flat hard ground.

Immediately before the edge of the roof comes into contact with the
ground the tangential velocity of the vehicle centroid is 1.7 m/sec. The
subsequent impact is much less severe than the corresponding event with the
vehicle rolling on a 30 slope, and minimal damage will be caused to the cab.
When the vehicle continues to roll onto the cab roof the terminal velocity of the
centroid is 2.6 m/sec. Following this second impact it is predicted that the cab
roof height will be reduced by 8.5mm.
Although the distance involved in rollover on a flat surface is less than the
corresponding motion on a slope the corresponding velocities are also reduced
As a result the time for the vehicle to become inverted is slightly increased to 3 7
seconds. After the second impact with the roof insufficient energy remains to
sustain further rolling. It appears that the strength of the cab is sufficient to
provide adequate protection against rollover on a hard flat surface.
ROLLOVER TESTS ON A YIELDING SURFACE
The prediction of the damage caused by rollover on a hard surface suggested that
the original cab construction might not be capable of meeting the most severe
design conditions. For this reason it was decided to undertake a test usimz a
prototype vehicle.
Top of Bank
Top of Bank
V Y Y Y X X XXX v ? f j v XXXYYXXXV
Figure 8. Arrangement for rollover trial

The test took place in a freshly dug pit, with a badly consolidated floor
and it will be seen that this had an important influence on the results of the
experiment. Details of the test site and monitoring arrangement are shown in
tigure 8. The vehicle was rolled by attaching a chain bridle to the hull and
pulling it tositithe point of balance, before it was allowed to roll freely into the
!rr P n. During the test the vehicle was filmed from a number of
ditterent positions using both conventional video and high speed cameras.
Using the film record it has been possible to reconstruct the path of the
vehicle centroid during rollover and to assign times to different phases of the
process. The results of this analysis are shown in figure 9. It is immediately
apparent that the elapsed times are much longer than the corresponding periods
tor rollover on hard ground. As a result the centroid velocities are reduced and
the impact energies become so low that it is not possible to envisage permanent
deformation of the cab structure.
6 7-05 7-71 8-29 8-54
Figure 9. Rollover trial on soft ground

As the vehicle rolls the cab becomes partly buried in the soft ground and it
is no longer possible to identify a series of discrete impacts on particular parts of
the vehicle. Nevertheless the plot of the centroid position indicates that, during
successive phases of the motion, rotation is occurring around discrete centres.
By plotting the curves of the angular rotation against time which are shown in
figure 10, and using the relationship;
r
% *
it is possible to estimate the centroid velocity immediately before and after the
idealised impact position and hence to use equation 5 to evaluate the energy lost
during the process.
50-
d0
Slope jy
After Impact
Time (Sees)
Figure 10. Experimental observations of the angular rotation between

idealised impact locations for rollover on soft ground
Table 2. Energy absorbed during successive impacts for rollover on a

horizontal surface.
Impact position Analysis for Experiment

inflexible surface on soft ground
Energy values in Kilo Joules
0 Side of vehicle 122.6 4.4
1 13.3 7.4
2 Edge of cab roof 10.3 24.5
3 Furthest edge of roof 230.6 18.1
The comparison shown in Table 2 highlights the differences between
rollover on a hard surface and the experimental conditions. Both the rolling
velocities and impact energies calculated for the hard ground configuration are
very much greater than the values realised in the field trial.
CONCLUSIONS
The motion of a strongly constructed vehicle rolling on a hard surface has been
analysed using rigid body mechanics.
By assuming a plastic collapse mechanism for the cab structure, and that
the impact energy is entirely dissipated by plastic deformation, it has been
possible to make an assessment of the damage sustained during successive
impacts.
The analysis suggests that severe permanent deformation will be caused if
the vehicle rolls down a 30 slope.
Rollover on flat ground will involve lower rolling velocities and reduced
impact energies. As a result the damage to the cab will be maintained within an
acceptable limit.
Measurements made during an experiment involving rollover of the
vehicle on soft ground confirm that the rollover velocities are reduced still further,
and that the impact effects are almost completely cushioned. It is concluded that
the experiment did not provide confirmation for the safety of the cab structure
against the extreme design condition considered in the analysis.
REFERENCES
1. British Standards Institution, London 1987. "Rollover protective

structures in earth moving machinery" BS 5527. Part 1.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the Defence Research Agency,
Military Division, RARDE, Chertsey, Surrey who sponsored this work and the
work done in trials at the Armoured Trials and Development Unit, Royal
Armoured Corps Centre, Bovington, Hants.
Thanks are also due to the Directors and staff at OMI Logistics for the help
provided in the preparation of this paper.
Modeling of Lateral Collision between
Adjacent Structures
J.R. Tao (*), A. Krimotat (*), K. Sun (**)
(*) SC Solutions, Inc., 1933 Landings Dr.,
Mountain View, CA 94043, U.S.A.
(**) Department of Civil Engineering, National
University of Singapore, 10 Kent Ridge Crescent,
0511, Singapore
ABSTRACT
A simplified multiple degree of freedom (MDOF) numerical model for

analysis of the lateral collision between adjacent structures is proposed. This
new model is based on the following hypothesis: when the adjacent structures
or structural elements are collided with relatively high velocity and the local
stiffness at the location of contact are much higher than the global stiffness of
the involved systems, then the duration of each collision can be assumed as
zero, and the change in potential energy of the system is negligibly small.
Consequently, the constraints between the structural elements can be removed
during the interval of collision, and the principal of conservation of
momentum and the coefficient of restitution are introduced to uniquely
determine the final velocities of colliding masses. The problem, therefore,
tends to be a set of MDOF systems subjected to a series of sudden change in
velocities. A solution scheme is proposed which can be incorporated easily
into existing computer programs based on modal superposition method. The
effectiveness and accuracy of the method is illustrated in a number of selected
sample problems.
INTRODUCTION
In many practical applications, structures are often constructed with narrow

gaps between adjacent but independent substructures. Examples include
mechanical equipment within nuclear power plants, multispan highway
bridges and multistory offices and parking structures. When responds to
dynamic loads, the different dynamic characteristics of the individual units
make them vibrate out of phase and mutual impact, therefore, occurs if the
original gap size is too small (see reference 2, 11, 12). The modeling and the
analysis of such dynamic contact behavior is of great interest in the practical
engineering. Most of the past research works related to this subject either
idealize the structures as a set of SDOF systems (Anagnostopoulos1, Iwan 4 ,
Miller 6 , Takayama8, Wada 13 , and Wolf 14 ) or treat structure as MDOF
system but only use one impact element in the analytical model (Maison> and
Kasai 5 ). Obviously, these studies are not directly applicable to practical
situations. The analytical methods which are capable of considering possible
impacts at different locations of the structure simultaneously, however, are
very limited. For example, Tao 9 studies the mutual pounding between
concentric structures by using an elastic impact model. And Paradrakakis 7 ,
present a new method based on Lagrange multiplier approach.
In this paper a simplified MDOF numerical model for analysis of the

lateral collision between adjacent structures subjected to base excitation is
presented. This new model is based on the assumption that when the adjacent
structures or structural elements are collided with relatively high velocity and
or the local stiffness at the location of contact are much higher than global
stiffness of the involved systems (this is often the case), then the duration of
each collision can be assumed as zero, and the change in potential energy of
the system is negligible. As a result, the constraints between the structural
elements are removed and the original system is replaced by pairs of colliding
spheres. The principal of conservation of momentum and the coefficient of
restitution are applied to each pair independently to uniquely determine the
incremental velocities corresponding to each impact. The problem, therefore,
turns to be a set of MDOF systems subjected to a series of sudden change in
velocities. A solution scheme is developed which can be incorporated easily
into existing computer programs based on conventional mode superposition
method. The applicability of the method is demonstrated in a number of
selected sample problems and the correlation of numerical results to vigorous
solutions is very satisfactory.
FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM
We begin by considering the system (refer to Fig. 1) which contains two

adjacent cantilever structures. The structures are modelled by discrete MDOF
systems with concentrated masses. The adjacent masses at the same height are
considered as contact-impact candidates. We can imagine each pair of masses
vibrating initially along the line joining their centers, then colliding head-on
and moving along the same straight line without rotation after collision. The
collision is assumed to be inelastic, namely, the local energy absorption
phenomenon during impact will be taken into account. By Newton's second
o o
OO
O O
Figure 1. Coupled model for impact Figure 2. Simplified model

law, the equations of equilibrium and the geometric compatibility conditions
due to contact for the system can be formulated as
[M a ]{X} a +[C a ]{X a } + [K a ]{X a }=-[M a ]{I}X g -{f} (1)
[M b ]{X b } + [C b ]{X b } + [K b ]{X b } =-[M b ]{I}X g + {f} (2)

(3)
(4)
in which {X}, {X},{X}=the displacement, velocity and acceleration column

vectors at time t, respectively. These are relative to the structures1 base;
[M]=the structure diagonal mass matrix; [C]= damping matrix; [K]=the
structure stiffness matrix. Xg represents the acceleration of support motion

and {1} is the influence coefficient column vector. And {d}= the initial
distance between each pair of spheres and {f}= the impulsive forces
developed between them during collision; and {0}=zero column vector. The
subscripts 'a1 and 'b' represent system a and system b, respectively. Note
that Eq. 4 restricts {f} to be compressive.
It is very difficult to solve the above equations directly, because impact

between one pair of masses will generally affects the motion of the other
masses, and the final condition of the system after each impact should be
determined by imposing the balance conditions of momentum and energy to
the entire system. The equations, however, can be uncoupled by introducing
the following simplification. Assuming that the stiffness at the locations of

impact are much higher than those global ones represented by [K a ] and [K b ],
the external forces, therefore, are negligible compared to the impulsive forces
of collision. As a result, the change in momentum of a colliding system
arising from an external force is negligible compared to that arising from the
impulsive collisional force, then zero duration of impact can be assumed, and
consequently, the potential energy of each structure after collision will
remain as same as that before the collision. Our simplified model of
analyzing the problem of one dimensional collision among restrained bodies
is developed based on the above hypothesis.
Refer again to Fig.l, we can assume that the system is under any
possible situation of contact at instant t^, without loosing generality, we
simply assume that there is only one pair of spheres are in contact with each
other while all others are separated. Since the duration of the impact is now
assumed as zero, and no changes will take place in structure's deflection
shape during the impact, Consequently, it will make no difference if we
remove restrain springs from all spheres in the interval of collision and
recover them at the end of collision. This situation is illustrated in Fig.2.
Since the whole system has now turns to be a series of particles, the
problem of determining the motion of restrained bodies after a collision from
the motion before collision can be solved independently between each pair of
masses. For those not in touch, all kinematical terms remain constant while
for those are in contact, application of linear impulse-momentum law to the
normal velocities of the colliding spheres (Fig.2) yields in terms of the
common normal velocity xn[ at the end of approach (Goldsmith3)
m
a,i*a,i(*k)+mb,i^
or x n j i = [m a ) i x a ) i (t k )+m b ) i x b ) i (t k )]/(m a ) i +m b ) i ) (5)
in which t k =the instant when an impact begin; and t k =the instance when an
impact end. The normal impulses fi(tk) and fj(tk) for the approach and
restitution periods are given by
f
i(tk)=m a> i[x n)i -x a>i (tk)]=m b)i [x b>i (tk)-x n>i ] (6)
From the definition of the coefficient of restitution and the linear-momentum
law
and in term of this coefficient the final velocities are computed as

*a,i(tk) = *a,i(tkMl +e)[mb,ix a)i (t k )-m b(i x b)i (t k )]/(m a)i +m b>i )
> ) , ) ) ) ) > (8)

The loss of kinetic energy is given by
The energy loss vanishes for the impact of completely elastic bodies, when
e = l , and
for completely plastic impact, when e = 0 .
Since there is no coupling relationship existed between different pairs of

spheres during the impact, the Eqs.(5)~(10) can be applied to any pair of
spheres whenever they come into contact.
To sum up, it may be advantageous to rewrite Eqs.(l) - Eqs.(4) as
a} + [K a ]{X a }=-[M a ]{I}X g (11)
=-[M b ]{I}X g (12)

{X a }-{X b }^{d} (13)
{dXa(tk)} = {X a (t k )}-{X a (t k )} (14)
= {X b (tk)}-{X b (t k )} (15)
where t k and t k + i are instants corresponding to two successive different

states of contact. And Eqs.(14) to (15) represent the incremental velocities of
structure 'a ' and structure 'b ' at time t k , respectively. The velocities
are {X a (t k )} and (X b (t k )} prior to collision and {X^t^)} and {Xb(tfc)} after

collision which can be determined by using Eqs.(5) to (9). Notice that the
impulsive forces are now disappeared from the motion equations and their
effects are replaced equivalently by a series of velocity increments, and the
response of the whole system during the interval t k ^ t ^ t k + i can thus be
decomposed into two parts. One is caused by the ground acceleration Xg and
the initial conditions at time tk; the another is free vibration contributed by
incremental velocities due to impact. According to the principal of
superposition, these two components can be determined separately. A suitable
numerical algorithm can be developed straight forwardly based on the

aforementioned simplified model.
NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
The dynamic response of structures subjected to lateral collision is demons-

treated with some sample problems presented in this section.
Free vibration of two rods with point masses

To show the effectiveness and the accuracy of the proposed method, two rods
with point masses subjected to mutual impact are considered. As shown in
Fig.3, two identical rods stand side by side with a zero initial gap. After
being released from its deformed position, the left mass will vibrate freely
and then impact on the right mass. The first struck occurs when the left mass
oscillates back to its equilibrium position. At this moment, the potential
energy is totally transferred to kinetic energy. If the impact is assumed as
perfect elastic ( e = l ) , this entire amount of energy is transferred to the right
mass during the collision. And after that, the left mass remains still until the
right mass swaying back and knocking it away. The left mass will come back
to its initial unbalanced position, and then repeat the same motion
periodically. This unique characteristics of oscillatory is exactly captured by
the proposed model, and the computed results are shown in Fig. 5-a. The
complete inelastic impact (e=0) is assumed next, as another extreme
situation. In this case (see Fig. 5-b), the two masses will stick together after
m
2
1cm
mi m
2
r/
M^mwA
mi m
2
mi m
2
VW//////////M
k1=4xl04kN/m
m 2 =22t k2=2xl04kN/m
d=0.01m Xf= sinCJt
Figure 3. Example 1: Adjacent rods Figure 4. Example 2: Adjacent frames
the first impact and then vibrate freely without decay. Fig. 5-c demonstrates
the responses of the rods corresponding to inelastic impact when a value of
e=0.8 is adopted. In this case, the energy of the vibrating rods is dissipated
gradually by successive impact.
'0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0

TIME (sec)
(a): Elastic impact
1.5 Rod 1
Rod 2
1.0 -
0.5 -E
o.o -E-i
3 -0.5 -E
- l . o -E
-1.5
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
TIME (sec)
(b): Completely inelastic impact
1.5
Rod 1
Rod 2
0.0 1.0 2.03.0 4.0 5.0 6.0

TIME (sec)
(c): Inelastic impact
Figure 5. Tests on two adjacent rods with point masses
0.25
Frame 1
i i i i i i i i i I i i i i i i i i i I i i i i i i i i
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0
TIME (sec)
(a): No impact
0.25
Frame 1
Frame 2
3 0.15 -
g 0.05 -jj
<
o I
3 -0.05 -
Q
-0.15 -
i i i i i i i i i i i i
-0.25
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0
TIME (sec)
(b): Elastic impact
0.25
Frame 1
Frame 2
3 0.15 -
g 0.05 H
w
o
3 -0.05 H
-0.15 -
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
-0.25 3.0
o.o 1.0 2.0
TIME (sec)
(c): Inelastic impact
Figure 6. Tests on adjacent multi-storey frames
Forced vibration of building systems

The two four-storey building systems are modelled by frame structures with
rigid floors as depicted in Fig.4. The structures are investigated under a
sinusoidal base excitation. The displacements of the top floor levels, with
impact and/or without impact, are compared in Fig. 6-a and Fig. 6-b, where
the circular frequency of the base excitation is equal 10.0 rad/sec which is
very close the fundamental free vibration frequency (10.47 rad/sec) of frame
2. A value of restitution coefficient, e=1.0, is employed to represent a
perfect elastic impact situation. Fig. 6-c depicts similar comparison for the
same building systems, but inelastic impact behavior (e=0.75) is accounted
for.
CONCLUSIONS
A simplified method of studying the behavior of adjacent building structures

subjected to lateral impact is presented. The formulation and the solution are
based on the assumption that the duration of each impact is negligibly small if
the local stiffness in locations where pounding occurs are much higher than
the global stiffness of the structures. Since no change in potential energy of
the system during the impact is accounted for, the equations for solving the
final velocities after the impact are uncoupled. Consequently, the impact law
is applied to each pair of colliding masses independently. The numerical
algorithm is very simple which can be incorporated easily into existing
computer programs.
The applicability and the accuracy of the proposed method are verified
by a test problem whose behavior is predictable by using physical sense
straightforwardly.
The second sample problem shows some effects of mutual pounding on

the multi-storey buildings. It is observed that, kinetic energy is distributed
among the colliding system. Whenever the response of one building grows,
the adjacent building acts just like a energy absorber to suppress resonant
response. This agrees well with the previous experimental and theoretical
results obtained by the authors (Tao, and Lin 10 ). Of course, for better
understanding of the phenomenon, extensive parametric study needs to be
carried out both analytically and experimentally.
REFERENCES
1. Anagnostopoulos, S. A. 'Pounding of Buildings in Series during earth-

quakes' Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, Vol. 16, pp. 443-
456, 1988.
2. Bertero and Collins, R. G. 'Investigation of Failures of the Olive View

Stairtowers during the San Fernando Earthquake and Their Implications on
Seismic Design1 Report No. EERC 73-26, Earthquake Engineering Research
Center, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 1973.
3. Goldsmith, W. Impact: The Theory and Physical Behavior of Colliding
Solids Edward Arnold, London, 1960.
4. Iwan, W. D. 'Predicting the Earthquake Response of Resiliently Mounted
Equipment with Motion-limiting Constrains' Proc. Sixth World Conf. on
Earthquake Engrg, Int. Association of Earthquake Engrg., 3, pp. 3292-3297,
1977.
5. Maison, B. F., and Kasai, K. 'Analysis for Type of Structural Pounding'
7. of Structural Engrg., ASCE, Vol. 116, No. 4, pp. 957-977, 1990.
6. Miller, R. K. 'Steady Vibroimpact at a Seismic Joint between Adjacent
Structures' Proceedings of 7th World Conf Earthquake Engineering,
Istanbul, Turkey 6, 57-64 1980.
7. Papadrakakis,M.,Mouzakis,H.,Plevris N. and Bitzarakis, S. 'A Lagrange
Multiplier Solution Method for Pounding of Buildings During Earthquake'
Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, Vol. 20, pp. 091-988,
1991.
8. Takayama, K. 'Earthquake Response of a Building Collided with a
Neighboring Building' Proc. Fifth World Conf on Earthquake Engrg., Int.
Association of Earthquake Engrg., Vol. 2, pp.2211-2214, 1973.
9. Tao, J. R. 'The vibration Absorption of Dynamic Contact and its
Application in Civil Engineering' A Doctorate Dissertation, Dept. of Civil
Engrg., Dalian Institute of Technology, Dalian, China, June, 1987.
10. Tao, J. R., and Lin, G. 'Experimental Results of Dynamic Contact in
Cantilever Structures' Proc. Second National Conf on Earthquake Engrg.,
Wuhan, China, Vol. 2, pp.578-587, 1987.
II.% The Central Greece Earthquakes of February-March 1981', Recon-
naissance and Engineering Report, EERI, 1982.
12. 'The Great Alaska Earthquake of 1964' Engrg., NAS Pub. 1606,
National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D. C , 1973.
13. Wada, A., Shinozaki, Y., and Nakamura, N. 'Collapse of Building with
Expansion Joints through Collision Caused by Earthquake Motion1 Proc.
Eighth World Conf on Earthquake Engrg., Int. Association of Earthquake
Engrg., July, 1984.
14. Wolf, J. P., and Skrikerud, P. E. 'Mutual Pounding of Adjacent
Structures during Earthquakes' / . Nucl. Engrg. Design, 57, 253-275, 1980.
Analytical and Experimental Evaluation of
Finite Element Models for Crash Analysis
G. Sala, M. Anghileri
Aerospace Engineering Department, Politecnico di
Milano, Via Golgi 40, 20133 Milano, Italy
SUMMARY
In the present paper the results of a numerical and experimental

research, dealing with structures' response to low velocity
impact and high strain rates, are summarized. The activity has
been jointly carried out by Aerospace Engineering Department of
Politecnico di Milano and CRF (Fiat Research Centre) of Torino,
within the frame of Finalized Project "Special Materials for
Advanced Technologies", sponsored by CNR (National Research
Council). The research activity has been focused on determining
crash and impact behaviour of three typical materials for
automotive and aerospace application, namely: steel (for car
body sheets), poly-propylene (for car bumpers) and aluminium
alloy (for aerospace structures); standard ISO 6603 (driven
dart), as well as tubular specimen impact tests, have been
performed. On FeP04 low-carbon steel, KELTAN thermoplastic
polymer and 6061 aluminium alloy, both experimental testing and
numerical simulation have been performed, in order to assess the
correlation between analytical and experimental approaches.
Numerical simulations have been performed by means of two
specially suited F.E. explicit crash codes, i.e. L.L.N.L. DYNA3D
and M.S.C. DYNA. In particular the following concerns have been
investigated: dynamic behaviour of materials, dependent on work
hardening due to high speed loading (Cowper-Symonds law); shell
element formulation (Belytschko-Tsai and Hughes-Liu); stress
updating-algorithm for integration steps (radial, iterative and
vectorial); static and dynamic friction models; hourglass
coefficient; time step scale factor; through-the-thickness
integration approach (Gauss and Lobatto); mesh refinement level.
NUMERICAL SIMULATION vs. EXPERIMENTAL TESTING
Nowadays many types of constructions, and in particular vehicles

structures must possess a sufficient degree of energy absorption
capability, called crashworthiness or impact tolerance,
depending if colliding object rather than target object safety
has to be preserved. The fulfillment of this design requirement
implies a cost, which can be reduced by integrating
crashworthiness and general structural requisites since
conceptual design, in view of a global optimization.
In such a context, crash analysis and numerical simulation

must play an important role in the design of impact resistant
structures. Infact, generally a trial-and-error design
procedure, where crashworthiness performances are checked by
experiments only on final prototypes, possibly repeated whenever
requirements are not satisfied, is exploited. This procedure is
not very efficient and can be strongly improved by using F.E.
approaches.
During conceptual design it can be impossible to make use

of very refined F.E. models, because structural details are not
yet completely defined: in this case coarse models have to be
employed, where each element represents a meaningful part of the
whole structure. Generally such models are made of lumped
masses joined by deformable elements, as beams or springs. The
structural characteristics of these elements can be already
known thanks to previous experiments, or partially unknown, when
to be optimized. Once the values of the parameters which lead
to structure optimal performances are determined, final design
of sub-assemblies can be worked out, so to get the desired
overall behaviour.
At this stage, numerical simulation plays a very important

role, providing the evaluation and optimization of details'
design, and it is generally performed on single components
rather than on the whole structure. Furthermore, the
fulfillment of complete structure to crashworthiness
requirements is often assessed by means of full-scale
experimental tests and/or detailed F.E. models: so numerical
simulations can be conveniently used during both design and
verification stages.
F.E. analysis of the whole structure of a vehicle can be

very complicated and more costly than corresponding experimental
test. Nevertheless, being the cost of first analysis dependent
on mesh preparation and model set-up, further analyses involving
only slight modifications to structure or impact loads can be
very suitable: in this case numerical simulation is particularly
convenient to investigate and extend experimental results.
Moreover, numerical analysis is irreplaceable whenever a
complete experimental test cannot be performed, as for example
when impact resistance of human body has to be evaluated or when
docking manoeuvres of large space stations are to be studied.
Finally, it is noteworthy that, even if in certain

industrial applications (as automotive and aerospace ones) a
meaningful experience in this field has been already gained,
simulation can be more profitably used when integrated with
tests: in this case analysis allows to deeply understand few,
very accurately performed experiments and, then, to extrapolate

results to several different conditions.
F.E. CODES FOR IMPACT AND CRASH NUMERICAL SIMULATION
The codes able to correctly perform impact and crash numerical

simulations must be able to represent the behaviour of
structures which absorb energy by means of an overall collapse,
implying large displacements and strains; besides, they must be
able to model the properties of the materials when loaded at
high strain rates. Moreover, modelling of contacts between
different structures, as well as between parts of the same
structure must be possible, owing to strong influence exerted by
these phenomena on overall energy absorbing capability. The
need to satisfy such requirements leads to the main features of
F.E. codes for crash and impact simulation: in particular
present research activity has been performed by using MSC DYNA
and LLNL DYNA3D codes, whose main peculiarities are here briefly
summarized.
High computing speeds are made possible thanks to the use

of an explicit time-integration algorithm, which deserves an
integration step shorter than implicit one, but allows a simpler
integration solution. Furthermore, the important roles played
by small scale physical phenomena make short integration steps
mandatory. Finally, it must be noticed that step of integration
strongly depends on elements' size; so, when a very refined mesh
is required all over the model, integration step becomes shorter
and shorter; for this reason new codes (DYTRAN) are going to be
developed, which make use of subcycling techniques, able to
assume different Ats depending on various mesh refinement
degrees, as well as to modify their values during simulation.
The requirement to describe stress and strain fields within

a structure which undergoes large displacements and rotations,
as well as the need to make use of a lagrangian point of view,
in order to investigate the behaviour of every part during the
evolution of the phenomenon, implies the adoption of well
defined conjugate couples of stress and strain tensors; in
particular total lagrangian formulation, where initial one is
assumed as reference configuration, makes use of second Piola
Kirchhoff stress tensor and Green-Lagrange strain tensor, while
updated lagrangian formulation, where reference configuration
corresponds to the one at the beginning of integration step,
utilizes second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor and Green-Lagrange
or Cauchy-Almansi strain tensor; finally when material behaviour
depends on strain history, Jaumann and strain rate tensors are
adopted.
In the same way, the adoption of suitable relationships

between stress and strain holds a great importance, regarding
both their mathematical representation, both numerical values of
the parameters which fit a general constitutive law to a
particular material: these values can be obtained only by means
of experimental tests. A great deal of work must be done in
this field, being constitutive laws implemented in present codes
still inadequate to correctly model polymeric (visco-elastic)
and composite (anisotropic elastic) materials.
Another general problem afflicting these codes consists in

the so called hourglass ing, which can lead to abortion of the
simulation, owing to the insurgence of null-stiffness straining
modes. Such a phenomenon, also influenced by elements size, is
due to the adoption of a single point for space-integration; as
a consequence, only average strain is accounted for, and every
straining mode not altering this value implies null deformation
energy. These modes must be damped by means of an artificial
viscosity, which can spuriously modify the real behaviour of the
material.
Contact phenomenon can be managed by means of three

different algorithms, namely: nodal constraints, penalty method
and distributed parameters, able to model both sliding contacts
with closure and separation, and single surface contacts.
The correct set-up of complete and complex numerical models

generally deserves preliminary analyses and experimental
investigations on very simple cases, in order to check mesh,
materials and algorithms behaviour: present paper reports three
of these basic experiments, namely: falling weight ISO 6603
tests, performed on steel and polymer coupons, and axial impact
tests on aluminium alloy tubes; in reality such an experiment is
not truly basic: nevertheless it seems to be representative of
real structural energy absorption mechanisms, as it involves
bending, crushing, plastic hinging, folding and contacting.
FALLING WEIGHT TEST ON STEEL COUPON
Numerical simulations have been performed of standard driven

dart test on flat coupons simply supported on an annular
constraint. Tests have been worked out on FeP04 60x60 mm steel
specimens 0.84 mm in thickness, impactor mass 11 kg and impact
velocity 4.14 ms , leading to 98 J total energy. During tests,
both accelerations and penetrator's displacements time histories
have been measured.
As shown in fig.l, only 10 mm diameter emispherical

penetrator's leading edge has been modelled, by means of 324
eight- or six-nodes solid elements; the edge has been considered
as perfectly rigid; d.o.f. have been all constrained, with the
exception of vertical displacement; at initial conditions, when
coupon and penetrator are in contact, a velocity of 4.2 ms"1 has
been conferred to penetrator itself. The support has been
modelled by means of 72 eight-nodes solid rigid elements. The
coupons has been modelled by means of 1600, 1.5x1.5 mm shell
elements. The material has been modelled by means of isotropic
elastic-plastic constitutive equations, described by a piece
wise linear stress strain curve. Strain rate effects have been
considered adopting a correlation between yield stress variation

and strain rate.
Simulations have been performed by means of LLNL DYNA3D and

MSC DYNA programs; numerical investigations have not shown any
inconsistency between the codes.
The following parameters have been deeply investigated, in

consideration of their strong influence on final results:
Dynamic work hardening, that is dependence of yield stress
on strain rate.
Shell elements formulation, that is comparison between
Hughes-Liu and Belytschko-Tsai shells behaviours.
Stress and strain updating algorithm.
Static and dynamic friction coefficients between coupon and
support in the case of large displacements and rotations.
Integration method and number of Gauss points along the
thickness.
Hourglassing coefficients.
Dynamic work hardening

The problem holds a fundamental importance for impact and crash
simulation of metallic structures. In literature experimental
data can be found, where yield stress increases of 45% if strain
rate increases from 0 to 1 s~ , and nearly doubles for a 100 s
strain rate. The codes consider the phenomenon either by
implementing the Cowper-Symonds law:
<r D
y
or by inserting a yield stress corrective factor, in order to
take into account strain rate variation, which does not maintain
constant all through test. Not considering dynamic work
hardening, calculated deformed shape is very unlike real one
(fig.2), and plastic strains are high, even higher than ultimate
values. Every couple of D and p values available in literature
has been checked in order to reproduce experimental results:
when increasing work hardening, load peak increases (fig.3),
while test duration, plastic strains and maximum central
deflection decrease. In conclusion, the application of
Cowper-Symonds law leads to results in good agreement with
experimental results, even if different couples of D and p
parameters are suited to reproduce respectively load, deflection
and test duration. The slope of crd-t diagram depends on p and
does not depend on D, while test duration depends on D.
Shell element formulation

Belytschko-Tsai shell formulation descends from Mindlin's shell
theory, and partially makes use of Kirchhoff's hypotheses, while
Hughes-Liu shells come from degeneration of solid elements. In
general, Hughes-Liu shell formulation deserves to be preferred,
because both upper and lower reference surfaces can be defined:
contacts between impactor and coupon, as well as between coupon
and support can be accurately modelled and real deformed shape

reproduced quite well (fig.4).
Stress and strain updating algorithm

As previously shown in literature, radial updating works better
and in a more convenient way than iterative algorithm: only
using higher degree iterative (vectorial) approaches, good
results - in accordance with radial updating techniques - can be
obtained (fig.5).
Static and dynamic friction coefficient

Values of static friction coefficient have been varied within
the range 0.1-0.3 at both contact surfaces (impactor/specimen
and specimen/support); the influence exerted is more notable in
the cases of highly deformable models (fig.6). Dynamic friction
coefficient does not notably influence the results of
simulation.
Integration method
Two integration techniques have been investigated, namely Gauss'
and Lobatto's: comparable degrees of accuracy have been noticed,
as shown in fig.7.
Hourglassing coefficient
Default value of hourglassing coefficient has been increased
from 0.15 to 0.20, in order to avoid the occurrence of spurious
phenomena during simulation, leading to a 3.5% decrease in total
energy, as reported in fig.8.
In conclusion, the main features of driven dart test

numerical simulation on metallic coupons are: the effect exerted
on yield stress by strain rate; the use of Hughes-Liu shell
elements, able to reproduce quite well experimental deformed
shapes, plastic strains and maximum deflection; the use of
radial or high degree iterative updating algorithms, well suited
to model plastic deformations; the use of a correct value for
friction coefficient, which allows an exact evaluation of energy
loss due to sliding effects.
FALLING WEIGHT TEST ON POLYMERIC COUPON
Falling weight tests have also been performed and numerically

simulated on coupons made of thermoplastic polymer KELTAN .
Owing to visco-elastic behaviour typical of polymeric materials,
a preliminary mechanical characterization has been worked out,
consisting of static and high strain rate tensile tests. Static
tests have been performed respectively at 0.0003, 0.0030 and
0.0150 s" strain rates; they have led to 450% stretching with
no failure. Some important results must be accounted for: both
elastic modulus and yield stress notably increase when
increasing strain rate; yielding is followed by a prolonged
visco-elastic phase; when loading is interrupted, elastic
spring-back immediately occurs, while full development of
viscous recovery takes more than one month. Dynamic tensile
test, performed at strain rates ranging from 18 to 360 s~ , have

shown that the increase of strain rate induces the increase of
yield stress and elastic modulus, while both ultimate strain and
absorbed energy decrease (fig.9). Such characteristic features
of polymers' behaviour are better reproduced by Eyring
constitutive equation than by Cowper-Symonds law.
Falling weight tests have been worked out on 60x60 mm flat

specimens with thicknesses ranging from 1 to 4 mm; the edges of
the coupons have been constrained by means of two annular
supports in order to prevent any out-of-plane displacement, see
fig.10.
Numerical simulations have been performed on the same model

and with the same mesh refinement degree used for steel coupons;
only constraint's model has been modified, in order to represent
the double annular support; special care has been taken of
material's behaviour description: static stress-strain curve and
its variations depending on strain rate have been accounted for,
on the basis of experimental results. Annular constraint has
been modelled in two different ways: either by means of
perfectly rigid eight-nodes solid elements, or by means of
kinematic constraints, which only concern contact nodes between
specimen and support. First solution notably thickens the
model, while second one makes accounting for nodes sliding and
coupon-support friction difficult.
Analyses have considered an impactor having a mass of 3.19

kg and a velocity of 4.16 ms"1; both constraining techniques
have been evaluated, but better results come from the adoption
of kinematic constraints. In general some comments can be
drawn: viscous behaviour can never be ignored, even considering
high strain rates; besides, in this case, one cannot be unaware
of the effects exerted by dynamic work hardening; furthermore,
numerical models seem to be more rigid than tested specimens: in
particular, the computed values of load peak and deflection are
respectively 1.2 and 0.9 times the measured ones, (figs.11-12);
moreover, computed and measured impactor's vertical displacement
time-histories present notably differences during rebound phase,
when also hourglassing effects occur, especially in vicinity of
the contact between shell and annular support.
When kinematic constraints have been adopted to model

annular support, Belytschko-Tsai shells have been used, and the
inadequacy of available visco-elastic material models has been
emphasized, resulting in systematical shifting of time-histories
along time-axis.
When annular support has been modelled by means of solid

perfectly rigid elements, Hughes-Liu shells have been adopted,
and the development of null-energy hourglassing modes have
revealed, in particular where emispherical penetrator edge and
coupon come in contact.
Finally, it can be concluded that both programs considered

here are not able to adequately model visco-elastic behaviour of
polymeric materials, especially as far as phenomenon simulation-
time is concerned; besides, notable problems still remain about
contacts modelling between components having strongly different
compliances; finally, hourglassing phenomena often occurs during
penetrator rebound phase.
IMPACT TEST ON ALUMINIUM ALLOY TUBULAR COUPON
The experimental and numerical study has been performed on 6061

aluminium alloy tubular specimens, 200 mm in height, 70 mm in
diameter and 2 mm in thickness, impacted by a mass of 115 kg at
a velocity of 10 ms~ . Such a test case has been chosen in order
to study energy absorbing mechanisms exploited by typical
aeronautical materials and structures, whose collapse is
generally due to compressive loads; besides, it allows to
simulate several characteristic phenomena, like walls* buckling,
plastic hinging and broad contacting between contiguous folds.
Experiments have been worked out on a vertical crash test

machine, and both accelerations and displacements time-histories
have been transduced by means of accelerometers and encoders.
Before facing numerical simulations, a deep experimental

investigation has been performed, in order to assess material's
constitutive equations at high strain rates. Static an dynamic
tests have been worked out on quasi-flat standard coupons, taken
from tubular specimens. Dynamic tests have been performed
respectively at 18, 90, 180, 270 and 360 s"1 strain rates, so to
obtain the dependence of yield stress on strain rate (fig.13);
then, this correlation has been used to mathematically model the
non-linear plastic work-hardening material. Such an
investigation has made indispensable in order to overcome lack
of reliable experimental data: in literature values can be found
for Cowper-Symonds D parameter ranging from 10 to 10 ; on
the other hand, the use of static values for material
characteristics when performing impact tests simulation,
inevitably leads to unacceptable errors (more than 70% when
considering maximum impact load).
F.E. specimen's model consists of 7200 shell elements,

while both lower bedplate and impacting mass have been modelled
by means of rigid-walls. The degree of refinement of the mesh
has been chosen in order to allow at least 5 elements modelling
a completely developed fold (fig.14). Contacts have been
modelled in two ways: by means of discrete nodes, 20 mm apart,
between coupon's top and bottom and upper and lower rigid-walls,
and by means of contacts between specimen's walls which, during
collapse, bend and deform accordion-like. In order to minimize
cpu time, contacts between contiguous folds can be selectively
activated. At initial conditions, impacting mass and specimen's
top are 0.2 mm apart and impactor moves vertically at a velocity
of 10 ms .
Numerical simulation has been performed only up to 0.07 s,

corresponding to one third of total experimental duration, owing
to errors induced by contacts' evolution.
In fig.15 experimental and numerical load time-histories

are reported, both filtered at 1 KHz; simulated load peak,
displacements and global deformed shape are in good accordance
with experimental values up to complete development of first
fold, then problems occur in contact's management and overall
mesh stress state computing.
The work is now still in progress on the optimization of

contacts' modelling techniques and experimental evaluation of
materials' viscous behaviour. Moreover initial experimental
tests on stress wave propagation during elastic deformation have
already been performed, to study material's elastic behaviour
during low speed impacts, in order to accurately model failure
onsetting mechanism. The experiments also intend to investigate
phenomena which drive folds' developments, as well as to assess
the influence exerted by stress wave superimposition on trigger
mechanisms.
FINAL COMMENTS
In conclusion, some final comments can be drawn; first of all

the necessity to study structures' crashworthiness by means of a
synergistic use of both experiments and numerical simulation has
been confirmed. Both kinds of impact simulation programs can be
profitably used within this approach, namely hybrid codes, able
to completely model a structure by means of few tens of lumped
masses and deformable elements, and explicit F.E. codes which
can accurately simulate structural details' behaviors, making
use of very refined meshes. Hybrid codes can be particularly
suited during initial conceptual design and final certification
of the structure, while true F.E. tools seem to be irreplaceable
during initial parametric evaluations, as well as when definite
design of each structural detail has to be performed.
In order to conveniently work out such accurate simulations

in presence of both elastic and geometric non-linearities, and
at very high strain rates, these codes must satisfy two main
requirements, namely: the development of reliable algorithms
able to manage contacts evolution without hourglass onsetting,
and the availability of constitutive laws suited for engineering
materials.
At the present time, much work has to be done especially on

constitutive laws' implementation; in particular constitutive
equations suited for elastic-plastic materials are available,
but reliable values of the parameters which fit such general
laws to specific materials still lack; besides, as far as visco-
elastic materials are concerned, existing constitutive laws, as
Eyring's one, have not yet been implemented in the libraries;
finally, taking into consideration perfectly elastic anisotropic
materials, as composites, reliable constitutive equations, able
to take into account also diffuse damage due to their inherently
brittle behaviour, have been neither developed nor implemented.
Future experimental and numerical research activity will

face these aspects, and will be probably made more effective by
means of powerful last-generation customized workstations and of
friendly pre- and post-processors.
FURTHER READING
1. ASTM D3029. Impact Resistance of Rigid Plastic Sheeting or

Part by Means of a Tup - Falling Weight -. 1984.
2. Bathe,K.J. Finite Element Procedures in Engineering

Analysis Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1982.
3. Belytschko,T. and Tsai,C.S. 'Explicit Algorithms for Non

Linear Dynamics of Shells' Computer Methods in Applied
Mechanics and Engineering, vol.43, pp.251-276, 1984.
4. Bodner,S.R. Mechanical Behaviour of Metals under Dynamic

Loads Lindholm, New York, 1968.
5. Buchar,S. Mechanical Behaviour of Metals at Extremely High

Strain Rates, 1986.
6. Cristescu,N. Dynamic Plasticity North Holland, 1967.
7. Davies,G.A.O. Structural Impact and Crashworthiness

Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, 1984.
8. Ferry,J. Viscoplastic Properties of Polymers John Wiley &

Sons, 1970.
9. Flanagan,D. and Belytschko,T. 'A Uniform Strain Hexahedron

and Quadrilateral and Orthogonal Hourglass Control' Int.
Journal of Numerical Methods for Engineering, vol.17,
pp.679-706.
10. Giavotto,V. Dinamica Veloce - Analisi di Urti, Impatti,

Collisioni, Crashworthiness (in italian). To be published.
11. Hallquist,J.O. and Benson,D.J. DYNA3D, an Explicit Finite

Element Program for Impact Calculation Lawrence Livermore
National Laboratory, Livermore, 1976.
12. Hallquist,J.O. A Procedure for the Solution of Finite

Deformation Contact-Impact Problems by the Finite Element
Method Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore,
1976.
13. Harding,J. (Ed). Mechanical Properties at High Rates of

Strain, 1st. Phys. Conf. Ser. No.21, London, Bristol, 1974.

Strain, 1st. Phys. Conf., Bristol, 1980.

Strain, 1st. Phys. Conf. Ser. No.70, London, Oxford, 1984.
16. Hughes,T.J.R. and Liu,W.K. 'Non-Linear Finite Element

Analysis of Shell: Three-Dimensional Shell' Comp. Methods
in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, vol.27, pp.331-362,
1981.
17. Hughes,T.J.R. The Finite Element Method: Linear Static and

Dynamic Finite Element Analysis Prentice Hall, 1987.
18. Klepaczko,J.R. The Relation of Thermally Activated Flow in

Metals to Strain Rate History and Temperature History
Effects Brown University, 1981.
19. Kovacs,S. Dislocation and Plastic Deformation Pergamon

Press, 1975.
20. Krieg,R.D. 'Implementation of a Time - Dependant Plasticity

Theory into Structural Programs - Constitutive Equation in
Viscoplasticity: Computational and Engineering Aspects'
ASMEy vol.20, pp.725-737, 1976.
21. ISO 6603/1. Plastics - Determination of Multiaxial Impact

Behaviour of Rigid Plastics - Part 1: Falling Dart Methods.
22. Johnson,G.C. and Bammann,D.J. 'A discussion of Stress Rates

in Finite Deformation Problems' Int. Journal of Solids 8
Structures, vol.10, pp.725-737, 1984.
23. Jones,N. and Wierzbicki,T. (Eds). Static and Dynamic Finite

Element Analysis of Structural Crashworthiness in the
Automotive and Aerospace Industries, Structural Crash
worthiness, Butterworths, London, 1983.
24. Malvern,L. Introduction to the Mechanics of a Continuous

Medium Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1991.
25. McCrum,N.G., Buckley,C.P. and Bucknall,C.B. Principle of

Polymer Engineering Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1988.
26. Nielsen,L. Mechanical Properties of Polymers Reinhold

. Publishing, 1962.
27. Owen,D.R.J. and Hinton,E. Finite Elements in Plasticity:

Theory and Practice Pineridge Press Limited, Swansea, 1980.
28. Symonds,P.S. 'Mechanical Properties of Materials at High

Rates of Strain* Proceedings of 1st. Phys. Conf. Ser.
No.47, 1979.
29. Various Authors 'Metallurgical Effects at High Strain

Rates' Proceedings of Technical Conference, Plenum Press,
1973.
30. Wierzbicki,T. Manual of Crashworthiness Engineering Centre

for Transportation Studies - Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Massachusetts, 1990.
31. Wilkins,M. 'Calculation of Elastic-Plastic Flow' Methods in

Computational Physics, Academic Press, vol.3, pp.211-263.
32. Zienkiewicz,O.C. The Finite Element Method McGraw Hill,

1977.
33. Zyczkowski.M. Combined Loading in the Theory of Plasticity

P.W.N. Polish Scientific Publishers, Warszawa, 1981.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors are indebted to prof. Vittorio Giavotto for enlightening
discussions and valuable suggestions.
This research has been worked out within the frame of progetto
finalizzato "Materiali Speciali per Tecnologie Avanzate" of CNR
(Italian National Research Council).
MtSM * Cl ttCK CAMS J ftj.51 Brt.1

cm* MINT tttructHCftit rut* Nvevi.us
MSCSVNA t-JSl-9t l*:fl ttlfHt Sltf: 1 UK: .(
Fig.l Steel coupon: complete model.

0.6
z acceleration
XMIH: e.000E>00
YMAX: 6.825EB1
Fig.2 Steel coupon: acceleration non considering work-hardening
1.6
1.4 I I I I
1.2
1.8 I I
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
4 6 8
time (ms) VtiftX: 1.586E*BB
Fig.3 Steel coupon: acceleration considering work-hardening.

M!
=Z tiwi)
- H 58410-TSAY
CB]
-10
-12
time (ms) YMIN:-1.187E+B1

vmx: e.eeecêe
Fig.4 Steel coupon: deflections depending on shells formulation
r
r r M 5841 P-3.91 P-.1
SPOST-Z R00
H 5841 _,
9I
SPOST-Z ITER
A 6
V1iIN:-1.e51EB1
time (ms)
Fig.5 Steel coupon: deflections depending on updating algorithm

-i i 1 f -i
-4
V-
-V-
1
1
-[-1
1
1
1
1
1 T
1
1
HS841 .RT1 .1
P-3.91T5-2 RAO
P
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1 1 I 1
1 1 1
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CO -8 ( - .MN 5841 C.ATI
C.ATT .3
P-3.91 D-2 I
a !
CO
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-1?
_ ^-* 1 -
r
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f
Q
'E i t
6 8 10 ie
time (ms)
Fig.6 Steel coupon: deflections depending on friction coeffs.
1.6
, l/._ _v\! I
H3IL7 EL 18
Z-flCCELERflTION
H3IG5 EL 10
Z-ACCELERflTION
H3I EL 10
2-ACCELERATION
time (ms) YHIN: e.eeee-09

VMftX: 1.S68EBB
Fig.7 Steel coupon: accelerations depending on number of i.ps.

i
1 l $0
i i ._ ji
i i COMPLETE MODEL
--i-
TOTflL EMER6Y
3
at
158 -
i i COMPLETE MODEL
balanc<
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k 1 i
COMPLETE MODEL
KIME7IC ENERGY
COTFLETE MODEL
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C
r -i 1
1
8- 1
i i
rn
( \ i? 3 4 5
1 i
6
xmx: e.eeeeêe
time (ms)
Fig.8 Steel coupon: time-histories of energies
KELTAN - STRAIN RATE

COMPARISON EXPERIMENTAL DATA - EYRING LAW
t.6
to*
0.0
-*- Eyrlno *u V-10 m/t
-+- tyring *u V*6 m/t
O Experimental
mm i i ' nun i i 11
1000E-04 1000B-03 0.01 0.1 1
strain rate (1/s)
Fig.9 Polymeric coupon: work-hardening vs. strain rates.

MUM
CM MINT ISnCCMrN1S M* M2U.RCS
SC/tTW* 3-VCT-91 ! > : WlfBt 8 f | f : I fiat: i.RWIIIIF***
Fig.10 Polymeric coupon: complete model.
1.2
1.0
u..L .
B.6
H 10 [UK1C3
8.4
0.? XMIN: 0.000E.00
VMIN:-3.984E-B4
time (ms) VMfiX: 1.120EBB
Fig.11 Polymeric coupon: computed acceleration time-history.

TESTNRTC byCEfiST Ued 24 Jui 9-1 18:89:18

288 '188
CmJE-4]
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F(O-
90
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Fig.12 Polymeric coupon: experimental acceleration time-history
Fig.13 Tubular aluminium coupon: work hardening vs. strain rate

Fig.14 Tubular aluminium coupon: complete mesh.
Experimental
Numerical
10000
8000 1 A\
cd
111 fix
!1 ir
6000
0)
o 4000
2000
0.000
1/ 0.001 0.002
Time
0.003
(s)
0.004 0.005
Fig.15 Tubular aluminium coupon: exp. vs. comp. ace. time-hist.

SECTION 3: BLAST ANALYSIS AND
MODELLING FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES
AND EARTH MATERIALS
Blast Loaded R.C. Slabs: A Binary
Response Model for Shear and Flexure
Interaction
J. Luckyram (*), B.M. Stewart (*),
G.M. Zintilis (**)
(*) Special Services Division, Mott MacDonald
Group, 20-26 Wellesley Road, Croydon, Surrey,
U.K.
:(**) Advanced Mechanics and Engineering,
1 Huxley Road, Surrey Research Park, Guildford,
Surrey, U.K.
ABSTRACT
A Binary Response Model (BRM) has been developed for the modelling of
reinforced concrete slabs subjected to blast loading. This model has two
degrees of freedom representing the shear and flexural responses as two mass-
spring-dashpot systems connected in series. The BRM is shown to improve the
predictions of dynamic structural behaviour as compared to single degree of
freedom (SDOF) models.
INTRODUCTION
The analysis of the dynamic response of reinforced concrete slabs subjected to

blast loadings is complicated . Finite element techniques can be used to model
such behaviour but achieving reasonable accuracy can be time consuming and
expensive. The more common practice is to use single-degree-of-freedom
(SDOF) models calibrated against test data, and several numerical algorithms
have been reported in the literature (14). In these, shear and flexure are treated
as two independent deformation mechanisms and analysed as two uncoupled
mass-spring-dashpot models. These can give reasonable predictions of flexural
structural behaviour but implicitly ignore the interaction between shear and
flexural mechanisms. The justification for this de-coupled approach is the fact
that the flexural response of slabs occurs at a later time than the shear
deformation. In practice, shear deformations influence the overall flexural
behaviour, especially when shear deformation is significant. Also, flexural

deformations, although small at the early time of shear damage, do affect the
latter by making the slab behave as a 'softer' target. Shear response is
especially important for highly concentrated loads of short duration, such as
close proximity explosions.
In order to simulate the shear-flexure interaction, a coupled shear-flexure model

has been developed in which shear and flexural responses are modelled as two
spring-mass-dashpot systems connected in series. This coupling results in a
two-degree-of-freedom model, herein referred to as a Binary Response Model
(BRM). This paper outlines the theory behind the BRM. The structural
resistance routines and the loading routine used in the numerical model are
described. The BRM has been incorporated in a computer program in which
the critical shear mass is determined using an iterative technique described
later. Numerical predictions of structural behaviour are presented and
compared with experimental results.
SHEAR - FLEXURE COUPLING
The coupling of shear and flexure can be achieved by adopting a binary

response model. The shear and flexural responses of a reinforced concrete slab
are modelled as two mass-spring-dashpot systems connected in series. The
shear response is represented by system 1 and the flexural response by system
2 as illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1 : Schematic Representation of Binary Response Model

The governing equations of motion for the BRM are
ml a, = F,(t) - R ^ - x2) - Cfa - v2) ....(1)
m2 a2 = F2(0 + Rfa - x2) + C ^ - v2) - R2(x2) - C 2 v 2 ....(2)
where mt, m2 = masses of systems 1 and 2 ;

xt, x2 - deformations of systems 1 and 2 ;
v V
i> 2 = velocities of systems 1 and 2 ;
av a2 = accelerations of systems 1 and 2 ;
F1? F 2 = loads on systems 1 and 2 ;
Rj, R2 = resistances of springs 1 and 2 ;
Q , C 2 = damping coefficients of dashpots 1 and 2 ;
t = current time.
The numerical solution of the equations of motion is based on the incremental

form of equations (1) and (2) as follows :
ml Aa, = AFx(t) - kÂx, - Ax2) - C ^ - Av2) ....(3)
m2Aa2 = AF2(0 + k1(Ax1 - Ax2) + CÂv! - Av2) - k2Ax2- C2 Av2 ....(4)
or, in matrix form,
MAfl + CAv + KAjt = AF ....(5)
Numerical integration of equation (5) using Newmark's integration scheme

gives
Ax = At vn + [{At)2l2\ an + [(Atf/6] Aa ....(6)
Av = Atan + [At/2] Aa ....(7)
Substituting equations (6) and (7) into equation (5) gives
(M + [At/2] C + [(Af)2/6] K) Aa = AF - A;(C + [Af/2] K) aB - At K vn....(8)
where A^ = time step ;

vn = velocities at the n* step ;
an = accelerations at the 11th step .
Equation (8) represents the governing equation of dynamic equilibrium of the

Binary Response Model and is used for the step by step solution of the
response of reinforced concrete slabs.
FORCING FUNCTION
The computation of the spatial and temporal distribution of reflected blast

pressures on the structure is based on the equations and tables given in Kinney
and Graham(5).
For the computation of the forcing function (i.e. load), a routine has been
developed in which the slab is divided into a number of concentric rings (the
width of each ring being equal to V100th of the longer span). Within each ring,
the pressure is uniform at each time steps. The peak pressure (Pp), arrival time
(Ta) and duration time (Td) at the centre of each ring are computed using the
expressions and data given by Kinney and Graham.
The instantaneous pressure at each time step, on each ring, is calculated as
P = P p [1 - (t - T a )/T d ] e <-AKt-T.)/Td]} (9)
where A = decay parameter.
Any negative pressure is ignored. The load on each ring is then given by the
product of the area of the ring and the pressure on it. For the shear plug, the
total load Vx{i) is obtained by summing the loads on all the rings within the
shear plug boundary. For flexure, the loads on rings over the entire slab are
summed and the value of Fx(j) subtracted from the sum to obtain the flexural
load F2(r).
FLEXURAL RESISTANCE FUNCTIONS
Fully Restrained Slabs
The flexural resistance for a two-way spanning encastre slab is based on yield
line theory. The enhancement of flexural resistance due to contribution of
compressive and tensile membrane forces, is accounted for using the work of
Park and Gamble(6>7). The resistance curve is shown schematically in Figure 2
and is modelled in three stages, namely AB, BC and CD. As the load increases
from A to B, the yield line pattern develops and with the contribution of
compressive membrane forces, the slab reaches an ultimate resistance ( R ^ )
higher than the yield resistance (Ry). As the deflection of the slab increases
beyond B, the resistance of the slab decreases rapidly due to a reduction in the
compressive membrane forces. Beyond C, the slab resists load by the
reinforcement acting as a plastic membrane, with full depth cracking of the
concrete over the central region of the slab. The ultimate deflection is
governed by the limiting strain to failure of the main reinforcement bars.
Flexural Displacement
Figure 2 : Flexural Resistance Curve for Fully Restrained Slabs
Simply Supported Slabs
The flexural resistance of simply supported slabs is based on yield line theory
and is represented by a bi-linear model (Figure 3). The resistance increases
linearly with displacement up to the point B, where all the plastic yield lines
have developed. Beyond point B, the flexural resistance remains constant to
failure. The deflection at failure is governed by the limiting strain to failure of
the main reinforcement bars.
Flexural Displacement
Figure 3 : Flexural Resistance Curve for Simply Supported Slabs
SHEAR RESISTANCE FUNCTION
The shear resistance function used is the empirical model of Krauthammer et

al(4) which originates from the work of Murtha and Holland(8). This model for
shear resistance is shown schematically in Figure 4. It is based on static tests
and the effects of loading rate are accounted for by using a rate enhancement
factor.
Shear Displacement
Figure 4 : Shear Resistance Curve for Reinforced Concrete Slabs
MASS AND LOAD FACTORS
In order to obtain a system which is dynamically equivalent to a two-way

spanning slab, the effective mass of the slab and the effective loading on it
must be determined for flexural calculations. The mass and load factors are
computed using energy principles. In the model, the effective mass and load
factors are based on the tables given by Biggs(9) and Norris et al(10) for slabs
having simple load distributions with different support conditions and aspect
ratios.
SOLUTION ROUTINE
Plug Size
The model is analysed to find both the largest shear and flexural deformations.
An iterative technique is used to determine the optimal plug size for a given
structure and loading. The lower limit on plug diameter is taken to be equal
to the depth of the slab whilst the upper limit is a diameter resulting in Mach
Stem formation(5). The size of the plug is incremented and the shear and
flexural responses are calculated until one of the following four conditions is
met:
1. the current shear plug does not fail in shear but the previous plug did
fail in shear. In this case, the optimal shear plug diameter corresponds
to that of the previous plug;
2. the slab has not previously failed in shear but has failed in flexure at the
current plug size;
3. no shear failure is obtained but the maximum flexural deflection for the
current plug is lower than the maximum for any previous plug;
4. the shear plug diameter has reached the upper limit.
Time Stepping
The appropriate time step is chosen as the minimum of the following three
values:
1. the natural period of vibration of the shear mass divided by 40;

2. the natural period of vibration of the flexural mass divided by 40;
3. the duration of the loading event divided by 40.
The analysis continues for a maximum of 2 cycles of the longer natural period
of vibration. For each plug size, the dynamic response is calculated by the
incremental method described earlier until one of the following termination
conditions is met:
1. the slab has failed in flexure;

2. the flexural displacements are decreasing;
3. the maximum number of time steps has been reached.
When a termination condition is met, the next plug size is chosen until the
optimal plug size (and the corresponding solution) is obtained.
APPLICATIONS
The BRM program has been used to make predictions of the dynamic structural
behaviour of reinforced concrete slabs which were tested at Civil Engineering
Dynamics, University of Sheffield(11). The details of a typical test slab are
shown in Figure 5.
2000 mm
Top reinforcement : 11 No. 16 mm H.Y.steel bars each way

Bottom reinforcement : 11 No. 16 mm H.Y.steel bars each way
Cover = 10 mm
Mass of hemi-spherical charge = 1300 g
Stand-off = 350 mm
Figure 5 : Details of Test Slab
The screen displays of maximum shear and flexural responses are shown in
Figures 6 and 7. In order to make comparisons, SDOF models were produced
by suppressing the unwanted degree of freedom in the BRM. The BRM
predictions are compared with SDOF results and experimental values in Figures
8 and 9. The experimental results were measured at 450 mm off-centre (span
x 1/4) and 225 mm off-centre (span x 3/8) whereas the numerical predictions
relate to midspan deflections and hence are not directly comparable.
The BRM model predicts a higher value for flexural deformation compared
with the SDOF prediction. This clearly indicates that the shear damage affects
the overall flexural deformation of the slab. For shear deflection, the BRM
prediction is lower and again this is consistent with the implications of the
shear-flexure interaction phenomenon, i.e. the flexural deformation makes the
slab behave as a more compliant target and reduces the shear deformation.
CONCLUSIONS
From the limited number of tests carried out, the accuracy of the BRM cannot
be assessed. However, comparison of numerical and experimental data clearly
demonstrates the improvement of BRM predictions over SDOF predictions.
Figure 6 : Screen Output for Maximum Shear Response
Figure 7 : Screen Output for Maximum Flexural Response

Displacement (mm)
3.0
BRM (shear) 1
2.5 SDOF 1
2.0
1.5 -
^ --
1.0
/
0.5
S^ 1 1 ! . _L
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

Time (milliseconds)
Figure 8 : BRM and SDOF Predictions of Shear Displacement
Displacement (mm)
BRM (flexure)
SDOF
Test (Span x 3/8)
Test (Span x 1/4)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (milliseconds)
Figure 9 : Predicted and Experimental Values of Flexural Displacement
FURTHER WORK
A parametric study conducted using the BRM has highlighted the predominant
parameters governing the response of R.C. slabs under blast loading. This
study has shown that the BRM is particularly sensitive to the definitions of the
temporal and spatial distribution of blast loading, the structural resistances (in
particular the shear resistance function) and the support conditions. Theoretical
and experimental programmes are under way at Mott MacDonald and
University of Sheffield to develop more accurate definitions of these functions
and more experimental data to compare with the numerical predictions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was funded by the Procurement Executive of the Ministry of

Defence and forms part of the programme of the Defence Research Agency to
investigate the response of concrete structures to conventional weapons effects.
British Crown Copyright 1992 - published under licence
REFERENCES
1. Crouch, R.S. and Chrisp, T.M. 'The response of reinforced concrete

slabs to non-nuclear blast loading', Structures under shock and impact,
Proceedings of the First International Conference, Cambridge,
Massachussets, USA, July 1989.
2. Kiger, S.A., Hyde, D.W. and Guice, L.K. 'Flexural response of

reinforced concrete structures to conventional weapons', International
symposium on the interaction of conventional munitions with protective
structures, Mannheim, Federal Republic of Germany, March 9-13, 1987,
pp N42-N53.
3. Baker, W.E. and Spivey, K.H. 'BIGGS - Simplified elastic-plastic

dynamic response', Structures under shock and impact, Proceedings of
the First International Conference, Cambridge, Massachussets, USA,
July 1989.
4. Krauthammer, T., Bazeos, N. and Holmquist, T. J. 'Modified SDOF

Analysis of RC Box Type Structures', Journal of Structural Engineering,
ASCE, Vol. 112, No. 4, 1986.
5. Kinney, G F and Graham, K J ' Explosive Shocks in Air', Second

Edition, Springer-Verlag, 1985.
6. Park, R. and Gamble, W. L. ' Reinforced Concrete Slabs', John Wiley

and Sons, 1980.
7. Park, R. 'Ultimate Strength of Rectangular Concrete Slabs Under Short-

term Uniform Loading With Edges Restrained Against Lateral
Movement', Proceedings, The Institution of Civil Engineers, Vol. 28, pp
125-150, 1964.
8. Murtha, R. N. and Holland, T. J. 'Analysis of WES FY82 Dynamic

Shear Test Structures', Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory, Technical
Memorandum No. 51-83-02, Dec. 1982.
9. Biggs, J. M. 'Introduction to Structural Dynamics', McGraw Hill, New

York, 1964.
10. Norris, C. H., Hansen, R. J., Holley, M. J. Jr, Biggs, J. M., Namyet, S.
and Minami, J. K. 'Structural Design for Dynamic Loads', McGraw
Hill, New York, 1959.
11. Watson, AJ. and Duranovic, N. 'Validation of Blast Analysis Algorithm

- Report 92927/05 for Royal Aerospace Establishment, Farnborough',
Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, University of Sheffield,
April 1991.
An Analysis of Shear/Flexure Coupling
Applied to the Failure of Reinforced
Concrete Structures
A.J. Sheridan, C.A. Cowdery
Defence Research Agency, Farnborough, Hants,
GU14 6TD, U.K.
ABSTRACT
This paper describes the approach adopted by the Defence Research
Agency to the analysis of the response of reinforced concrete
structures to explosive loading - directed at the development of
simple mass-spring models. When a reinforced concrete structure
is subjected to severe localized dynamic loading, the failure
would be expected to comprise some combination of local
perforation and global flexural collapse. The timescales
associated with these two processes generally differ by
significantly more than an order of magnitude. So, they are
usually evaluated separately - using such methods as single-
degree-of-freedom analysis. However, recent computer hydrocode
analyses have demonstrated that these processes are interactive
and must be treated as a coupled system. An analysis is presented
of the mechanisms thought to determine the coupling between the
local shear and global flexural responses of simple concrete
structural components subjected to severe localized dynamic
loads.
INTRODUCTION
When a reinforced concrete structure is subjected to severe
localized loading, the failure is expected to comprise a
combination of local perforation and global flexural collapse. In
reality, the local perforation accounts for a number of local
stress wave dominated mechanisms - including surface cratering,
back face scabbing and, of course, the onset of local punching
shear. In the case of reinforced concrete - where the steel holds
the concrete together during initial plug formation - it is
proposed that the process can be defined as a simple shear
mechanism. The two processes of shear and flexure are usually
evaluated separately, using single-degree-of-freedom methods, as
the timescales associated with them generally differ by more than
an order of magnitude. Recent hydrocode analyses, however, have
shown that they are interactive and must be treated as a coupled
system - and have provided a case for the development of a binary
response model [1].
This paper describes the mechanisms thought to determine the
coupling between the local shear and global flexural responses of
simple concrete structural components subjected to severe
localized dynamic loads. A simple hydrocode analysis presents an
example in which a circular reinforced concrete slab is subjected
to a central impact. Results are compared for two cases, with the
same impact conditions - but in one the slab is free to respond
in flexure, during plug formation, and in the other it is
restrained against flexural movement.
RESPONSE OF CONCRETE SLAB SUBJECTED TO A LOAD
When a simply supported reinforced concrete slab is subjected to
impact or close-in explosive loading, a number of mechanisms
contribute to its overall failure (figure 1). The principal
dominant mechanisms are surface cratering, local punching shear,
back face scabbing and global flexure.
COMPRESSION CRUSHING
SHEAR CRACK
FLEXURE
PLUG
DISPLACEMENT i
SCABBING
Figure 1 Concrete damage mechanisms

Compression Crushing During the first few microseconds of the
impact process, high stress plastic shock waves are transmitted
into the target load surface. This causes complete pulverization
of the concrete in the impact zone and results in the production
of a surface crater. Dissipation of the peak stresses within
these waves limits the region that can be pulverized - though
observation of sectioned concrete has revealed a significant
crushed zone for some distance below the crater surface. In thin
slabs, where perforation is achieved, this crushed concrete can
be expected to be relatively easy to punch through any steel
reinforcing mesh.
Shear From the initial passage of the plastic shock wave towards
the concrete back face, through multiple internal wave
reflections, momentum is progressively dumped into the concrete
as the wave is dissipated.
Figure 2 Velocity distribution across impact loaded slab

If the momentum is largely deposited in the region of load
application, before the slab can respond fully in flexure, then
local punching shear will result. The hydrocode analysis
presented later in this paper shows that the plug is established
within the first few hundred microseconds - and its boundary is
defined by a region possessing a large velocity gradient ^ x V y (x).
This is shown schematically in figure 2, in which the shear
develops due to the velocity gradient across the element ABCD
(figure 3 ) .
A E B
This would eventually be
expected to generate
A
cracks as shown in Figure
4, and complete the
:>
D
\ /
r D
development of the shear
plug.
\
1
Back Face Scabbing This
is initiated quite early
Figure 3 Single element shear in the response of the
rotation concrete to impact loading
and is associated with
internal tensile
reflection of the incident compressive stress wave. During
internal reflection, at the back face, the energy associated with
the wave energy is converted to momentum in the concrete between
the back face and the reflected wave front. Depending on the
profile of the incident stress wave the tensile stress at the
reflected wave front progressively increases as it returns
towards the load surface. Once this stress exceeds the tensile
strength of the concrete a crack is initiated - which runs
parallel to the back face. If this crack is beneath the steel
reinforcement, the scab will be ejected at high velocity. If,
however, the crack develops above the reinforcement the momentum

is lost in shearing
past the steel - and
consequently passes
its momentum to the
steel, increasing
the subsequent
flexural response of
the slab.
Figure 4 Shear plug development
Global Flexure The flexural response of a concrete slab under

impact loading develops progressively, as momentum is transmitted
outwards from the region of central load application. It is
proposed, here, that, whilst this is extremely slow in relation
to local punching shear, it still has a significant effect on
cushioning and spreading the local damage.
For the purposes of mathematical modelling, it is proposed that
the response of the slab can be simplified from that shown in
figure 1 to that of figure 5 where the crushing and scabbing
might be taken into account in the shear response algorithms
(e.g., variable mass plug).
The shear plug formation occurs a time order of magnitude before
the flexure and, consequently, these processes have traditionally
been dealt with separately using single-degree-of-freedom
techniques. However, recent hydrocode work has shown that these
processes are interactive and should be treated as a coupled
system.
SHEAR CRACK
FLEXURE
PLUG
DISPLACEMENT
Figure 5 Idealized shear and flexural responses
HYDROCODE SIMULATIONS
Test Cases
An axi-symmetric analysis of a mild steel cylinder impacting a
reinforced concrete target (figure 6) was performed using
AUTODYN, a mixed processor
finite difference code.
Lagrange processors were used to
concrete -" model both the target and the
7x41
nodes impactor. The reinforcing steel
was modelled using a shell
processor with its nodes joined
reinforcing steel
mild steely
to every forth node in the
concrete. Between these joins
axis of
4x7 nodes the concrete was free to flow
symmetry
through the steel; being

Figure 6 Axisymmetric restrained only by its strength.
configuration of impact on slab Two cases were simulated:
- for hydrocode analysis i) A simply supported concrete
(SSC) slab, allowing both shear
and flexural response mechanisms to occur (figure 7).
ii) The second case used the results of the SSC slab analysis to
determine the dimensions of the shear plug. A restrained concrete
(RC) slab was then modelled, such that the slab was restrained
completely except for the region in which the shear plug was
expected to form - i.e., allowing shear, but providing restraint
against flexure (Figure 7).
IMPACT
SIMPLY SUPPORTED CONCRETE SLAB
restraint
IMPACT
RESTRAINED CONCRETE SLAB
Figure 7 Simply supported and restrained boundary conditions

Results
The so called 'shear plug' began to develop from as early as

0.1ms (figures 8 shows the velocity vector plot and figure 9
shows the material status - indicating the development of a
conical plug from the load surface) and was fully established
within the first 4ms from initial impact (figures 10 and 11).
Suit
2.ME4
bis
klcih
2.QS4I
: CfQia
f
Figure 8 Velocity vector plot Figure 9 Concrete failure and
at 0.1ms plug development at 0.1ms
Figure 10 Simply supported Figure 11 Restrained slab

slab failure at 4.0ms failure at 4.0ms
At first sight it might seem surprising that there is more local
damage - and greater material displacement - in the case of the
simply supported beam. However, the probable reason for this is
that the damage was confined within a smaller radius plug; the
small, almost immeasurable, flexural response had cushioned the
stresses around the edge of the developing plug. The greater
degree of damage within that plug probably resulted from an
inability to transmit much of the energy beyond the shear plug
perimeter. The only reason for the later development of damage
beyond the plug was due to the load being transmitted through the
reinforcing steel. The failed concrete in the restrained slab
suggested a significantly larger plug diameter.
Since shear strains would be determined by local rotations within
the slab, the target points in figure 12 are considered in pairs
and figures 13 and 14 presents the rotations of the main pairs
Figure 12 Target points for analysis of shear rotations
(e.g., the displacement of target point 3 minus the displacement

of target point 4 is presented as: target3 - target4).
When comparing target location pairs, the simply supported slab
exhibited much faster rotations, within the first 4ms, at pairs
t2-t3 and t7-t8 - due to the increased localized damage. Target
pair t7-t8 settled down to a similar result for both restrained
and simply supported cases after about 10ms, when the responses
were dominated by the steel.
Conversely, the target pairs t3-t4 and t8-t9 - which are in the
region of the perimeter of the plug - show a much slower initial
rotational response in the simply supported slab. This is because
they were directly relieved by the velocity of flexure within the
rest of the slab.
Interpretation
Shear resistance algorithms used to evaluate plug development, in
simple mass-spring models, would be based on the relationship
between shear force and shear rotation. Since the above analysis
shows that the rotations are different for the simply supported
and restrained slabs, the forcing function must also be expected
to differ.
8-
target 2 - target , J
6-
/
(target 7 - target i
x
1 4- ^ ^ I
[target 3 - target '
I
2 - ;.***
--r^
^
|target
8 - target < I
0-
C) 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
TIME!(ms)
Figure 13 Target pair rotations for simply supported slab
|target 2 - target >
6-
jtorget 7 - target X
12 14 16 18
TIMEfms}
Figure 14 Target point rotations for restrained slab

CONCLUSIONS
In the past, shear and flexure have been evaluated separately, on
the assumption that the timescales associated with each differ by
more than an order of magnitude. However, this work has shown
that the response from a slab that is unable to respond in
flexure is different from one that can respond in both flexure
and shear. Consequently, although the timescales of the two
processes may differ by more than an order of magnitude, they are
interactive and the response of one depends on the other.
Therefore, they should no longer be evaluated separately, using
single degree of freedom methods, but should be treated as a
coupled system.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was funded by the Procurement Executive of the
Ministry of Defence and forms part of the programme of the
Defence Research Agency to investigate the response of concrete
structures to conventional weapons effects.
Controller, Her Majesty's Stationery Office London 1992
REFERENCES
1 Luckyram J, Stewart and Zintilis - "Blast Loaded R.C.
Slabs: A Binary Response Model for Shear and Flexure
Interaction", SUSI 92 - 2nd International Conference on
Structures under Shock and Impact, 16-18 June, 1992.
The Search for a General Geologic Material
Model for Application to Finite Element
Methods and Hydrocodes
A.J. Sheridan (*), A.D. Pullen (**),
J.B. Newman (**)
(*) Defence Research Agency, Farnborough,
Hants, GUI4 6TD, U.K.
(**) Imperial College, London, SW7 2BU, U.K.
ABSTRACT
This paper presents the approach adopted by the Defence Research Agency,
and Imperial College, for the production of a general physical material model
for concrete, rock and soil. Any 'general' model should be based on the
correct evaluation of the properties of small material elements under all states
of stress and strain likely to be experienced in practice - and should not be
dependent on the response of quasi-structural elements that might be created
during specimen failure. Such a model should comprise an equation of state
that governs the pressure/volume relation and a material strength algorithm that
determines its failure due to shear, compaction and cracking. It should also
take account of unload/reload characteristics and strain rate effects. The
authors also consider the requirements of a 'sufficient' material model for
application to current hydrocode modelling capabilities.
A selection of experimental and theoretical methods have been evaluated in the

pursuit of a general material model - embodying static and dynamic properties.
Static laboratory methods have involved the use of a triaxial (Hoek) Cell, a
new Gauged Reactive Confinement (GREAC) cell, uniaxial compressive
strength (cube and cylinder) and indirect tensile tests. Dynamic methods have
included the use of ultrasonic pulse velocity measurements for dynamic elastic
moduli, explosive tests for direct and indirect evaluation of dynamic triaxial
properties, and a 75mm split Hopkinson bar. A large database, covering a
range of rocks, soils, and concretes will be completed by Summer 1992 - and
will be used to generate a general theoretical material model based on simple
engineering properties of the constituents.
INTRODUCTION
With the continual development of desktop computers, both in terms of

reducing cost and increasing processor power, engineers and scientists are
turning to predictive computer methods to assess the failure of concrete
structures. Currently there are a multitude of computer codes for evaluating the
behaviour of concrete, ranging from simple static analyses to complex dynamic
hydrocode techniques - and each may utilize a variety of concrete models.
Most of these differences are driven by specific needs of individual analysts,
and their own interpretation of what is an acceptable compromise between
speed and accuracy - which are, in turn, driven by cost.
There has already been a considerable swing towards the use of complex finite
element codes and hydrocodes - and it would appear possible that by the turn
of the century, computer power will be such that their use will be
commonplace. Such codes will offer the option to model the concrete and steel
as separate, but interactive, elements using ultra fine meshed representations
of structures. With the inevitable universality of such analytical tools, it is
proposed that more effort should be directed at interpreting existing materials
data with a view to incorporating it into a 'general concrete model'.
Whether the response of a concrete structure is static or dynamic, localized or

global - at the material level, only one concrete model should ultimately be
required. Furthermore, at the material level, it has been observed in triaxial
tests that soil and rock exhibit similar properties to those of concrete. So, it is
proposed that a 'general geologic materials model' should be developed and,
perhaps, supported by an international database.
FEATURES OF A GENERAL GEOLOGIC MATERIAL MODEL
A general geologic material model should be capable of characterizing the rate

and history dependent principal stresses in a material element subjected to any
combination of compressive or tensile components of elastic or plastic strain.
It should be capable of describing each of the following mechanisms:
elastic behaviour at low stresses

plastic compaction and shear, compaction stiffening, elastic unloading,
elastic and plastic reloading
coincident loading and unloading stress components
cracking (discrete cracks and micro-cracking zones) particularly as
appropriate to cratering, spalling, scabbing, punching shear and plastic
hinge development
The load response characteristics of small material elements can be defined by

its equation of state, strength envelope and elastic properties. The equation of
state describes the relationship between the mean stress (pressure) and the
volumetric strain or compaction. The strength envelope, or failure surface,
provides a representation of the stress conditions within which a material will
sustain a resistance to shear loads.
Equation of State (EOS)

Static Load Curve The pressure-compaction relation, P=f(Ti) for geologic
materials is generally expressed as a simple curve fit to experimental data and
(referring to fig.l) is governed by
pore collapse through the fracture,
and dislocation, of aggregate. Prior Pres sure (MPa)
to the initial failure of any bonds, 300 -I
the behaviour is elastic. As the load

is increased beyond the elastic limit,
regions of high stress concentration -
such as material flaws or aggregate
200 -
5/
H
contact regions - then undergo y
/ , /
plastic collapse. The failed aggregate 100

/ / /
dislocates as further load is applied - / ,
manifesting as material strain Cwnpaction

softening - but, eventually provides n -
/ /
local stress redistributions that D.OD D.fl-1 0.D2 0.D6

permit even greater loads to be
supported, So, as the material Fig. 1: Pressure/compaction
undergoes continual fracture, curve (GREAC cell)
dislocation and stress redistribution, it progressively re-stiffens.
Some simple models assume an initial Stress difference (MPa) f a i l u r e envelope

linear elastic phase followed by 25D 1 Unraxial stress path
linear plastic compaction - up to full

void closure - and then adopt the
150 -
elastic properties of the solid /
material. Models such as this assume

that the strength increases very little
during void closure and that higher
pressures can only be supported when
the voids are completely closed. Not
3D -
-50
I \^3
i//A /lOO /
/
200 30D
only does this require a precise

definition of the void fraction, but, in -15D -
\
general, this assumption is not Pressure (MPa)

correct. The increased pressures are
supported by the progressive Fig. 2: Stress difference/Pressure curve
(GREAC cell)
redistribution of stresses associated
with the localized crushing and
dislocation of fragments.
The most suitable methods of formulating the range of possible responses

usually incorporate an equation of state for the solid constituent material which
can be modified to allow for irreversible plastic compaction. Examples include
the P-cx model [1] and the porous equation of state [2].
Unload!Reload Characteristics In general, because geologic materials

undergo significant localized crushing and dislocation of fragments, they
experience irreversible compaction. Hence there is always a considerable
hysteresis associated with the load and unload curves. Furthermore, in the case
of concrete, there would also be a significant amount of locked in elastic
potential energy associated with its non-homogeneous structure.
Another mechanism that should also be considered is that associated with the
reversal of principal stresses under subsequent reloading. In tests using the
GREAC Cell, described below, the cylindrical specimen initially yielded due
to the magnitude of (a{-^) - point 1 on figures 1 and 2. However, since
unloading was provided by reducing the axial stress, au eventually the
specimen yielded again due to the magnitude of (aâ^ (point 3 on figure 2).
This will almost certainly have released much of the locked-in elastic strain
associated with the initial loading and will probably have resulted in
considerable micro-cracking parallel to the specimen ends. The existence of
such micro-cracks is believed to be supported by the significantly reduced bulk
modulus on reloading.
Strain Rate Effects Unconfined compression tests on concrete and rock

specimens provide the maximum stress prior to failure - followed by some
form of post peak strain softening response. It has been observed that by
increasing the rate of load application, this maximum strength can be
significantly enhanced. However, this does not necessarily imply that the
material is any 'stronger'. It may merely be a consequence of the rate of load
application approaching, or exceeding, the rate of material failure.
At the material level, strain rate enhancement is a function of the number of

modes excited under a given rate of loading. The energy associated with these
modes manifests as random thermal motion of the constituent components of
the material. At the macro level this could be coarse aggregate and at the
micro level could be the atomic lattice structure. In general conditions of
dynamic loading, the work energy and 'heat' energy are propagated in the
form of a stress wave. The strain rate will depend on the amplitude of the
wave and the shape of the wave front (particularly rise time).
Uniqueness Perhaps one of the most important features of the equation of

state for geologic materials is that there is no unique curve for any particular
material. A greater degree of compaction can be achieved under uniaxial strain
loading, up to some specified pressure, than under isotropic loading to the
same pressure. Essentially the latter process reduces to the amount of shear
related dislocation that occurs under compaction - and will be discussed
further, below, in the context of strength modelling.
The one condition where the equation of state can be represented by a unique
formulation is when the material is subjected to hydrodynamic shock loading.
At very high stresses, waves propagate through the medium at velocities
exceeding the acoustic velocity and a shock discontinuity develops at the wave
front. The material states on either side of the shock are defined by the
Rankine-Hugoniot equations - which are independent of the geometry of the
shock. The Hugoniot equation of state takes the simple analytic form [3]
P =
which uses an empirical relation between shock velocity U and particle velocity
u
U = U0+Su
where Uo and S are constants.
Another useful, and easily measured, form is the 'plain strain equation of state'
- which under high pressure dynamic loading conditions becomes equivalent
to the Hugoniot curve. Such conditions arise in static uniaxial strain tests,
where lateral strain is ideally maintained at zero, and generally in plane wave
stress propagation. Geologic materials under impact and explosive loading are
initially subjected to an expanding stress wave front. Whilst such waves are
rarely planar, the material response would certainly be more accurately
modelled by the plain strain EOS than the isotropic formulation. Under
uniaxial strain loading the degree of compaction is much greater than under
pure isotropic compaction loading - i.e., it is softer. It follows that the
divergent mass flow within an expanding convex wave front would, if
anything, result in an even softer response. Uniaxial pressure-compaction
curves - produced by applying a linear dynamic enhancement factor to GREAC
Cell data (described below) - have been used by DRA Farnborough for a
number of hydrocode analyses involving projectile penetration into different
concretes - and show very good agreement with experiments (within 20%).
It has to be acknowledged that in most hydrocode analyses of dynamic events,

including contact explosive loading and projectile kinetic energy penetration,
the results are less sensitive to the equation of state than the strength envelope.
Strength Envelope
In general, the shear strength of geologic materials increases with the
application of a confining pressure and is described by a yield surface plotted
on some form of 'deviatoric stress / mean stress' diagram. This is more readily
understood when expressed as yield stress against pressure, but, in application

to hydrocodes, is best represented in invariant form (fig.3)
where the first invariant of the stress tensor /7 and the second invariant of the
deviator stress tensor J2 are given by
X, = oôô, (4)
J2 = i [ ( o 1 - o 2 ) 2 + ( a 2 - a 3 ) 2 + ( o 3 - a l ) 2 ] (5)
Additionally, they can also exhibit compaction yielding. In practice, the two
mechanisms occur simultaneously and can be represented by a single
continuous yield surface. For all stress states within the area bounded by the
yield surface, a geologic
material will exhibit linear
elastic behaviour. As stress i
unlax al compression
states beyond this surface are \
probed, yielding occurs and

rect -lenefo n
V
7 c-c
, fa lure sirfacs
the yield surface expands to /

C-T
/ /
C ccmipre99f on
coincide with the new stress y T - tension
state. Within the new yield - 5

T-T\ \
surface, the material would \ CAP
still exhibit linear elastic

\
/^/ \ , NX
\
\
properties - though the elastic B0
/ \ tnttlml yrld surface
moduli may have been u / ^ ^
changed by the plastic

deformation associated with Fig. 3: Yield and Failure Surfaces in Invariant Form
the expansion of the yield
surface.
The shape of the yield surface has generally been found to be very close to that
of the plastic potential function <t>. The plastic strain rate can then be
determined from the stress state by means of a plastic flow rule
(6)
do,
This rule determines that, when a stress state beyond the previous yield surface
is achieved, the components of plastic strain will be those associated with a
plastic strain rate vector P which is normal to the yield surface (fig.3). When
the plastic potential function is taken to be identical to the yield surface,
equation (6) is referred to as an 'associated' flow rule; otherwise it is a non-
associated flow rule. Thus if yielding occurs to the left of the shear maxima
dilational plastic strain will result; if to the right, then plastic compaction will
occur. At the maxima, the plastic strain rate vector is vertical and, so, is
purely deviatoric. The shear yield surface eventually expands out to the
maximum shear failure envelope - above which no stress states can be attained.
Shear Failure A number of shear failure criteria have been considered for
concrete materials - including Von Mises, Coulomb, Drucker-Prager and
Mohr-Coulomb. The general features which are appropriate to geologic
materials include a value for cohesion (point c on figure 3) a pressure
hardening rule, a limiting tensile cutoff, and some form of high pressure
function (often taken to be constant, such as for Mohr-Coulomb).
In many hydrocodes, the shear failure envelope provides the sole criteria for
any form of shear yielding; for stress states below the failure surface the shear
strain is elastic and determined by the Modulus of Rigidity G. Any attempt at
attaining stress states above this surface results in a return to the surface at
constant pressure. Under such circumstances, the deviatoric plastic strain is
totally uncoupled from any plastic compaction associated with the equation of
state. However, this form of concrete model has been found to be a sufficient
one for many hydrocode applications. The reason being that, under uniaxial
strain loading, geologic materials undergo shear failure at quite low pressure
(figure 2). So, provided the applied load results a high pressure being
generated, the behaviour of the material is completely defined by the shear
failure surface - and, if the load generates something close to plane strain, the
'plane strain' EOS will apply.
Most examples of dynamic shock loading involve generating the maximum

principal stress in the wave normal direction, with the minor principal stresses
being developed through shear strength being exceeded within the wave front.
Under such conditions it may be considered that the uniaxial properties would
provide a sufficient model for hydrocode analysis. Similarly, under conditions
of projectile impact and penetration of geologic materials, the material
compaction is developed almost entirely as a result of large shear strains in the
region of the projectile nose. In fact there would appear to be very few
practical circumstances in which shear failure would not dominate the response
to compression loads. Significant compaction yielding would require a material
element to be subjected to compression waves from a number of different
directions at the same time. This is only likely when it is subjected to
simultaneous multiple dynamic loads or when a corner of a structure is
subjected to blast loading.
Consequently it is suggested that - whilst computer power is still relatively

limited - for most practical analyses, it is sufficient to neglect the correlation
of deviatoric and volumetric components of plastic strain.
Compaction Yielding Practical situations where it might be important to

accurately model compaction yielding would include mining and demolition -
where multiple stress wave focusing might be employed. Compaction yielding
is represented by that part of the yield surface (figure 3) which is to the right
of the shear maxima. One of the most popular methods of representing this
surface is a moveable CAP [4] which intersects the shear failure envelope.
This CAP may start very close to the origin - where it can be used to
approximately describe pre-failure shear yielding - and moves to the right as
the pressure increases.
Tensile Failure Whilst the compression branch of the equation of state and
yield surface are the most important in characterizing the resistance of concrete
to the initial stress waves associated with impact or explosion loading, it is
usually the tensile behaviour that ultimately determines the collapse of the
structure. Despite this, comparatively little effort is directed at evaluating the
yield/failure surface in the triaxial tension-compression or tension-tension
regions (figure 3) as defined by Chen and Chen [5].
A general model would require yield surface and failure data right down to
pure isotropic triaxial tension. Ultimately, this data should be sought, though
it might also be advisable to determine whether it would be more appropriate
to evaluate tensile failure as a function of principal tensile strains - linked to
element size. However, in the short term, it may be possible to base a
sufficient material model on the properties down to the simple tension point,
where a pressure cutoff may be applied. This is because in many practical
circumstances, there is usually only one significant principal tensile stress
(e.g., shear cracking would generally arise in the compression-tension region
and scabbing, associated with internal wave reflection, would arise around the
simple tension point). Some indication of the trend that might develop in the
search for a triaxial failure criteria has been determined by Zielinski and
Spiropoulos [6]. They performed uniaxial and biaxial flexural tensile tests
which demonstrated that the biaxial tensile strength is 72% of the uniaxial
tensile strength.
Additional features which are known to be of some importance, in concrete

and rock, are related to fact that tensile failure does not tend to occur as a
discrete crack, but propagates in the form of a broad crack zone. This means
that the maximum stress that can be supported across the crack deteriorates
progressively. Raiss et al [7] developed a test which enabled the observation
of stable tensile failure and concluded that fracture process zones begin to
develop as early as 73% of the peak load - the zone width was of the order of
the maximum aggregate size and the stress transfer across it was observed to
gradually decreased as the zone opened up. Further to this, irregularities along
the crack surfaces - such as aggregate interlock in concrete - can result in some
ability to support shear stresses across the crack. Simple crack models have
already been used in hydrocodes [8] and have shown considerable success in
improving the analysis of concrete failure mechanisms under local impact
loading.
Strain Rate Dependence Very little research has been directed at

understanding the effect of strain rate on the shear (or compaction) yield and
failure surfaces. Split Hopkinson bar tests on unconfined specimens have
shown that the shear strength can be doubled. However, this might be entirely
due to the inertia of the material within the specimen during failure.
Elastic Properties
The elastic properties of geologic materials apply to all stress states below the
yield surface and are easily evaluated by a number of techniques. Because of
the inconsistencies which are observed in unconfined specimen tests, the
GREAC cell has been used to generate all of the elastic constants associated
with initial loading and unload/reload. Dynamic moduli are determined from
ultrasonic techniques and normal mode analysis of concrete beam specimens.
STATIC DATA FOR A GEOLOGIC MATERIAL MODEL
Cube / Cylinder Crushing

Simple comparative properties of geologic materials can be measured by
crushing cubes and cylinders. Commonly, the only result of such a test is the
peak load at which the specimen failed, hence, only yield data is produced.
However, if suitably gauged, cylinders will also give an elastic modulus and
Poisson's ratio for the low stress regime. Soil type materials cannot be tested
by these techniques.
Hoek Cell
The Hoek cell is a practical triaxial cell in which a cylindrical specimen is
loaded both axially (by steel platens) and circumferentially (by fluid pressure,
via a flexible membrane). Both the axial and radial stress in the specimen can
be controlled. However, there is no accurate measurement of radial strain
(although techniques are being investigated by the authors). Consequently, the
Hoek cell is generally used to determine the relationship between pressure
(mean stress) and maximum stress difference (shear strength).
Gauged REActive Confinement (GREAC) cell

The GREAC cell [9] uses a totally different technique to apply the radial stress
and generates continuous triaxial data, which can be presented in the form of
an equation of state and a shear failure surface. The specimen is confined
circumferentially by a hollow cylinder or jacket, generally of steel. As the
specimen is compressed axially by steel platens, radial strains in the specimen
are constrained by the confining jacket. The force reaction between the
specimen and the jacket results in primarily circumferential stresses and strains
in the jacket. These strains (and, consequently, the radial strains in the
specimen) are relatively small, particularly when compared with axial strains
in the specimen. However, the strains experienced by the outer surface of the
jacket are sufficient to be easily measured using conventional resistance strain
gauges. Elastic thick cylinder theory is then applied to derive the radial stress
and strain in the geologic material specimen.
Tension Testing
The tensile behaviour of geological materials needs to be measured,
particularly in relation to the strength envelope. In the compression-tension
region (referring to figure 3) indirect tensile tests such as the Brazilian test [10]
can yield suitable results. A single data point can be achieved along the
uniaxial tension line (point b) by means of direct tension tests. In the tension-
tension region, however, there is very little available data - though the flexural
tests of Zielinski [6] provide a tentative data point at which the biaxial tensile
strength is 72% of the uniaxial tensile strength (point a).
DYNAMIC DATA FOR A GEOLOGIC MATERIAL MODEL
The dynamic elastic properties of rock and concrete can be measured indirectly
using small structural specimens subjected to low amplitude cyclic loads. The
response of the specimen will depend upon its geometry, the material density
and the material elastic properties (modulus and Poisson's ratio). The response
of the specimen may be simply wave velocity or the natural frequency of
oscillation of the specimen. The following sections describe methods of
generating the dynamic properties of geologic materials at considerably higher
stresses, to produce EOS and strength data for application to hydrocode
material models.
Dynamic enhancement of static data

In order to satisfy the short term need for dynamic high-stress material data,
a technique is being developed [11] in which static triaxial data (as produced
by the GREAC Cell) is linearly enhanced for use in dynamic hydrocode
simulations. Determination of the correct Dynamic Enhancement Factor
(DEF), which may differ for each of the EOS, yield and tensile limit, is
achieved by comparison of a simple dynamic experiment with hydrocode
simulations of the experiment. In general, the requirements of the experiment
are that it should have at least one measurable parameter which is primarily
sensitive to the DEF being investigated and relatively insensitive to other
DEFs. Typically, such an experiment might involve a cylindrical specimen
loaded at one end by explosion or impact, the displacement-history of target
points on the specimen being recorded by high-speed photography.
The shortfalls of this technique are that linear enhancement must be assumed,
across the whole triaxial range, and that this may only be valid at one
particular strain-rate, whereas hydrocode simulations may involve material
experiencing a wide range of strain-rates.
True strain-rate dependent material data

In order to produce true full stress-strain strain-rate dependent material data,
it is necessary to continuously record the full stress and strain response of a
dynamically loaded material element - or at least to be able to derive any
stresses or strains which cannot be recorded directly.
Lagrangian analysis of explosively produced transients In practice, it may

be very difficult or impossible to record the full stress-strain behaviour of a
material element. In addition, transducers might not be mounted at one
location. Lagrangian analysis [12] uses the continuum equations for mass,
momentum and energy to fully describe the flow field for a plane or spherical
wave travelling through a medium. It is not necessary to record a full
description of such a flow field in an experiment, in order for that flow field
to be fully/uniquely defined.
For example, if all of the wave-normal parameters in a spherical wave

propagation can be measured over a range of radial distances from the source,
then the wave-lateral parameters can be derived by Lagrangian analysis.
Consequently, the wave-normal and wave-lateral stress and strain histories can
be derived for any location within the region being studied.
Split Hopkinson bar The split Hopkinson bar is an established method of

generating dynamic uniaxial stress-strain data for solid materials. In its
conventional mode of operation, it provides much the same type of data as
unconfined static uniaxial tests - though there is usually observed to be an
increase in the compressive strength, related to strain rate. It is possible,
however, to configure test specimens to provide tensile and shear data. DRA
Farnborough have recently set up a 75mm diameter facility, specifically
designed for testing concrete.
Plate Impact (Hugoniot) Tests At very high levels of stress, where the
pressure-compaction curve exhibits an increase in stiffness, propagating stress
waves will coalesce to form a Shockwave. Material in this state can be fully
described if the wave velocity and the particle velocity on either side of the
wave front can be measured. Such data can be generated by plate impact tests -
where the impacting plate is of a material with known shock properties. The
data is analyzed using the 'acoustic impedance mismatch technique'.
GEOLOGIC MATERIALS DATABASE
The Civil Engineering Department of Imperial College have produced a

database of triaxial data covering a range of concrete mixes, mortars, rocks
and soils. Most of the data was generated using the GREAC cell technique,
with tensile data from the Brazilian test and dynamic data from high speed
photographic analysis of explosively end-loaded cylindrical specimens.
CONCLUSIONS
As computing power increases, it should be the ultimate aim of geologic

materials researchers to develop a general model for application to large finite
element and hydrocode analyses - for use by all. In the meantime, a
'sufficient' material model can be based on the 'uniaxial strain' equation of
state and a Mohr-Coulomb type failure surface. Continuous compression-
compression triaxial data can be generated by a Gauged REActive Confinement
(GREAC) Cell and isolated data points, in the tensile regions, can be
determined by the Brazilian and direct tension tests. Since the ultimate collapse
of concrete and rock structures is tension dominated, more research needs to
be directed at the development of triaxial tensile test procedures.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was funded by the Procureient Executive of the Ministry of Defence and forms
part of the programme of the Defence Research Agency to investigate the response of
concrete structures to conventional weapons effects.
0
Controller, Her Majesty's Stationery Office London 1992
REFERENCES
1 Herrmann W - "Constitutive Equation for Dynamic Compaction of Ductile Porous

Materials", Journal of Applied Physics, Vol.10, No. 6, May 1969, pp. 2490-2499.
2 M Cowler - "AUTODYN Users Manual", Century Dynamics Inc.
3 Skidmore I C - "An introduction to shock waves in solids", Applied Materials
Research, July 1965, pp. 131-147.
4 ' Sandier I S, DiHaggio F L and Baladi, G Y - "Generalized cap model for geologic
materials", J. Geotech. Enqrqr ASCE, Vol. 102, No. GT7, July 1976.
5 Chen A C T and Chen W F - "Constitutive Relations for Concrete", Journal of the
Engineering Mechanics Divisionf ASCE, Vol. 101, No. EH4, Aug. 1975, pp. 465-481.
6 Zielinski Z A and Spiropoulos I - "An experimental study on the uniaxial and
biaxial flexural tensile strength of concrete", Can. J. Civ. Engrg., Vol. 10, No.
1, Mar. 1983, pp. 104-115.
7 Raiss M E, Dougill J W and Newman J B - "Development of fracture process zones in
concrete", Magazine of Concrete Research, Vol. 42, No. 153, Dec. 1990, pp. 193-
202.
8 Broadhouse J and Nielson A - "Modelling Reinforced Concrete Structures in DYNA3D",
AEE Winfrith Ref. AEEW-M2465, 1987.
9 Sheridan A J - "Response of concrete to high explosive detonation", PhD Thesis,
University of London (Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine), 1990,
pp. 50-58.
10 Chen W F and Chang T Y - "Plasticity solutions for concrete splitting test",
Journal of Engineering Mechanics, ASCE, Vol. 104, No. EM3, June 1978, pp. 691-714.
11 Sheridan A J, Pullen A D, Perry S H - "Material Modelling for Hydrocode Analysis
of Concrete Response to Explosive Loading", 5th Internationales Symposium
Interaktion Konventioneller Munition mit Schutzbauten, Mannheim, 22-26 April,
1991, pp301-308.
12 L Seaman - "Lagrangian Analysis of Attenuating Waves", Journal of Applied Physics,
Vol. 45, No. 10, Oct. 1974.
SECTION 4: DYNAMIC RESPONSE, RESIDUAL
LIFE AND DAMAGE ASSESSMENT
An Approximation Method for Dynamic
Response of Strain-Hardening Structures
C.K. Youngdahl
Reactor Engineering Division, Argonne National
Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois 60439, U.S.A.
ABSTRACT
An approximation method is being developed to predict the
dynamic plastic response of rigid, strainhardening structures.
This method is analogous to the instantaneous mode techniques
used to treat rigid, perfectly plastic structures in that a
deflection shape involving a number of arbitrary functions of
time is selected, based on static deformation profiles. Two stress
fields are associated with the deflection shape: one satisfies the
equations of motion with appropriate boundary and continuity
conditions, and the other satisfies the strainhardening
constitutive relation with appropriate boundary and smoothness
conditions. The method is illustrated using the case of a
simply-supported beam with a central plastic region.
INTRODUCTION
The approximation method for dynamic plastic response of
strain-hardening structures discussed here is intended to be
analogous to the mode approximation method for rigid, perfectly
plastic structures introduced by Martin and Symonds [1]. The
basic mode for a perfectly plastic structure is the product of a
time-dependent amplitude function multiplying a velocity
profile made up of rigid links connecting stationary plastic
hinges. As a further elaboration of this method, the hinges are
allowed to move and the velocity profiles are referred to as
"instantaneous modes." These "instantaneous modes" are not
true modes in that they are not separable products of functions of
position and time, but the methods for determining the
amplitude and shape functions are often extensions of those for
basic mode solutions, and similar terminology is used.
The deformation shape of a strainhardening structure
always changes significantly during the motion, and the plastic
deformation, rather than being concentrated at discrete points,
always is spread over time-dependent regions. In the method
introduced in Ref. [2], the deformation history of a strain-
hardening structure is approximated by a varying mode shape
up to the time of maximum deflection. This instantaneous mode
is based on quasi-static deformation profiles for general load
distributions but has arbitrary time-dependent amplitude
coefficients and plastic region size. Two stress fields are
associated with the modal shape, one satisfying the dynamic
equations and associated boundary conditions and the other
satisfying the constitutive equations with their associated
boundary and smoothness conditions. The application of
suitable matching conditions to the two stress fields results in a
set of simultaneous differential and algebraic equations for the
time dependence of the plastic region size and the amplitude
coefficients of the modal shape. Pulse-shape effects are
automatically taken into account, and the motion during the
pulse is computed.
In this paper, the problem of a simply-supported beam

will be used to illustrate the steps in the procedure. The
deflection profile in the plastic region will be modelled as a
polynomial in the axial coordinate with time-dependent
coefficients. It will be shown that good accuracy is obtained by
taking the ratios of the coefficients to be constants, so that the
deflection profile just depends on a time-dependent amplitude
and a timedependent plastic region size, and, consequently, is
analogous to an instantaneous mode for a perfectly plastic
structure. The influence of different types of matching functions
on the accuracy of the solution will be investigated. In
particular, it will be shown that what appear to be qualitatively
quite different matching conditions lead to quantitatively similar
relations.
STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Consider a simply supported beam of length 2L, loaded by a
distributed dynamic force p(x,t). Take p(x,t) to be symmetric
about the center of the beam x = 0, so that only the half 0 < x < L
need be considered. The deforming portion of the beam will be
assumed to respond as a rigid, linear strain-hardening
structure, having yield moment my and strain-hardening
coefficient a.
Define dimensionless axial coordinate X, time T, load P,
bending moment M, deflection W, and hardening parameter co
by
, P(X,T)
t0 my
m
y "M. (1)
where \i is the mass per unit length and t 0 is a measure of the

load duration. Let prime and dot superscripts denote derivatives
with respect to X and T, respectively. The equation of motion can
then be written as
M" = - P + W, (2)
and the constitutive relation in the plastically deforming region
is
M = l-co 2 W" (3)
The instantaneous mode solution to the dynamic problem
up to the time of maximum deflection will be taken to be an N-th
order polynomial in X with timedependent coefficients to be
determined from the equation of motion, constitutive equation,
and boundary, smoothness, and matching conditions. For
plastic deformation occurring in the region 0 < X < (t), the N-th
order approximation to W will be assumed to have the form
WN(X,T) = A(T)(1- X) + ( T ) I C n ( T 0 j ,0 < X < \
WN(X,T) =
where the amplitude function A(T), plastic region size f;(T), and
polynomial coefficients Cn(T) are to be determined from the
solution. The boundary condition W(1,T) = 0 is satisfied
identically, and W^ = 0 for ^ < X < 1 so this portion of the beam
remains rigid.
Two bending moment distributions, Mj)(X,T) and

Mc(X,T), will be associated with W^ such that M^ satisfies the
dynamics part of the problem and MQ satisfies the constitutive
relation. Take Mj) to be the solution of eq. (2) such that M^ and
MD are continuous at X = and satisfy Mp = 0 at X = 1 and MD =
0 at X = 0. This solution is given by
2+n
(5)
n=0
with F n and \\f defined as
1+ndT^ (6)
= JoX(X-X)P(X)T)dX.
The bending moment distribution Me is to satisfy eq. (3) in
the plastically deforming region. Therefore,

2 N n-2
^ n=2 (7)
Kinks can occur in the velocity and deflection profiles at

plastic hinges for a perfectly plastic material (a = 0). However,
the profiles for a strain-hardening beam are smooth; in
particular, W = 0 at X = 0 and W is continuous at X = . These
smoothness conditions, the continuity of W at X = , the
condition MQ(^,T) = 1 defining the edge of the plastic region, and
the symmetry condition that M' = 0 at X = 0 if the loading is

sufficiently smooth give five algebraic relations between the C n .
If it were possible to choose (T), A(T), and the Cn(T) such

that MD and MQ were identical for all X and T, then Wj^ would
be the exact solution to the problem. However, since W^ is an
approximation, we will select , A, and C n such that various
matching conditions between M^ and MQ are satisfied. The
maximum discrepancy between Mp and MQ will then provide a
measure of the accuracy involved in the choice of N and the
selection of matching conditions. Since there are N + 3
unknowns (A, , CQ, C I , ...C^) and five algebraic relations
between the coefficients, N 2 matching conditions are needed
in order to solve for the remaining unknown functions. The
amplitude A and plastic region size ^ are essential elements of
the solution, so at least two matching conditions are needed to
provide differential equations for A and ; therefore N must be at
least four.
The types of matching conditions that will be considered

include putting M^ = MQ at selected points in the plastically
deforming region, putting dM^/dX = 3MQ/3X at selected points,
or making weighted integrals of Mp - MQ vanish. In
particular, the following conditions will be used:
<D0(p,T) = $(T)[MD(X,T) - M C ( X , T ) ] w 0 < p < 1;
[ | ] [MD(X,T)-Mc(X,T)]dX, p>0;
V^J (8)
w
||X=K'
[MD(X,T)-Mc(X,T)]dX, P>0
A matching condition that will always be used is <E>Q(1,T) =

0, so that the two bending moment distributions agree at the
edge of the plastic region. This gives a differential equation for
A, which as a > 0 reduces to the basic mode response for a
perfectly plastic beam subjected to an arbitrarily distributed
dynamic load [2].
COMPARISONS AND RESULTS
Various combinations of sets of coefficients Cn and matching
conditions have been tested to determine which coefficients
contribute most to the solution, to determine the variation of the
accuracy of the results with the number of coefficients, and to
determine which matching conditions give the best accuracy for
a given number of active coefficients. A number of choices of
strain-hardening parameter co, load distribution, and pulse
shape were used in making these determinations.
These parameter studies showed [3] that the maximum
discrepancy between MD and MQ decreases as N increases, as
would be expected. Moreover, the maximum discrepancy can be
reduced to within the limits of accuracy of the numerical
procedure used to solve the differential equations if a sufficient
number of coefficients and suitable matching conditions are
used.
These studies also showed that the Cn coefficients with n <
4 are of the same size as A and their ratios to A are almost
constant no matter how many coefficients or which matching
conditions are used. In contrast, the Cn for n > 5 are much
smaller and have little effect on the time-dependent deflection
profile. Consequently, reasonable accuracy is attained by taking
N = 4 and
Co - A, Cx - A, C2 - - 7 A , C3 - 0, C4 - A.
o 4 s (9)
The resulting instantaneous mode, which may be considered the

basic mode for this problem, is
(10)
This is the deflection shape produced by a uniform load

distribution applied quasi-statically to a rigid, strain-
hardening beam [3].
The matching condition O0(l,T) = 0 becomes
(11)
One additional matching condition is needed to give a

second relation between A and x. Each of the conditions given in
eqs. (8) can be put in the form
where Q is a functional of the loading. The form of Q and the

values of the constants ai, a2, and a3 depend on the choice of
matching condition.
Equations (11) and (12) are a pair of nonlinear differential

equations for the amplitude A and plastic region size . The
numerical solution is more readily effected by replacing these
dependent variables by the pair A,B with B =
The accuracy of the solution depends on the choice of

matching condition used to obtain eq. (12). To illustrate this
dependence, consider the particular loading
P(X,T) = P m (l-X)T, 0 < T < 1 (13)
=0 T>1
and take P m such that the maximum load attained is five times
the load that initiates yielding. Consider material constants
such that Q = 1, with Q defined by [2]
(14)
where I is the generalized impulse associated with the applied

moment about the supports; i.e.,
I = JTTV(1,T>1T
(15)
The times T y and Tf are when deformation begins and reaches

its maximum value, respectively. For this loading, the
functional Q in eq. (12) is given by
with a4 depending on the particular choice made from eqs. (8).
Table 1 gives AM/M, defined as the maximum magnitude

of ( M D - M Q ) / M D attained for all X and T, for a variety of choices
of matching conditions Oj(P,T) = 0. The largest discrepancy
usually occurs at the instantaneous change in load at T = 1. The
most accurate result is obtained for OÔ/T) = 0, i.e., putting the
integral of Mj)-Mc over the plastic region to zero, although
some of the other choices are almost as good.
Values of AW/W = [W(0,Tf) - W e (0,T f )]/W e (0,T f )] and

A$/5 = K(Tf) - e (T f )]/(T f ) are listed also in Table 1. The e -
subscripts denote more exact results computed using a larger
number of coefficients. For every choice of matching condition,
the computation of the deflection shape is more accurate than
that
Table 2 lists the constants ai, a2, && and 3L for each of the
matching conditions used, in the order of decreasing accuracy of
the solution. The choices that give the best results have quite
similar values of the coefficients, even though they belong to
different types of matching conditions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work reported here was sponsored by the U.S.
Department of Energy, Office of Basic Energy Sciences,
Engineering Research Program under Contract W - 3 1 - 1 0 9 -
" U.S. Government
REFERENCES
1. Martin, J. B. and Symonds, P. S., 'Modal Approximations

for Impulsively Loaded Rigid-Plastic Structures' J. Engng.
Mech. Div. Proc, ASCE, Vol. 92, pp. 43 - 66, 1966.
2. Youngdahl, C. K., *A Modal Approximation Method for

Strain-Hardening Beams' Int. J. Impact Engng., Vol. 11,
pp. 61-75,1991.
3. Youngdahl, C. K., 'Optimum Approximate Modes of

Strain-Hardening Beams' Int. J. Impact Engng. Vol. 12,
1992 (in press).
Table 1. Accuracy of Solution for Various Matching Conditions
Matching AM AW
Condition M W
O0(0) 2.63% 0.64% 0.27%

O 0 (0.25) 2.27% 0.45% 0.25%
O 0 (0.5) -2.39% -0.08% 0.12%
OÔ) -1.74% 0.08% 0.16%
Ol(D -2.81% -0.28% -0.29%
&l(2) -3.54% -0.50% -0.75%
O 2 (0.5) 5.14% 1.98% -2.00%
C>2(0.75) -1.93% 0.22% -0.17%
Ofcd) -7.26% -2.24% 0.38%
O3(l) 2.03% 0.30% 0.27%
Table 2. Coefficients in Matching Conditions
Matching ai a2 a3 a4
Condition
Ox(0) 0.3750 0.0500 0.0036 0.3750
02(0.75) 0.3697 0.0490 0.0040 0.3750
Og(l) 0.3609 0.0523 0.0042 0.3600
O0(0.25) 0.3508 0.0540 0.0046 0.3500
O0(0.5) 0.3857 0.0478 0.0029 0.3889
O0(0) 0.3385 0.0563 0.0052 0.3333
Old) 0.3984 0.0462 0.0026 0.4000
Oi(2) 0.4147 0.0437 0.0020 0.4167
O 2 (0.5) 0.2510 0.0744 0.0088 0.2500
Ood) 0.5000 0.0333 0 0.5000
Fracture and High Loading Rate Effects on
Concrete Response
D. Chandra, T. Krauthammer
Department of Civil Engineering, Pennsylvania
State University, University Park, PA 16802,
U.S.A.
ABSTRACT
The fracture process of concrete with pre-existing cracks is affected by high

loading rates and is responsible for an apparent strength enhancement of
concrete under that type of loading conditions. An outline of a
micromechanical damage model taking into account this modified fracture
process is presented.
INTRODUCTION
Concrete is a non-homogeneous mixture of aggregates and cement gel with

complex networks of voids, cracks and other flaws. It is well known that these
defects are primary sources of weakness where fracture process develops
when concrete is subjected to loads. But, concrete exhibits an enigmatic
phenomenon of increased resistance when it is loaded at a very high rate.
Strength magnification factors as high as 2 in compression and about 4 in
tension for strain rates in the range of lOMc^/sec have been reported
(Weerheijm and Reinhardt, 1989). Several earlier attempts to explain this
behavior of concrete have resulted in models based on either empirical curve-
fitting techniques or based on questionable hypothetical potential functions. As
opposed to these, an attempt is made in this paper to explain the underlying
reasons behind this phenomenon. Because of the extremely intricate
mathematics involved in this process, only qualitative explanations are
attempted here with the help of some available analytical data.
KINETIC ENERGY AND INERTIA DURING FRACTURE
The total energy, U for of an elastic body, subjected to some external surface
tractions and undergoing crack development, can be segregated as follows:
U = Uo + U a + U 7 + U k - F W
where, U o is the elastic strain energy of the body loaded but no new crack
developed or no existing crack grew, Ua is the elastic strain energy introduced
in or removed from the body due to the appearance of a crack, U 7 is the
elastic surface energy necessary for the formation of a crack surfaces in the
body, Uk is the kinetic energy in the system due to the particles set in motion
when a crack appears in the body and/or propagates subsequently through the
body and F is the work done by the external forces.
Differentiating Eq. (1) with respect to the crack length, a, leads to:
9 3U^ 3U k (2)
(Ua ; 0
3a 3a
where, the following conditions are used,
3U _ 0 (3)
3a
and
9U 0 (4)
= 0
3a
Condition (3) arises because U, being the total energy of the body and the
surrounding, is a constant. Condition (4) arises because U o is independent of
the crack length, a. Using the definition from fracture mechanics,
<U.-F>--J 0)
where J represents the conventional J-integral for cracked body computed
around the crack tip, Eq. (2) can be modified as,
j = I + (6)
3a 3a
Eq. (6) is the energy balance condition for an incremental crack growth. It
can also be used to find the onset of unstable crack propagation. Thus,
fracture occurs when,
3a 3a
An examination of Eq. (7) leads to the conclusion that the term 3Uk/3a, being
always positive, has a strengthening effect on the material. Because, when it
is present, J has to be increased by inputing extra energy in the body from the
surrounding. One valid assumption made here is that the other term, 3U 7 /3a
is a material constant and is not affected by the rate of applied loading. In
fact, 3Uk/3a is equal to the critical J-integral, Jc for the material which is
indeed a constant. It will be shown in the following section that the term
5Uk/da is not insignificant when the energy is input to the system very
rapidly, i.e., when the loads are applied to the body at a very high rate.
Hence, a loading rate sensitivity of the fracture strength for the material is
observed.
For linearly elastic materials subjected to monotonically increasing loads, J is

related to the stress intensity factor, K, as follows:
where, E' equals to E for plane stress conditions, or to E/(l - v 2 ) for plane
strain conditions, E and v being the Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio,
respectively.
Loeber and Sih (1972) and Parton and Boriskovsky (1989) have shown that
the value of K decreases for a homogeneous cracked body when subjected to
highly time-varying loads. Thus, a high rate of loading reduces the value of
J. Hence, comes another possibility of strengthening effect of high loading
rate on the material. It appears that if the mode of variation of stress intensity
factors, Kj, K n and K i n (for opening mode, inplane shear mode and antiplane
shear mode of fracture, respectively) and that of kinetic energy growth rate,
3Uk/da (in Eq. 7) are somehow explained in the dynamic domain in terms of
the frequency of the applied load, density of the material, characteristic wave
speeds, etc., then the strength enhancement of cracked concrete body under
high rate of loading can be understood. Of course, this statement is based on
the premise that microcracks (having sizes of the order of aggregates in the
concrete) are the only type of defects or flaws that play a role in this type of
phenomenon, and the brittle fracture is the only underlying failure process
here that leads concrete to its final stage of collapse. It is assumed further that
whatever inelastic deformation is manifested by the concrete, it is totally
attributed to the enlargement of existing cracks, nucleation and development
of new cracks and the interaction between the several cracks under the action
of loads.
EFFECT OF 3UK/aa ON J IN THE DYNAMIC DOMAIN
As explained earlier, the presence of kinetic energy growth rate, 3Uk/3a

demands for increased energy release rate (denoted by J, as defined by Ewalds
and Wanhill, 1989). In order to find 3Uk/<3a, let us consider a simple case of
a rectangular plate with an existing edge-crack of width, a subjected to edge
traction, T and undergoing edge displacement, u as shown in Figure 1.
"] ds
y u
ii y,
" :-===
^ X
Figure 1. A rectangular plate with an edge-crack.
Considering a particle at coordinates (xlf y t ), having velocity and acceleration

vectors, u and ii, the incremental energy of the particle associated with u and
ii due to an incremental change in the crack length is given by,
d(AU k ) u u) - u (Au)] (9)
A() in Eq. (9) denotes the increment in its argument due to an increment, Aa.
As a matter of fact, the contribution from ii*Au can be viewed as work done
by a fictitious inertial force, -(pdxdy)ii, acting in the opposite direction of ii
and undergoing a displacement, Au, of the particle under consideration. It is
included here to make the consideration of dynamic effects as complete as
possible. Integrating throughout the whole plate, Eq. (9) gives,
A [ - u u - ii u]pdxdy (10)
Simplifying the increments on the right hand side of Eq. (10), leads to:
AUKk = [ [ ( u . ^ A a - i i . ^ A a ) p d x d y (11)
JJ da 3a
A
Using the relation, 3/da = -d/dx, one derives for the limit when Aa->0,
In the following discussion, mainly penny-shaped cracks embedded in the

concrete body are considered. So, if a control volume, V within the concrete
body with embedded cracks is considered instead of the plate, Eq. (12) should
be modified as follows:
Now, in view of Eq. (6), the effective J available for the creation of new
crack surface is given by,
It is noticed from Eq. (14) that the presence of 3Uk/da retards the crack
development or the fracture process, and the role of inertia effects is shown
in Eq. (13). It is quite obvious from Eq. (13) that the denser the material is,
the more pronounced will be this retardation effect.
EFFECT OF K ON J IN THE DYNAMIC DOMAIN
As stated earlier, J can be related to K by the relation shown in Eq. (8).

Thus, increase or decrease of J is directly proportional to that of K2. Now,
J in Eq. (14) can be replaced appropriately to yield,
J eff = K? - ^ (15)
eff
E' aa
According to Loeber and Sih (1972) and Parton and Boriskovsky (1989), the
stress intensity factor, K can be expressed as,
where, K: is the stress intensity factor for mode j of fracture (j = I, II and

III); C: is a constant for mode j ; q is the amplitude of remotely applied
dynamic stress; D: is a complex function of a complex variable, , for mode
j ( in this case reduces to the real number, 1); a is the radius of the penny-
shaped crack under consideration; / is the imaginary number, y(-l); o> is the
frequency of applied dynamic stress (assumed harmonic); t is a time variable.
From Eq. (16), it is evident that the magnitude of K is directly affected by the
complex function, D;, all other parameters remaining unaltered. (The complex
term exp(-/o)t) does not affect | K | even when G> of the applied stress is
changed.) In general, Dj() is given by a Fredholm integral equation as
follows:
l
r (17)
where, kj(,r?) is the kernel for Fredholm integral equation and is given by
00
r f (s,a ,a )f (s,$,r?)ds
1 1 2 2 08)
In Eq. (18), g2(S,r?) equals to 2/w for mode I, or to >/(*?) for modes II and
III; fjfoaâ^ is a function of s, al and a 2 ; a is crack radius; s is a dummy
parameter of the Hankel transformation; a 1 2 equal to C 12 /G>; c1>2 are the
characteristic speeds for dilatational(l) and shear(2) waves in the concrete
body; f2(s,,r0 equals to sin(s)sin(sr?) for mode I, or to J3/2(s)J3/2(sr?), for
modes II and III; J 3/2 is the Bessel's function of first kind with order 3/2;
equals to for mode I, or to 2 , for modes II and III.
It is obvious that the evaluation of Dj($) is quite involved and a numerical

technique has to be invariably adopted to find the value of K:. But some
important conclusion can be made by inspecting the definition of Dj().
As shown above, the kernel of D:() is a function of several variables that are
dependent on the density of the material, p, frequency of applied stress, o> and
some other material properties. Hence, it is quite logical to deduce that Dj()
would be affected by p and o>, keeping all other parameters unaltered. So, the
evaluation of Kj by the method outlined above takes into account the effects
of both inertia (through p) and rate of applied loading (through G>).
There are some analytical data available in the literature that show the mode
of variation of Kj with G>. Loeber and Sih (1972) reported this variation to be
monotonically decreasing with G> (Figure 2). Parton and Boriskovsky (1989)
also reported this variation as decreasing but with an exception of a brief
overshoot for a small region of o> near 0. Considering another decreasing
trend of IC for propagating cracks (to be described shortly) and the kinetic
energy imbued to the body during this process, this overshoot (if present at
all) gets most probably superseded to exhibit an overall increase in strength
of concrete. Nevertheless, for very high value of o , the ever decreasing
magnitude of K: and the nature of fracture (Eq. 15) reinforce the present
proposition that the strength of concrete apparently increases when it is

subjected to highly time-varying loads.
Kill i i 1 I 1 1 I 1
Kin
1.0
0.0 -
0.6
0.4 -
Kd - dynamic K,,, \ "
'MM
]
MII - static KHI \
0.2
<
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 2 3 A
Figure 2. Variation of KJJJ with the wave number aa
So far, a stationary crack has been considered. This means that the crack is
assumed not to grow or propagate under the action of load. But, when the
effect of crack propagation through the concrete is included, there will be a
further reduction of the stress intensity factors, Kj, as discussed by Achenbach
and Brock (1972) and Freund (1972). It was shown by Freund (1972) that for
mode I fracture, Kj is given by,
vt
KIV 7
S + (d)(d + c 2 )(l - a/d)
d
1/2
I r /r_/.. A ^\ J _ (19)
where, d is 1/v; v is speed of crack tip; c 2 is a function of v R (the Rayleigh

wave speed) and d; a is l/v d ; b is l/v s ; v d , v s are the characteristic speeds for
dilatational and shear waves, respectively; rj is a dummy integration variable;
a1? a 2 are functions of a, d; k is a complex number satisfying the condition,
- a 2 < Re(X) < af, a, p are functions of a, b, k and d; p is normal stress
in the region 0 < x < vt; S + (d) is a complex function of d given as,
D
2,l
S + (d) = exp - I ftan -1 dr? .(20)
n J 2 2
(2rj -b -bV/d -2b rj/d) . 2 2 2 +A.
According to Eq. (19), the plot of Kj versus v (Figure 3) will show that Kj
varies from its value under static condition (i.e., when v = 0) to almost 0
when v = v R . This decrease of Kj under dynamic conditions leads to a
corresponding decrease in Jeff (Eq. 15). Thus, higher energy input would be
required to produce the same type of damage, creating the effect of strength
enhancement.
1.0
Kf
-
Kf
0.8 -
0.6 -
\ x
0.4 -
I<f - dynamic K,
0.2
K3 - static K,
\ ;
i i i i , i i i \
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
v/v R
Figure 3. Variation of Kj with the speed of crack tip, v
RATE EFFECTS WITHIN A STRESS-BASED CONSTITUTIVE MODEL

The present model is based, in part, on the previous works by Fanella and
Krajcinovic (1988), Ju and Lee (1991) and Lee and Ju (1991). This type of
micromechanical model is chosen as opposed to a continuum damage model
because the latter type fails to correlate appropriately the microstructural
microcrack kinetics with the overall constitutive behavior of concrete.
Moreover, a continuum damage model often requires a good number of
fictitious material constants that have to be predetermined by fitting some
experimental results. A stress-based model is chosen as opposed to a strain-
based model because the former type of model allows the additive split of the
strain tensor, facilitating the consideration of anisotropic brittle behavior of
concrete. The most important of all is the fact that the present model is able
to simulate the rate sensitivity of concrete under the previously described
framework of fracture mechanics principles.
Consider a representative control volume, V, for a concrete body. The overall

strain tensor, I which is an average over this control volume, is split up into
two parts, as follows:
= * + * (21)
where, i e is the elastic strain, and * is the damage-induced strain. The
overall compliance tensor, S is similarly split up as

S=S+5* <22>
where, S is the undamaged elastic compliance, and S is the damage-induced
compliance.
It is easy to compute S using one of the several methods available in the

literature. Whereas, the computation of S* requires consideration of
microcrack opening displacements which need some mathematical
manipulations. It is assumed that a concrete body already contains a uniform
distribution of cracks with the size ranging from a , ^ to a , ^ prior to the
application of any load. All these initial cracks are assumed to be located in
a coplanar fashion at the interface of plane aggregate facet and the cement
paste. Of course, the aggregates are assumed to be of polygonal shape. Under
the action of load, these cracks will grow in size, become equal to the size of
aggregate facet and then kink into the cement paste as loading progresses.
While the old cracks are undergoing this process, new cracks are generated
and developed leading concrete to its ultimate stage of collapse. To start
tracking down this scenario mathematically, just one such penny-shaped crack
is considered first with its Euler angles (0,8) and radius a (in case of elliptical
cracks, a is the semi-major axis and it requires an extra parameter, y denoting
the ratio of major axis to minor axis), as shown in Figure 4. Denote the
contribution from this single crack to S* as S**\ where the superscript k
corresponds to the kth crack. In Figure 4, the Euler angles are defined in such
a way that the z-axis coincides with the direction of major principal stress, ql9
and x-axis coincides with the direction of minor principal stress, q 2 .
At first, S'*^\ the compliance of the same crack but with coordinate system
having the z-axis perpendicular to the crack face is found and then S ^ is
determined by using the transformation, S*** = T ^ ' * * ^ . Here, T is the
transformation matrix depending on 0 and 0. As it is evident from the given
definition of 5 * * \ it is a function of 0, 6 and a. Hence, S* is computed as
follows:
S* = Nc fS*(*>(a,0,8)p(a,0,8)dn (23)
where, Nc is the total number of cracks in the control volume; p(a,0,6) is the
probability density function for elliptic cracks with semi-major axis a and
Euler angles 0 and 8; the factor, y will be multiplied with the final value of
compliance (for circular crack, y = 1); and n is the domain of a, <p and 8
under consideration.
crack rim
vector
normal to
crack face
Figure 4. Euler angles for a crack.
Depending upon the stress-field condition (i.e., whether it is triaxial tension,

triaxial compression, or triaxial tension-compression), the compliance matrix
S * is evaluated at a certain point in the domain n and integrated over the
whole domain. Actually, the whole integration domain is subdivided into
several subdomains, flj, fi2,....,nm, depending upon different unique
conditions prevailing in different subdomains and final summation is carried
out throughout all subdomains. Thus,
m
(24)
s*= E
The following fracture criterion for mixed-mode fracture in modes I and II is
applied to determine the unique set of conditions for each subdomain:
2 ( \2
=1 (25)
K
WP
Ic
where, K{, Kfj are the stress intensity factors at the crack tip under mode I
and mode II fracture, respectively (prime refers to the coordinate system local
to the crack); and Kyg, KY?C are the critical stress intensity factors for the
concrete material at the weak plane under mode I and mode II fracture,
respectively.
The weak plane referred to above could be the interface plane between an
aggregate facet and the cement paste when the crack size, a, is smaller than
the aggregate facet, D, or it could be the plane through the cement paste along
which the initial crack kinks into the cement paste. KY and KYfc are material
constants that are not affected by the kinetic effects. On the other hand, Kf
and KJj, as described previously, are crucially dependent on the rate of
applied load, propagation speed of the crack tip during instability, etc. Hence,
the fracture criterion employed here is made rate sensitive.
Although, a three-dimensional stress field would be the ideal generalization

for this model, here, a two-dimensional stress field is considered by
suppressing the third dimension with the help of the condition, q 2 = q$ (q$
is the minor principal stress). This is the reason why q 2 is used before as the
minor principal stress instead of q$. This simplification actually implies the
presence of an axi-symmetric stress field. So, care must be exercised while
applying this model to general two-dimensional problems (either plane stress
or plane strain; the fictitious axis of symmetry would, in those cases, lie on
the plane of the structure). Removal of this limitation is currently under
consideration by the authors.
Several unique cases of the stress field, as considered by Lee and Ju (1991),
determine the boundaries and conditions of several subdomains. Three such
cases are possible: Case I: qj and q 2 are both tensile, and up to four
subdomains can exist. Case II: q{ and q 2 are both compressive, in which up
to ten subdomains can exist. Case III: qx is tensile and q 2 is compressive; at
least two subdomains can exist.
Since the fracture criterion, as given by Eq. (25), is employed to determine

the limits of 0 and a, therefore, the compliance tensor, S* will be affected
accordingly by all time-dependent parameters of the given problem.
The computational algorithm for this model is based on the approach by Ju

and Lee (1991). The specialty of this algorithm is that since S * ^ is a function
of the yet unknown overall compliance, S n (the subscript 'n' refers to the nth
loading step), an initial guess is made by assuming n as equal to S n-1 , the
compliance in the previous loading step, and it proceeds with the calculation
of S n . The value of S* is improved by an iterative procedure until its values
in two successive iterations are within a desired tolerance.
REFERENCES
Achenbach, J.D. and Brock, L.M. (1972), 'On Quasistatic and Dynamic
Fracture', in Dynamic Crack Propagation '72 (Ed. Sih, G.C.), pp.513-528,
Proceedings of an International Conference on Dynamic Crack Propagation,
Lehigh University, Bethlehem, USA, Noordhoff International Publishing,
Leyden.
Ewalds, H.L. and Wanhill, R.J.H. (1989), Fracture Mechanics, Edward

Arnold, Delftse Uitgevers Maatschappij, Delft, Netherlands.
Fanella, D. and Krajcinovic, D. (1988) 'A Micromechanical Model for

Concrete in Compression', Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Vol.29, No.l,
pp. 49-66.
Freund, L.B. (1972), 'Crack Propagation in an Elastic Solid Subjected to

General Loading - 1 . Constant Rate of Extension', Journal of Mechanics and
Physics of Solids, Vol.20, pp. 129-140.
Freund, L.B. (1972), 'Crack Propagation in an Elastic Solid Subjected to

General Loading - II. Non-Uniform Rate of Extension', Journal of Mechanics
and Physics of Solids, Vol.20, pp. 141-152.
Ju, J.W. and Lee, X. (July 1991), 'Micromechanical Damage Models for
Brittle Solids I: Tensile Loadings', Journal of Engineering Mechanics, ASCE,
Vol.117, No.7, pp. 1495-1514.
Lee, X. and Ju, J.W. (July 1991), 'Micromechanical Damage Models for
Brittle Solids II: compressive Loadings', Journal of Engineering Mechanics,
ASCE, Vol.117, No.7, pp. 1515-1536.
Loeber, J.F. and Sih, G.C. (1972), Torsional Wave Scattering about a
Penny-shaped Crack Lying on a Bimaterial Interface', in Dynamic Crack
Propagation '72 (Ed. Sih, G.C), pp. 513-528, Proceedings of an
International Conference on Dynamic Crack Propagation, Lehigh University,
Bethlehem, USA, 1972. Noordhoff International Publishing, Leyden.
Parton, V.Z. and Boriskovsky, V.G. (1989), Dynamic Fracture Mechanics,

Vols.l and 2, Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, New York, USA.
Weerheijm, J. and Reinhardt, H.W. (September 1989), 'Modelling of

Concrete Fracture Under Dynamic Tensile Loading', Proceedings of the
Symposium on Recent Developments in the Fracture of Concrete and Rock,
Cardiff, Wales.
Dynamic Response of Concrete Structures
Under Direct Impact
H.L. Riad (*), A. Scanlon (**)
(*) New England College, Henniker, New
Hampshire, 03242, U.S.A.
(**) The Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, Pennsylvania, 16802, U.S.A.
ABSTRACT
An analytical model is presented for direct impact between a mass and a

reinforced concrete structure. The finite element-based model includes
both elastic and elasto-viscoplastic material properties to represent concrete
and reinforcing steel. The procedure for detecting and modeling contact
and release conditions is presented. Application of the model is illustrated
by results for impact between a mass and a reinforced concrete cantilever
beam.
INTRODUCTION
Civil engineering structures may be subjected to severe loading due to

impact. Examples include transportation structures subjected to impact of
vehicles, marine and offshore structures subjected to ice impact, impact
due to projectiles as a result of explosions, and impact due to falling
objects caused by earthquake or accident. Design for such impact forces
is often empirical in nature because impact phenomena are not well
understood from the viewpoint of structural design and there is
considerable uncertainty about the load levels and loading rates that can be
expected during an impact event, as well as uncertainty about the response
of structures to high loading rates. Analytical procedures are needed to
improve our understanding of behavior of structures subjected to impact

and to provide a basis for more rational design procedures than are
currently available.
This paper outlines an approach to analytical modeling of impact

using the finite element method and nonlinear material response
characteristics. The treatment of impact phenomena for colliding bodies
is based on the formulation presented by Hughes et al. (1976) in which
potential contact nodes are identified in the colliding bodies and the contact
and force conditions at these potential contact nodes are monitored during
the contact/impact event. Since impact often involves severe loading
conditions, nonlinear material response must be considered. For this
study, elasto-plastic material behavior is assumed using the formulation
presented by Owen and Hinton (1980). The impact formulation is
implemented in the computer program DYNPAK developed by Owen and
Hinton. The formulation of the analytical procedure along with an
example solution is presented in the following sections.
EQUATIONS OF MOTION FOR COLLIDING BODIES
The equation of motion of a structural system under dynamic loading at

time station ^ is written as
[M\{u}n + [C\{u}n + {p}n = {/} (1)
where [M] and [C] are the global mass and damping matrices,
respectively, {p} is the global vector of internal resisting nodal forces, {f}
is the vector of consistent nodal forces for the applied body and surface
traction forces grouped together, {u} is the global vector of nodal
accelerations, and {u} is the global vector of nodal velocities. For the
class of impact problems considered, the mass matrix is diagonal and
damping can be neglected. As a result, the damping matrix [C] is zero and
the equation of motion at station t^ reduces to
[M]{a}n * {p}n = {/} (2)
Figure 1 shows schematically a mass about to strike a vertical

cantilever beam. The structure and impacting mass are subdivided into
finite elements whose nodes are represented as either contact or non-
contact nodes. Node groups a and d are non-contact nodes, and groups b
and c are contact nodes. During contact equal and opposite nodal forces
(r) will develop between the adjacent contact nodes. Assuming no other
external forces are present, the equations of motion during contact for the
mass and the structure can be written as,
~Ma
0
0"
Mb
K
+
K
K
aa
ba
K
K
ab
bb
M
I 1
w N
[ol
1 +
[ =
(3)
For the structure, the equations of motion during impact are given by
Mc 0 K
cc K
cd (4)
0 Md K
dc K
dd
r,
3 I 12
10" 8"
G.P. 16
-7777777777777777.
Figure 1. Finite element model of mass striking cantilever beam.
In these expressions, M and K are submatrices for the lumped

masses, and stiffness coefficients, respectively, for the different nodal
subgroups; r is the vector of contact forces; u is the vector of nodal
accelerations; and u is the vector of nodal displacements. Note that during
contact
u u
b = c> a b = a
c and r
c = "Tb-
Solving expressions (3) and (4) above gives the equation of motion of the
combined system during impact
0 0' a v
ab 0 ' 0
0 0 ' + Kba Kcd uc = 0
0 0 Md_ *d 0 Kdd
u
d
0
.
The central difference method is used to solve the equations or
motion. At each degree of freedom i for the structure nodes a, mass nodes
d or the coupled node (b+c) at any time station ^ during contact,
expression (5) is written as
*n+l - 2 H
*n-\
{Pi)n = {0} (6)
At'
which we solve for the unknown displacement u n+ at the next time station
w
During contact, the contact force can be obtained by rearranging Eq.
(4), i.e.,
Mc 0 K
cc K
cd (7)
0 0 Md K
dc Kdd
From the first equation of expression (7) and using the central difference
method, the contact force for a typical time step ^ at each contact degree
of freedom j is computed as
2 u + u
" n n (8)
{rc}j = ~
At'
At each time step, a check is made of the contact conditions to

determine whether a change in contact has occurred. As long as {r c }: as
computed from Equation (8) is positive, contact is still in effect. Once this
contact force becomes negative, contact is no longer taking place and
release conditions have occurred.
CONTACT AND RELEASE CONDITIONS
The analysis procedure for evaluating the conditions at contact and release
follows the general approach given by Hughes et al.
The first occurrence of contact, at any given pair of contact nodes

i, of the system is determined by monitoring displacements at potential
contact nodes and computing compressive nodal contact forces r + > 0
normal to the interface at node i using
. g ((%)- - c y - ) (9)
(mbi + mci)
where subscripts (-) and (+) refer to the conditions before and after
impact, respectively, at the current time station, mbi, mci and iibi, iici are
nodal masses and accelerations before contact for nodal subgroups b and
c, respectively. Once contact has occurred, the common post-impact
accelerations and velocities for the nodes in contact are given, respectively,
by
m + m
bi ci
(mbi + mci)
where (ubi)-l an(^ (^ci)-l a r e ^ e no(^2^ velocities before impact and the
subscript (-1) refers to the value at the previous time station.
The algorithm starts at time station ^ = 0 when the structure is

initially at rest and the mass is moving at velocity v 0 . The initial
displacement uo for both the structure as well as the mass is zero.
Obviously, no contact has taken place yet, i.e., r 0 = 0. Displacements of
the mass and structure are monitored. If penetration of the mass into the
structure is detected, the displacements of the contact nodes are set equal
to the displacement of the mass contact node and the analysis proceeds
with the contact nodes joined together. The nodal contact force is then
monitored and contact is assumed to remain in effect until a tensile contact
force is detected at which time the release condition is invoked. Full
details of the algorithm are given in Riad (1991).
IMPLEMENTATION IN COMPUTER PROGRAM
The impact formulation was implemented in the computer program

DYNPAK presented in the text by Owen and Hinton. The program
incorporates plane stress, plane strain, and axisymmetric elements. The
equations of motion are solved at successive time steps by the explicit
central difference scheme, and the program contains an elasto-viscoplastic
material model as summarized briefly in the following section.
ELASTO-VISCOPLASTIC MATERIAL MODEL
The elasto-viscoplastic material model provides an adequate representation

of certain aspects of nonlinear response of civil engineering materials such
as concrete and reinforcing steel. The model assumes an initial elastic
response followed by plastic straining which is expressed in terms of the
rate of visco-plastic straining. The visco-plastic strain rate can be
expressed as,
e v = 7 t>(F)> J (37)
where y is the fluidity parameter controlling the plastic flow rate,
/ = J{a, yv , k), is a plastic potential, -J- is a vector normal to the yield
do
surface and defines the direction of viscoplastic flow, and the notation <
> implies
0 for F<0 ~Q.
J
= (38)
4>(F) for F>0
The flow function </>(F) is defined as
L - ^ ~ Q] (39)
o
where f(a) depends on the state of stress only.
To define the elasto-plastic material model it is necessary to define

the plastic potential function, f(a), and the fluidity parameter, 7.
Following associated plasticity theory the plastic potential can be replaced
by a yield function. Yield functions available in the program include von
Mises, Tresca, Mohr-Coulomb, and Drucker-Prager. The fluidity
parameter (inverse of viscosity parameter) determines the rate at which
plastic strains develop. Some guidance is available in the work of Bicanic
and Zienkiewicz (1983), based on analysis of dynamic test data, for
selection of an appropriate fluidity parameter. They present the following
expressions for concrete and steel:
Concrete: 7c = I0ao(ee)al (4O)

Steel: 7j = ao{es)al (41)
Full details of the elasto-viscoplastic formulation are given by Owen and

Hinton.
CRITICAL TIME STEP AND STABILITY OF SOLUTION
A key decision in a time-stepping solution of the equations of motion is the

selection of a suitable time step. For an economical solution the largest
feasible time step is required. However the time step must also be small
enough to ensure stability and accuracy of the solution. For wave
propagation problems of the type involved in impact the time taken for a
stress wave to cross an element is a major factor in determining the time
step. For uniaxial problems the critical time step is given by,
where L e is the length of the smallest element and c is the wave velocity.
In the examples that follow it will be shown that a time step exactly on the
stability limit gives the best solution for the contact force in the case of a
uniaxial elastic rod subjected to impact. For two-dimensional problems
and nonlinear material properties the situation is more complicated and
resort was made to trial and error to obtain a suitable time step. For
additional information on the stability of time stepping solutions the reader
is referred to Bathe (1982).
APPLICATION TO IMPACT BETWEEN MASS AND CANTILEVER

BEAM
The impact formulation described above was verified by comparison with

exact results for the case of impact between two elastic results (Riad,
1991). To illustrate the application of the analytical model, results are
presented here for the case of a mass impacting a reinforced concrete
cantilever beam as shown in Figure 2. All elements in the mass and beam
consist of four-node quadrilateral elements. The reinforcing bar is
modeled as a discrete element, and a zone of almost zero stiffness is
included at the base to represent a cracked zone. The mass consists of a
timber zone sandwiched between two steel zones. The model is a highly
simplified representation of a pendulum mass impacting a concrete beam
in tests conducted at The Pennsylvania State University (Scanlon et al.,
1989).
An impact velocity of 68.1 in./sec was assumed. Material

properties considered in the analysis are listed in Table 1.
For the analysis based on elastic response, a time step of 0.4E-05

sec was found to be satisfactory. The contact force at node 6 is shown in
.. 31
6.. ..32
Plain Concrete
Plywood
G.P. 16 Steel
=_-*-C.P. 80
Cracked Concrete
- 0.625"
Figure 2. Reinforced concrete beam example.
Table I. Elasto-Viscoplastic Material Properties

PARAMETER MASS STRUCTURE
Elastic Modulus Steel: 29 E 06 psi Concrete: 3.605 E 05 psi
Timber: 1.3 E 06 psi Steel: 20 E 06
Initial Velocity 68.1 in/sec 0
Yield Stress Steel: 36,000 psi Concrete: 4,000 psi

Timber: 300 psi Steel: 60,000 psi
Fluidity Steel: 1,000 Concrete: 0.01

Parameter Timber: 1.0 Steel: 1,000
Figure 3. After an initial contact, release occurs at about 0.0004 sec with
a second contact occurring at 0.0015 sec. The corresponding displacement
history is shown in Figure 4. After final release, the mass moves away
from the beam at constant velocity and the beam responds in free
vibration.
.004 .006
Figure 3. Contact force at node 6: Elastic.
Figure 4. Displacement-time history at node 6: Elastic.
A second analysis conducted with elasto-viscoplastic properties

resulted in the contact force history shown in Figure 5 for both upper and
lower nodes. In this case a third contact occurs at the lower contact nodes
at about 0.0024 sec. The difference between the elastic and elasto-
viscoplastic response is shown in Figure 6 where the longer contact

duration in the case of viscoplastic response is evident.
i,
Vii
Pii
i i
."ii
i i I ii;
.0000 .0005 .0010 .00'5 .0020 .0025 .0030
TIMG - SEC
Figure 5. Contact force at upper and lower nodes: Elasto-viscoplastic.
. ELASTIC
- ELASTO-vlSClirUSTlC
000 -002 004 .006
TI ME - SEC
Figure 6. Difference between elastic and elasto-viscoplastic

response: Displacement at node 1.
CONCLUSION
The procedure outlined in this paper is capable of modeling direct impact

between an impacting mass and a structure with elastic or elasto-
viscoplastic material properties. The procedure has been illustrated for the
case of a mass striking a cantilever beam. Further studies are required to
provide a basis for selecting a suitable time step for two-dimensional
problems. The impact formulation could be generalized to allow for
contact occurring at locations on aft element between nodal points, and for
sliding at the interface of the impacting surfaces. In addition, other
representations of material behavior could be incorporated into the
analytical model.
REFERENCES
Bathe, K. J. (1982). Finite Element Procedures in Engineering Analysis.

Englewood Cliffs, NY: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Bicanic, N., and Zienkiewicz, O. C. (1983). Constitutive Model for

Concrete Under Dynamic Loading. Earthquake Engineering and Structural
Dynamics. Vol. 11, pp. 687-710.
Hughes, T. J., Taylor, R. L., Sackman, J. L., Cournier, A., and

Kanoknukulchai, W. (1976). A finite element method for a class of
contact-impact problems. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and
Engineering. Vol. 8, pp. 249-276.
Owen, D. J. R., and Hinton, E. (1980). Finite Elements in Plasticity:

Theory and Practice. Swansea, U.K.: Pineridge Press.
Riad, H. L. (1991). Finite Element Analysis of Reinforced Concrete

Structures Under Impact Loading. Ph.D. Thesis, The Pennsylvania State
University, University Park, PA.
Response of Reinforced Concrete
Structures Exposed to Transient Loadings
K.V. H0iseth
SINTEF Structural Engineering/FCB,
The Norwegian Institute of Technology, 7034
Trondheim, Norway
ABSTRACT
The present paper concerns constitutive modelling of reinforced concrete

exposed to high rate loading. A three-dimensional constitutive model for
concrete is presented. The model is based on the elastic/viscoplastic theory,
combined with the smeared crack approach of Ottosen and Dahlblom. The
strain rate influence on the compressive strength of concrete is accounted
for. Reinforcement steel is treated as an elastic/viscoplastic material, taking
account of the strain rate influence on the yield stress. The capability of the
models to reproduce experimentally observed behaviour is demonstrated.
INTRODUCTION
Transient dynamic loadings are often extreme loading cases, with low
probability of occurrence during the service life of a structure. This justifies
a structural analysis approach that takes advantage of the energy absorption
provided by nonlinear geometric- and material behaviour. Even though
causing irreversible deformations and part deterioration of the structure,
this is in many cases acceptable, as long as the structural integrity is
maintained. Under these circumstances, concrete structures, being properly
reinforced, have a significant ability to absorb energy, and still provide
sufficient residual strength. In particular this concerns transient dynamic
loading conditions, because high strain rates have a favourable influence on
the constitutive properties of concrete and reinforcement.
The present paper deals with material modelling of concrete structures

exposed to transient loadings. The models presented are implemented in the
general purpose nonlinear finite element program FENRIS (Finite Element
NonlineaR Integrated System) [12]. The content of the paper is taken from
[1], which gives a more complete treatment of the subject.
AN ELASTICmSCOPLASTIC-SMEARED
CRACK MODEL FOR CONCRETE
The strain rate influence on the properties of concrete has been the issue
of many experimental investigations. Based on a survey of available reports,
the CEB General Task-Group 14, has developed empirical expressions for
the strain rate sensitivity of common properties of concrete [2]. Concerning
the uniaxial compressive strength, the following expression is recommended:
\ 1.026o
fcimp
for |e| s 30.0s"1 (1)
fc
is the uniaxial dynamic compressive strength of concrete

\icstat\ " 3.0-10"5,?"1 is a reference value to static conditions
(2)
f - The mean static cube strength
At very high strain rates, that is above 30 s"1, a different expression is

suggested, which gives a much higher increase in compressive strength, than
Equation (1). The number of tests at very high strain rates are however
scarce [8], and doubts have been expressed about the reliability, see [3]. In
the present paper, the strain rate influence given in Equation (1) is
therefore applied for all strain rates. Considering concrete in compression
as an elastic/visco(perfectly)plastic material, with fc as the static yield stress,
the following expression for the uniaxial dynamic yield stress is adopted:
o - -fc- aln(Ubip) (3)
Equation (3), which was originally proposed by Malvern [4], is adjusted by

means of the method of least squares to fit the CEB recommendations given
in Equation (1), see Table 1.
Table 1 MLS-fitting of Equation (3) to Equation (1)
fe (N/mm2) a (N/mm2) b
20 1.58 -0.87-104
30 1.53 -1.17-104
40 1.51 -1.37-104
50 1.50 -1.52-104
The elastic/viscoplastic theory allows strain rate effects to be accounted for,

after initial yielding has occurred. It is consequently an attractive concept
concerning numerical modelling of the strain rate sensitivity of the compres-
sive strength of concrete. The response of an elastic/viscoplastic material,
consists of an elastic part, which develops instantaneously, and a time
dependent viscoplastic term. For three dimensional states of stress, the
strain rate can be written:
where: om = aw is the mean normal stress
stj - o.j - am, are the deviatoric stress components

Y, denotes a viscosity constant of the material
F-
/(a-)
- 1, is a yield function
1 0 when F<0
<J>' when FzO
AC
F - 0, is the static yield condition
In the present paper, the Drucker-Prager (D-P) yield function is applied.

The D-P yield surface is a circular cone in the principal stress space, which
has its central axis along the hydrostatic axis, and the apex in the tensile
stress octant. The D-P yield function reads:
F(iP - ^ "1 (5)
where: Iô-, is the first invariant of the stress tensor

J2mSySq, is the second invariant of the deviatoric stress tensor
a and k are material constants
It is natural to identify k with the uniaxial compressive strength, fc of

concrete, which implies:
(6)
a determines the shear strength's dependence on the hydrostatic stress.

The partial derivative of/, ie the last term in Equation (4), ensures that the
principal plastic strain increment is directed along the outward normal to
the yield surface. This condition, known as the normality principle, in
addition to a convex shape of F, is necessary and sufficient to fulfil
Drucker's postulate, namely that a random stress path must not generate
energy.
It shall be shown that the dynamic yield criterion can be derived from the
viscoplastic strain rate tensor, which is recognized in Equation (4) as:
(7)
Squaring both sides, and inserting the following plastic strain invariant:
(8)
leads to:
k= idOydOq
(9)
which finally, by using the inverse operator cjr1, gives the dynamic yield
condition:
F = (J)"1 (10)
In the present paper, the function <>| and the viscosity constant y is
determined by claiming equal expressions of Equation (10) and Equation (3)
for uniaxial compressive loading. Hence, the constitutive Equation (4) and
the dynamic yield condition finally become:
(11)
E.
F - -I (12)
f.
Fig 1 shows two cross sections in the principal stress space of typical
dynamic yield surfaces according to Equation (12). For each surface, a
constant plastic strain invariant, /f, is assumed.
Fig 1 Cross sections of the D-P dynamic yield surfaces

for constant plastic strain rates.
a) Meridian plane, 0-0
b) The biaxial stress plane
The Figure demonstrates a weakness of the D-P yield function, when

applied on concrete, namely that the tensile strength is exceeded when a
realistic slope with respect to the hydrostatic axes is applied. In the present
work this is compensated for by the use of a smeared crack formulation for
tensile states of stress. This is indicated by the shaded area in the Figure,
which designates the stress domain outside the validity domain of the
viscoplastic model.
The smeared crack model for tension cracking which is used, for brevity
referred to as the O-D model, is developed by Ottosen and Dahlblom [5].
The O-D model is based on the principles of the fictitious crack model by
Hillerborg et al [6], which is extended to include shear contribution in crack
planes. This fracture mechanics approach is attractive because it makes the
model physically reliable. A second advantage offered by the O-D model is
the objectivity concerning finite element mesh size. A complete description
of the O-D model for three dimensional states of stress is given by Amesen
[7]. This includes the theoretical foundation, a detailed deduction of the
constitutive equations and the numerical implementation in FENRIS.
AN ELASTICAaSCOPLASTIC MODEL FOR STEEL
Equation (13) is an empirical formulae which expresses the strain rate

influence on the yield stress of reinforcement steel. The expression is
recommended by CEB [2], and is adopted in the present work.
(13)
where: f^ is the dynamic yield stress

is a regression coefficient
Jy
&sstat-5.0'10'5s~l is the strain rate defined as quasistatic loading
The constant c in the regression coefficient is material dependent. The

following values are recommended for steel grades according to the German
code DIN 488:
c - 6.0 N/mm2 for BSt 420/500
c - 5.1 N/mm2 for BSt 500/550
In the context of viscoplasticity, the constitutive equation and the dynamic

yield condition, read:
ft = ** + e = + (iSMteJ)F) (14)
E
F - . i - fe(-f_) (15)
Z
Jy Jy SStat
NUMERICAL IMPLEMENTATION
The elastic/viscoplastic - smeared crack model is implemented in the eight

node isoparametric hexahedron of FENRIS, which is applied to represent
concrete. The element allows three orthogonal cracks to be formed at each
of the eight integration points. The elastic/viscoplastic model for reinforce-
ment is implemented in a two node bar element. In combination with the
hexahedron, the nodes of the bar element in FENRIS may be located
centric as well as eccentric to the nodes belonging to the hexahedron. In the
present work, the semidiscrete equation of motion, is expressed in terms of
the Total Lagrangian formulation. Nonlinear geometric behaviour is
accounted for by use of the Green strain definition. In conjunction with

Green strain, the 2.Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor is applied.Time integration
of the semidiscrete equation of motion, is carried out at consecutive time
stations, by means of the average acceleration algorithm [9].
The viscoplastic strain increment, occurring in the time interval between two
consecutive time stations, i.e. from tk to tk+l, is governed by the viscoplastic
strain rate at timestation tk. This is known as the Euler time integration
scheme of the viscoplastic strain increment, see [10].
Solving the nodal displacement increments occurring during a time interval

tk - tk+l, is an incremental-corrective procedure which accounts for the
increments in external loads as well as unbalanced forces at timestation tk.
Due to the strong limitations on the integration timestep length associated
with transient analysis, equilibrium iterations are commonly considered as
unnecessary in order to obtain sufficiently accurate results.
NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF A RESTRAINED CONCRETE

SLAB EXPOSED TO TRANSIENT LOADING
Keenan [11] performed in 1969 a theoretical and experimental study of the

resistance and behaviour of reinforced concrete slabs under static and
dynamic loadings. In [1], the dynamic tests are used to demonstrate the
capabilities of the material models to reproduce experimentally observed
behaviour. Here, some of the numerical results from one of the tests shall
be presented.
The geometry of the slab, the reinforcement layout, the boundary conditions
and the uniform pressure load is shown in Fig 2. The concrete strength was
measured to 22.9 N/mm2, while the yield stresses of the steels used for
stirrups and longitudinal reinforcement, were 276 N/mm2 and 327 N/mm2,
respectively. The slab was subjected to seven cycles of loading, denoted
according to increasing intensity as Shotl, Shot2, etc. The numerical results,
which are to be shown, pertains to the Shot7 history, see Fig 3, which
caused ultimate failure. Due to symmetry, i.e. equal boundary conditions
along all four edges, orthogonal reinforcement layout, and uniform pressure,
only one quarter of the slab was modelled, see Fig 4. The shaded area of
the model designates the boundary.
Fig 3 shows the measured and calculated deflection of the centre of the
slab. Only the first part of the experimental registrations are shown. The
remaining part of the curve, as reported in [11], continues with equal, and
almost constant rate, to cut off at 152 mm. This is probably due to the
ultimate failure of the slab.
7 0 6.4 c/c 51 mm = 305 mm I
4 0 6.4 c/c 152 mm = 457 mm
13 0 12.7 c/c 152 mm = 1829 mm
111111111111111111
Uniform dynamic pressure
J
ft
95 mm
1
121 mm
95 mm
/ >
^
ft ft
1
Î
Fig 2 Cross section of slab
It should be noticed that the high level compressive stress produced,

justified the use of a secant modulus between zero stress and the com-
pressive strength of concrete, which was applied in the elasticMscoplastic
model. Some of the initial difference in the measured and computed deflect-
tion may be due to a delay between loading and deflection measurements.
Some of the loss of initial stiffness, shown by the measured deflection, was
likely caused by cracking, and possible deterioration of compressive loaded
areas of the slab, developed by previous load cycles. This was not accounted
for in the numerical analysis. Subsequent to the initial deflection, however,
Fig 3 shows that the experimental and calculated rate of deflection were
almost identical.
Fig 4 shows the cracking at the time of maximum deflection of the slab. The
crack pattern confirms the classical yield line theory, that yield lines for
concrete in compression should be produced at the edge of the boundary
and along the diagonals of the slab. This would create extensive cracking at
the edge of the boundary at the bottom face and along the diagonals at the
top face, as demonstrated in Fig 4. The huge amount of cracking, and the
orthogonal pattern at the top face, are recognized on the picture of the
destroyed slab, see Fig 6. Fig 4 shows that the cracks close to the boundary,
expanding from the bottom face, and at the midst of the slab, expanding
from the top face, almost run through the complete cross section. The large
rotation of the bending cracks, close to the boundary at the top face, see Fig
4, indicates that the direction of the compressive membrane forces was
almost horizontal. Fig 5 shows the calculated values and directions of the
maximum principal stress in compression at the top and bottom face of the
20.0 -
16.0 .
h 12.0 .
c
o
0.0
4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 Time, (ms)
Fig 3 Deflection-time and pressure-time, shot 7
the slab, at the time of maximum deflection. The high intensity and
horizontal direction of the boundary stresses, illustrate an approaching "snap
through", that is, an instantaneous change from compressive membrane
behaviour to flexible membrane behaviour. The Figure shows that large
sections of the slab were subjected to states of stress in the viscoplastic
domain. The plastic yielding occurred to some extent at the bottom face, but
mainly in the highly stressed area close to the boundary at the top face. The
maximum principal viscoplastic strain was 4.9 10"3, which extends the
validity domain of the concrete model, even for three dimensional states of
stress. This is due to the lack of softening description in compression.
Hence, the compressive stiffness is independent of the value on the
viscoplastic strains. This explains why snap through was not achieved
numerically, and that the yielding in the longitudinal reinforcement was
moderate compared to the ruptured bars shown in Fig 6.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Concrete in particular, but also reinforcement steel are rate sensitive

materials. In the present work, the theory of viscoplasticity is applied in
combination with suggested expressions for the strain rate influence on the
strength of concrete and steeLThe capability to reproduce experimentally
observed behaviour is demonstrated for a load history that involved elastic
and viscoplastic levels of compressive stress, as well as cracking in tension.
In order to improve the numerical description at ultimate failure, more
work, both experimentally and theoretically is needed to include the
softening behaviour at high level viscoplastic strains. More work is also
needed to include the strain rate influence on the tensile strength and
fracture energy of concrete.
1 -1
i t
44
2-2
3-3 -f-f- -H- rrr 4-4- 4-t- 44

4-4 if-
I
- 44- 4f-
t-t 4-4 14
+
| | 1 t t + +
5-5 Y 1
=:
11 r-
>
f
-T
-r I I T T
1 1
6-6 { 1
1
7-7
8-8
Fig 4 Cracks at maximum deformation, cross sections, shot 7

TOP FACE
O Yielding
20 Nfmm2
Fig 5 Maximum principal stress in compression, top face of slab, shot7
Top face
Fig 6 Slab after test, shot 7 [11]

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The contents of the present paper is taken from the work reported in [1],
which has been carried out by grants from the University of Trondheim.
Parts of the work were prepared in the project "Ductility of High Strength
Concrete under Special Loading Conditions" [8], funded by the Norwegian
Defence Construction Service (NDCS), A/S Norske Shell, Norwegian
Contractors a.s (NC), The Royal Norwegian Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research (NTNF) and the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate
(NPD).
REFERENCES
1. H0iseth, K. V. Nonlinear Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Structures

Exposed to Transient Loading, Dr Ing Thesis in printing.
2. Concrete Structures under Impact and Impulsive Loading, Bulletin
d'Information No 187, Comite Euro-International du Beton (CEB),
1988.
3. Hegemier, G.A. and Read, H.E. 'On Deformation and Failure of Brittle
Solids: Some Outstanding Issues' Mechanics of Materials, Vol 4, No 4,
1985.
4. Perzyna, P. 'Fundamental Problems in Viscoplasticity' Advances in
Applied Mechanics, Vol 9, 1966.
5. Ottosen, N.S. and Dahlblom, O. 'Smeared Crack Analysis Using a
Generalized Fictitious Crack Model' Journal of Engineering Mechanics,
ASCE, Vol 116, No 1, 1990.
6. Hillerborg, A., Modeer, M. and Peterson, P-E. 'Analysis of Crack
Formation and Crack Growth in Concrete by Means of Fracture
Mechanics and Finite Elements' Cement and Concrete Research, Vol
6, 1976.
7. Arnesen, A. Tension Cracking of Reinforced Concrete in 3-D Stress State,
Report no.: 89-2028, A.S Veritas Research, Oslo, 1989.
8. H0iseth, K. and Aassved Hansen, E. Ductility of High Strength
Concrete under Special Loading Conditions. State-of-the~Art., Report
STF65 A91011, SINTEF, Trondheim, 1991.
9. Hughes, T. J.R. The Finite Element Method - Linear Static and Dynamic
Finite Element Analysis, Prentice Hall, Inc., 1987.
10. Owen, D.R.J. and Hinton, E. Finite Elements in Plasticity - Theory
and Practice, Second reprint, Pineridge Press Limited, Swansea,
United Kingdom, 1986.
11. Keenan, W.A. Strength and Behaviour of Restrained Reinforced Concrete
Slabs under Static and Dynamic Loadings, Technical Report R-621, Y-
F008-08-02-123, DASA-RSS3318, Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory,
Port Hueneme, California 1969.
12. FENRISj User Manual, Det norske Veritas, H0vik, Norway, April 1987.
Simulated Estimation of Residual Life of
Impactly Loaded Structures
J. Cacko
Institute of Materials and Machine Mechanics of
the Slovak Academy of Sciences, Racianska 75,
CS-836 06 Bratislava, Czecho-Slovakia
At present in the research fellowship which is sponsored by Alexander von
Humboldt Foundation at Fraunhofer-Institut fur Betriebsfestigkeit - LBF,
Bartningstrasse 47, D-6100 Darmstadt, Germany
ABSTRACT
The simulating method of a residual life estimation

of impactly loaded structures is presented. The
loading is considered as a combination of both a
continuous component which can be described by the
theory of stochastic processes and various
discontinuous events which have a shock and impact
character. These events can be assumed as a poissonic
process, and they must be simulated separately. The
simulated loading is recalculated using some
appropriate counting method and it create an input
information for relationships of a residual life
prediction.
Keywords: poissonic processes, counting method,

rainflow matrix.
INTRODUCTION
The structures, which are operated under dynamic

loading conditions, are very frequently subjected to
rarely occured shock loadings with a great
stress/strain amplitude. These shocks and impacts can
arise e.g. from either various manoeuvres (e.g.
breakings and cornerings), which are caused by a
road/rail roughness at the transport, pressure
billows of air/water at air/sea transport or some

infrequently occurred circumstances,as explosions and
detonations in a chemical and nuclear industry, etc.
These influences can be considered as a poissonic
process and they can be simulated like one, too.
In this way together with the modelling of a continuous
component, we can simulate the whole loading of a
structure during its operation in a real life.
At the same time, there can arise problems with

a mutual correlation of individual loading knots.
That must be solved by considering cross-correlated
processes, what brings new demands to the creation of
simulating procedures and significantly complicates
all this access.
The residual life can be estimated in two

different ways:
1. The rainflow matrix is continually created,
parallelly to a simulation of an operational
loading. The matrix can create either a basis for
a standard evaluation of the loading influence on
a material endurance or an imput information for
the calculation of a residual life prediction.
2. The operational damage of a material is also
continually modelled, parallelly to a simulation,
according to some hypothesis of the fatigue damage
cumulation. Then, the residual life of operated
structures could be estimated on the basis of such
a model.
The presented approach is suitable for an

optimal structure design from loading and
environmental points of view. Proceeding this
performance on a computer in the stage before the
first prototype creation, the time, energy and
economical expenses are saved. The method is also
suitable in a lot of cases from the safety point of
view because the possibility of a real structure
operational crash is excluded.
SIMULATION OF OPERATIONAL PROCESSES
The problem of a simulation of operational processes

can be basically solved in two different ways. The
simulation of a process by markov chains is the first

possibility and the modelling of a continuous process
with discontinuous events is the second one. Let us
discuss all these accesses now.
Modelling of markov processes

The simulation using markov chains is the most simple
way of markov processes modelling. In this case, we
suppose the ordinate of a stochastic process
explicitly depends only on a foregoing ordinate. It
mathematically means that the n-dimensional
probability density of a process x(t) can be
expressed in the shape
f(x ,x , . . . , x , x ) = f ( x )TTf(x
)TTf(x /x ). (1)
n n-1 2 1 1 I I ii i - 1
i=2
Because the mechanism of material fatigue

damaging is characterized by closing hysteresis loops
in the stress-strain plane, and we suppose a fatigue
damage has a conservative character (i.e. the fatigue
damage increment at a transition from one
stress/strain level to the other is independent on
the transition trajectory), it is advantageous to
consider only local extremes of the stochastic
process instead of its individual ordinates. The
practical procedure is then as follows:
1. We must divide all the range of functional values
of a loading process into N either equidistant or
nonequidistant levels.
2. We shall create a series of local extremes from
the operational process record, and then we shall
investigate a number of transitions from i-level
to j-level, for i,j = 1,...,N. We should exclude
such local extremes from a series, which remain at
the same level as foregoing ones. Likewise,
considering the influence of small loading
amplitudes on the fatigue damaging process, we can
exclude transitions to neighbouring levels. That
will considerably accelerate a simulation running
owing to a great frequency of occurrences of just
such transitions.
3. Then we could obtain the probability of
transitions from i-level to j-level: p dividing
i,j
the number of transitions from i-level to j-level
by a total number of transitions: n.
4. Thus, we could get a matrix of the transition
probability from i-level to j-level: P which is
i/j
composed of the elements p . It must hold for
i/j
this matrix:
a, p = 0 ; for i = 1,...,N
= 0 or 1; f o r i = 1 , . . . , N
p = 0 or 1; f o r l = 1 , . . . , N .
i/j
The zero condition could come in the case b, only

if p = 0 for all k<i, i.e. if a local maximum on
k,i
i-level does not exist. The zero condition in the
case c, could occur only if p = 0 for all k>i,
k,i
i.e. if a local minimum on i-level does not exist.
5. Simulating the loading process, we always cross
from lower subdiagonal triangle matrix into the
upper one and the other way round. This method is
more particularly described in Cacko at al /I/.
The advantage of random modelling as a markov
chain is in a relative simplicity and rapidity. The
consequential restriction is, however, in the
impossibility of an extrapolation in the range which
is distant from the main diagonal surrounding. The
occurrence of a measured value in this range namely
leads to the overestimation of its influence but, on

the contrary, its absence can lead to the
underestimation. For some events of great amplitudes
or mean values, it can produce orderly different
results, regarding to a nonlinear character of a
fatigue damaging. Therefore, we are mostly forced to
simulate the operational loading process as a time
series.
Modelling of time series

Modelling of operational processes as time series
consists of two different parts: 1. modelling of a
continuous component, and 2. modelling of
discontinuous events.
1. The problem of measurement, evaluation and

modelling of continual processes is particularly
described in / I / . Hier, let us only shortly overlook
algorithms which can be used for modelling of
previously measured and evaluated random signals.
If the operational process x(t) is a stationary

one, its ordinates can be generated according to the
relationship
x = m (1-/ c ) + a + y c x , (2)
i x Zi j i Z i j i-j
where m is a mean value of x(t), c are filtering

x j
coefficients which can be obtained by solving of an
algebraic equations system (see /I/), and a are
i
ordinates of a stationary white noise with a zero
mean value.
If the process x(t) is a nonstationary one

either in the mean value or in the variance, we
should use the relationship
V""T
x = m + a + \ c ( x -m ), (3)
i x i Z i j i-j x
i j=l i-j
otherwise we can use equation (2) with some

nonstationary white noise a(t).
If the process x(t) is a nonstationary one in an

autocorrelation function (power spectral density),
filtering coefficients will be time dependent.
This model is generally suitable only for

gaussian processes, what is not always fulfiled for
operational processes. Moreover, there can arise
problems with a convergence of a solution.
Therefore, it is more suitable to proceed from a

model of superposed partial autoregressive filtered
processes
x = ^ (a + c x ) , (4)
j
which enables to model nongaussian processes, too

(see /I/).
In the case of investigating of more knots of

one structure, we must consider a correlation among
them, and therefore, if we want model such loading
processes, we should consider their cross-correlation
functions. The general relationship (see /I/) is very
complicated one, but we can luckily suppose series of
simplificable conditions in practical cases, that is
why the each individual case must be solved
separately.
2. It follows from practical experiences

(especially in a transport service and explosionable
operation) that the low-pass frequency range
(approximately below 10 Hz) cannot be mostly
described as a continuous process but only as a

series of discontinuous events of a poissonic type.
Such shock and impact processes have a character of

some infrequent phenomenon, and they can be described
as a poissonic process (see Buxbaum / 2 / ) , and then
they could be modelled such a way, too. We must be,
however, very careful in this case because the result
is very sensitive to the shape of simulated events,
the events frequency and time delays between them.
There do not arise problems in the case of easy

identificable events. Then we can exactly evaluate
the shape, frequency and also time delay of these
events. More complicated situation will come, if we
have mixed cross-correlated positive and negative
events. In such a case, these positive and negative
events could be approximated by two poissonic
processes with parameters 1 = |m + s | and 1 = |m -
H x x D x
- s I respectively, where m is a mean value and s
X X X
is a standard deviation of the discontinuous
component. The modelling of these events can be then
made according to the relationship
x x
i
~i r
r , (5)
j
where r are uniformly distributed random numbers on

the interval (0;l) and x is the size of the event.
i
Because the poissonic process, which has been
obtained this way, is a discrete one, it is suitable
to perform a linear or nonlinear interpolation, so
that to have a continuous character of an events
size. That better corresponds to a reality, and that
is very important owing to a subsequent
superposition.
The results, which have been achieved at

rainflow matrix simulation, show that a correct

approximation of events shape is very significant,
too. Provided an analytical shape of events is not
evident from the measurement record, it is necessary
to choice a compromise between two marginal cases
ramp and triangle. It seems (regarding to experience)
the cosine shape with both a mean value and amplitude
1/2 1 best fulfills a physical nature of operational
events in a great deal of practical cases, but it
does not hold absolutely, and mostly a combination of
these typical shapes must be performed. Therefore,
each case must be investigated individually, so that
a mixture of various events could be used.
The events occurrence frequency can be either

specified from the physical properties of a process
or it can be relatively simple identified from a
measurement record (the whole record length divided
by the number of events). We must only look-out for a
possible autocorrelation or cross-correlation with
opposite events. There remains so far the problem how
to identify the time delay of events because no exact
specification is available, and the resultant effect
is very sensitive to a correct identification of this
interval. It is also very important to seriously
consider a possible correlation between the event
size and time delay.
CLOSED HYSTERESIS LOOPS COUNTING
A number of research works demonstrate the quantity

of an accumulated fatigue damage in the material is
decisive for a fatigue life. The fatigue damage
increment can be counted after closing of each
hysteresis loop in the stress-strain plane. It is
very convenient to count these hysteresis loops
continually, parallelly to a simulating performance.
The computer memory is saved this way, and an
investigation of the course of a fatigue damaging in
dependency on elapsed time is possible, too. The
algorithm of such continual counting was elaborated
and described in Cacko /3/. The continual counting
arises from the well-known rainflow method. Each
closed cycle corresponds with one closed hysteresis
loop in the stress-strain plane. Performing this
closed hysteresis loops counting, we are able to

continually constitute a rainflow matrix.
Executing the practical application, we must not

forget to consider an influence of a mean value s
m
such a way, that instead of s , the stress s = s +
a a
+ p s , where p is a sensitivity to the assymetry of
m
a cycle, must be assumed. If there has been a
combination of loading, it must be used the reduced
stress s instead of s according to some
red a
hypothesis (e.g. HMH). Investigating parts and
structures, there must be also considered notch
effects, size and surface factors, the actual fatigue
limit of a structure regarding to a shape strength,
possible alteration of material characteristics
caused by a temperature influence, corrosion,
radiation, etc. All these effects will be expressed
in the relationship for a calculation of a fatigue
damage cumulation, mostly implicitly included in
either the actual fatigue limit or parameters of the
Woehler's curve.
CREATING OF RAINFLOW MATRICES
The method of simultaneous operational process

simulating and rainflow counting gives an advantage
to make a credit of each damage increment
immediately. Practically it means that we make an
unit credit to the element r at each closed loop
i/j
which is made by the transition from i-level to
j-level (at loading: i<j, at relieving: i>j) Thus
the number r characterizes the number of
i# J
hysteresis loops at the transition from i-level to
j-level. The matrix R which consists of these
i, j
elements is called as a rainflow matrix then.
Before creating of the rainflow matrix, it is
useful to specify some so-called significant level,

i.e. such the minimal amplitude magnitude, that each
fatigue damage increment which is below this
magnitude can be considered as a negligible value.
Then amplitudes which are lesser than this elected
one will be simply discharged and not counted.
Regarding to the fact that for a great deal of
processes (namely with a significant
autocorrelation), the dominant part of the amplitude
spectrum consists of such amplitudes, all this course
will be considerably accelerated this way. At the
same time, however, it must be respected a mutual
interaction of sizes of as well amplitudes as mean
values because also small amplitudes could be
significant in the case of a big mean value, from the
fatigue point of view.
The procedure could be mostly used for creating

of a three-dimensional matrix, where the third
parameter is a vector that is constituted of elements
which represent a sequence of closing of the given
hysteresis loop. It is evident that each sequence
must be represented only and just once in a group of
all vectors.
This procedure can be also completed in such a way

that it will be added some next element, which
characterizes either a number of interrupts till
closing of a given hysteresis loop or the total
elapsed time, to each element of the vector that
constitutes the third matrix dimension. Thus
two-dimensional elements will be originated (or the
rainflow matrix will be four-dimensional) whereupon
we shall then get an entire information of the time
history of a closed hysteresis loop creation.
The practical utilization of rainflow matrices

is many-sided, but mostly they are used as an input
information for various standards. The each result of
a simulation must be verificated by a comparison with
actual or experimental results because a simulation
(like each numerical method) is very sensitive to a
systematical mistake. We consider orderly as many as
millions of cycles, and we need orderly as many as
hundreds of various operations for creating of each
one cycle, therefore, even a practically negligible

systematical mistake can evoke order differences.
Because the rainflow matrix is a three (or four)
dimensional information, where the comparison is very
problematical, it is convenient to make a
verification also for one-dimensional characteristics
which have been derived from a rainflow matrix,
namely for level-crossings and range-pairs curves.
EVALUATION OF THE RESIDUAL LIFE
The results of an elaboration of simulated loading

processes can be directly used for a calculation of
the accumulated fatigue damage. This has such an
advantage that it render possible to consider
continuous loading levels. The basis of such a model
is in a specification of a fatigue damage function.
It is the function which characterizes a stage of a
material, respectively a structure in the running of
damaging influence of external loading, and it is
dependent on a number of cycles and a level of this
loading.
The conditions which are layed on this function

are following: the function is a nondimensional
quantity; it is a rising-up (or at least an
unfailing-down) one in both parameters; it acquires a
zero value before starting of damaging and unit value
at reaching of the critical stage; and it must
quantitatively represent the rate of material damage
after a definite number of cycles at the given level.
The performance of the first three conditions is

only a mathematical problem, but the principal will
be to fulfill the fourth condition for what we need to
know a real process of a damage accumulation in a
material. There are not so far unambiguous opinions
about a magnitude of a critical damage. There exist
a lot of various criteria and hypotheses, and it can
be assumed a development in this area is not closed
by far.
The damage increment in the course of the n-th

cycle on a given level is then calculated as a
derivation of this function. The critical damage or
failure then comes at a number of cycles, when the

sum of damage increments has just acquired the unit
value. It is evident the result is significantly
dependent on the choiced hypothesis of the fatigue
damage cumulation.
CONCLUSIONS
The presented method render an estimation of residual

life possible using the simulating method, i.e.
without real structures or prototypes and without
testing technology, too. The procedure of loading
simulation enables to model also processes which have
shock and impact characters. The submitted approach
has indisputable advantages in comparison to
traditional theoretical-experimental methods in wide
flexibility and saving of time, materials and energy.
This way, we can solve any tasks, e.g. estimation of
fatigue life of the given structure under given
loading, optimalization of materials choice,
structure dimensioning, influence of environmental
conditions, etc. The whole procedure then leads to a
creation of the automatizationa1 system of structure
residual life monitoring.
REFERENCES
1. Cacko, J., Bily, M. and Bukoveczky, J. "Random

Data: Measurement, Analysis and Simulation",
Elsevier, Amsterodam, 1988.
2. Buxbaum, O. "Betriebsfestigkeit", Stahleisen,

Dusseldorf, 1986 (in German).
3. Cacko, J. "Simultaneous Computer Simulation of

Operational Random Processes and Continual Rainflow
Counting", Int. J. of Fatigue, to be printed.
Combined Symbolic-Numeric Structural
Damage Assessment for Post-Attack
Conditions
T. Krauthammer (*), R. Muralidharan (**),
W. Schmidt (***)
(*) Department of Civil Engineering, Penn State
University, University Park, PA 16802, U.S.A.
(**) Engineers International, Inc., Westmont,
IL 60559-1595, U.S.A.
(***) Surgery, University of Minnesota Hospital,
Minneapolis, MN 55455, U.S.A.
ABSTRACT
A combined symbolic-numeric distributed approach has been developed for

assessing damage inflicted upon structures by explosions, determining the
sequence of structural responses, estimating the causes and applied loads, and
providing recommendations regarding the future service of the structure. The
combined system provided good results for the test cases considered, and
corresponding conclusions and recommendations are drawn.
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

Structural damage assessment is a difficult process in which observed damage
is mapped into the failure modes which caused the damage and the future
resistive capacity for the structure is evaluated. Upon inspecting a damaged
structure and it's surroundings, ah expert is to infer the sequence of behavioral
events that caused the observed condition and then determine its structural
condition, usefulness, and repair potential. These requirements become
especially critical for structures subjected to explosive attack conditions, and
the present approach is aimed at overcoming such difficulties.
In general terms, an expert system is an interactive computer code that can

represent the intelligence and knowledge of one or more experts by employing
heuristic knowledge embedded in a symbolic representation. Extensive
discussions on inference engines and the search process they use to explore
through facts, rules, and plausible inferences were presented by Buchanan and
Shortliffe (1984), Hayes-Roth et. al. (1983), and Rich (1983). Ross et al.
(1986) showed that, in many cases, experts could reach similar final
conclusions inspite of presenting diverge interpretations of the same view of
a damaged structure. Waterman (1986) noted that human experts can
comprehend most of the information an image offers, but when the picture is
translated into just a few symbols for an expert system to manipulate the
amount of information available for analysis is significantly reduced. As the
accuracy and completeness of the model increases so will the expert's systems
ability to produce a correct analysis.
The present structural assessment approach is an expert system in the form of

a high level symbolic rule-base system which calls low level numeric codes,
and it is the third generation of an evolving approach (Krauthammer and
Kohler 1986, and Krauthammer 1987). The function of the present system is
similar to those developed by others (Ross et al. 1986 and 1988, Carson et al.
1986; Wong et al. 1988). The approach presented here, however, couples
traditional expert system inference methods (symbolic processes) with
traditional engineering mathematical modeling methods (numeric processes).
Furthermore, both the symbolic and numeric approaches employed here were
dedicated to this specific problem, and the two-way interaction between these
approaches was designed to expedite the process.
COMBINATION OF SYMBOLIC AND NUMERIC PROCESSES
The need to combine symbolic and numeric approaches is not new, almost all
solutions of physical problems contain some form of such a combination. A
simple example of such a combination of approaches is a diagnostic session at
the physician's office. The physician combines his personal opinion of the
patients condition (a symbolic method) with the results of tests run on the
patient (numeric methods) to obtain a diagnosis and the corresponding
treatment. The issue of symbolic versus numeric process can be viewed in the
more general context of problem structure versus problem solving method.
Degroff (1987), and Wong et al. (1988) discussed interface methods and
requirements for developing successfully coupled symbolic-numeric programs,
and Krauthammer (1990) presented a discussion on this subject that included
examples from several areas in structural engineering. In the present study
symbolic and numeric processes are combined in the form of an expert system
that calls numeric procedures to support the decision process. Furthermore,
distributed processing is utilized by employing two separate processors for this
purpose. The expert system uses symbolic reasoning to both effectively interact
with an engineer and to control the flow of an analysis. When the inference
process decides that a specific numeric code needs to be used, a call is made
to a batch file. The commands in this file use the network to contact the
numeric facility and initiate the required numeric program. The use of a data
base containing required information in a suitable format reduces the time
needed for data acquisition from the user. Furthermore, the expert system also
provides an intelligent and user friendly interface for data acquisition.
THE EXPERT SYSTEM
The Expert System shell which has been used for the development was
Personal Consultant Plus (PC+) (Texas Instruments 1987). A P C + knowledge
base consists of three basic structures: frames, parameters, and rules. Each
frame represents a context, each parameter represents a fact, and each rule
represents a heuristic used by an expert during the assessment process. Each
frame, parameter, and rule has a set of properties associated with it.
Frames are organized in a tree-like structure, sub-frames (child frames) of a

(parent) frame represent a logical, more detailed division of the concept the
parent frame represents. Parameters and rules are placed in groups within
frames with which they relate. Descendent frames can refer to (inherit) values
of parameters in ancestor frames, and ancestor frames can call upon rules of
descendent frames. Two particularly important properties of frames are initial
data and goals, both of which are lists of parameters. When a frame is created,
the system attempts to find values for the parameters in the initial data list.
After it finds values for these parameters and performs operations called for
by the found values, it searches for values of the parameters listed in the goal
property. In attempting to find values for parameters, it may set additional
parameter values and create new frames. Thus initial data and goals help to
control the inference process.
The building frame represents the composite structure which is being

considered. The main goal of the building frame is to consider each component
or structural member of the structure one at a time, therefore one frame for
each damaged structural member of the building is created under the building
frame. In this discussion, a structural member is expected to be a slab, though
other structural elements (such as, beams, columns, etc.) can also be addressed
by the system. The initial data to be determined for each structural member
frame is where the member is damaged. Other structural members are analyzed
using area frames created under the member frame. Up to five area frames
(left-connection, left, middle, right, right-connection) are created per
corresponding structural member. The goals of an area frame are to explain all
appropriate damage in an area.
Each structural member is also associated with a report frame which is invoked
after the damage assessment is performed, in order to draft an appropriate
damage report for the user. If successful interactions have taken place between
the symbolic and numeric assessment modules, the numeric report frame is
called and is incorporated in the final report; otherwise only the symbolic
report frame is used. The following eight predefined types of damage are
employed: cracks, crushed concrete, concrete teeth, deflection, spalling
concrete, pulled out bars, and broken bars.
Once the initial damage data have been collected the system is driven by the
goals of the member frame which are to report on specific structural response
modes and mechanisms, or by combinations thereof. The following response
modes reported by the system and damage associated with each are listed in the
chronological order of their occurrence: direct shear, punching shear, shear
compression, diagonal tension, and flexure.
THE NUMERICAL STRUCTURAL ASSESSMENT TOOL
Explosive devices release large amount of energy over fractions of a second

and they can inflict severe structural damage. In the present context, such a
loading environment can be either a nuclear detonation (for example, ASCE
1985), or a conventional detonation generated by chemical explosives (for
example, U.S. Army 1986). Structural responses to these two loading cases are
governed by the same structural mechanisms. Although the present approach
may involve various numeric codes, the process will be discussed further and
illustrated by employing the single degree of freedom SDOF capabilities that
can treat both conventional and nuclear explosive events (Krauthammer et al.
1986,1990). This numerical code can use either the Crawford et al. (1971), or
the Drake and Little (1981) method to generate the pressure-time history for
a conventional explosion. Also, the code can be used for assessing structures
subjected to nuclear blast, based on the loading functions provided by ASCE
(1985) and by Speicher and Brode (1981). The program accepts a description
of a slab (geometry, detailing, and material properties) and an applied load,
and computes various resisting mechanisms and the overall structural response.
SYMBOLIC - NUMERIC COUPLING
The interaction between the two machines and the steps followed to carry out
combined symbolic-numeric assessment have been described by Muralidharan
and Krauthammer (May 1989). The approach provides the user with the
following three assessment options: Only numeric, only symbolic, and
combined symbolic-numeric. The expert system accesses the numerical analysis
facility and checks to see if a "skeleton" file (a file specifying dimensions and
detailed information about the undamaged condition of the specific facility) is
stored in the data base. The skeleton file, if it exists, is updated by the expert
system with information provided by the user to the symbolic facility, and it
is sent back to the numerical analysis facility for execution. If the skeleton file
does not exist, the user may either create a skeleton file for the specific
structure to enable numeric support or continue with a purely symbolic damage

assessment procedure. A skeleton file can be created by providing required
input to a specific numeric code (i.e., the user must follow a manual for that
code). The symbolic process, for both combined or 'pure' approaches, is like
a typical consultation session with a diagnostic expert system.
ASSESSMENT AND CONTROL PROCESS
The present approach is illustrated in Figure 1. As mentioned earlier, the user

is asked to select the types of damage from the list of predefined damage types
for each damaged area. The system then creates a "response" frame under the
area frame to obtain further information about the identified types of damage
and relate them to structural response modes. Rules can also be used to control
the interaction between symbolic and numeric procedures. When damage in
each area has been associated with corresponding modes of structural response,
this information is passed onto the member frame where more rules interpret
the information from a global point of view. The coupled symbolic-numeric
process is achieved when information obtained from the numeric code is
continuously used in support of the symbolic process. The numeric information
is used both to verify results reached by the symbolic process from the user's
observations, and as "input" to questions for which the user was unable to
provide data (such as, deflection values, etc.). Additional interactions with the
user and/or with the numeric facility are invoked if the numeric information
disputes either user supplied input or decisions based on such input. Finally a
report is written for the member and the system moves on to consider other
damaged members.
This system operated on two separate IBM Personal System/2 Model 60

computers with the expert system running on one and the numerical analysis
program (SLAB) executing on the other. The communication between the two
facilities was carried out using a local area network, (IBM PC-LAN, Version
1.2), the operating system used was IBM DOS (Version 3.3), PC+ ran in a
PC-SCHEME (Version 3.03, a Lisp dialect developed by Texas Instruments)
environment. It should be noted that the expert system acts as both a symbolic
facility and as a controller of the entire damage assessment process. Certain
rules in the knowledge base control the interaction between the inference
engine and the numeric code. Data transfer between the facilities also occurs
through the network using batch files to initiate transfer.
TEST CASES AND EVALUATION OF THE COMBINED SYSTEM
The combined symbolic-numeric structural damage assessment expert system

was tested extensively by Muralidharan and Krauthammer (May 1989) against
available test data. During the system tests a tolerance of 30% was used for
estimating the load, but values can be adjusted by the user as a function of his
O
c
USER IS ASKED TD PRDVIDE
DAMAGED AREA LDCAT1DNS AND
DESCRIPTIONS OF DAMAGE in
o
o
SEND DATA TO
SYMBOLIC FACILITY 8
RECEIVE DATA FROM NF
1
WRITE REPORT
Figure 1. Schematic description of present approach.

confidence in the available information and the degree of precision required for
the damage assessment.
Seven tests using the Foam Hest (FH) method were carried out on shallow
buried reinforced concrete box type structures (Kiger et al., 1980-'84), and
these were analyzed herein. The actual blast pressures, recorded during the
tests, were evaluated by the present system in terms of the time dependent
pressure function for determining the nuclear yields and overpressures
simulated by the test charges. The expert system was tested by means of
responding to the system prompts using the photographs of the damaged
structures as sources of data. As can be seen from Table 1 there is close
agreement between the experimentally observed structural response and that
diagnosed by the expert system. In tests where the roof slab(s) failed (events
FH-2, 6 and 7) the expert system was able to determine the actual mode of
failure, and the results compared well with those obtained by Krauthammer et
al. (1986). The estimated load is a load which would cause a similar state of
damage to the structure as that induced by the actual load. In the cases where
the slab fails (FH-2,6,7) the estimated load is the least load that would cause
the slab to fail in that mode. As can be seen from Table 2, the actual applied
load in these cases could be considerably greater.
Kiger and Albritton (1980) discussed the tests performed for studying the
response of two buried box structures (3C and 3D) to the effects of localized
conventional explosions generated by TNT charges which were detonated at
mid-depth of the wall slabs at various standoff distances. Photographs of the
damaged slabs were available for only seven cases, out of thirteen experimental
events. Therefore, only these seven cases were used for evaluating the present
damage assessment approach. Kiger and Albritton (1980) observed that for
scaled ranges (defined as R/W033, where R is the range in feet and W is the
charge weight in lbs.) greater than 1.3 flexural failure modes predominated and
when the scaled range is less than 1.3 massive concrete failure (shear)
appeared to be the principal failure mode. The modes of failure diagnosed by
the expert system confirm this observation, as shown in Tables 1 and 2. The
sequence of structural responses determined by the expert system was
confirmed by the expert in each case, and the estimated load corresponded to
the minimum load required to cause failure in the appropriate mode. There is
good agreement between observed and estimated behaviors, and these results
compare well with those obtained by Parikh and Krauthammer (1987).
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
A combined symbolic - numerical decision support tool for assessment of

explosion induced structural damage has been presented. This system uses
symbolic reasoning to both effectively interact with an engineer and to control
the flow of an analysis; supporting numeric programs are called to verify
hypotheses and to provide missing data. This system is a successful prototype
Table 1. Structural Assessment Following Simulated Nuclear Events
RESPONSE FAILURE EXPERIMENTAL

CASE MODES MODE/FUTURE OBSERVATIONS
REPORTED CAPACITY (FC)
SIMULATED NUCLEAR DETONATIONS (Kiger et al., 1980-
1984)
Mid-span deflection
FH-1 Flexure No failure, FC -
Good 0.44 in.
FH-2 Direct shear DS Roof slab sheared
(DS) off
MD - 6 in., Cracks
FH-3 Flexure No failure, FC - at supports & center
Fair-Good
MD- 12.5 in.,
FH-4 Flexure Near failure, FC - Maior damage,
Verv poor broken bars
FH-5 DS, Flexure FC (DS) - MD - 3.1 in., Shear
unreliable slip visible
Rebars necked,
FH-6 Flexure Tension failure of broken at slab
rebars center
FH-7 Bay 1 (Bl)
Flexure Bl, B3 -Roof
B2-DS Roofs in all three leaning against
B3 - Flexure bays failed walls. B2 - Roof
on floor
CONVENTIONAL EXPLOSIONS (Kigar and Albritton, 1980)
Moderate cracking
3C-2 Flexure No failure, FC - in central region
Good
MD = 10.5 in.,
3C-3 DS, Flexure Incipient failure, Spalling concrete
FC -poor
3C-4 DS Catastrophic DS Slab disconnected
failure on all edges
3C-5 DS Instant DS failure Massive concrete
failure
Minor cracking in
3D-6 Flexure No failure, FC- central region
Good
No failure, FC - Moderate cracking,
3D-7 Flexure Good Box beam behavior
Wide hole in wall
3D-8 DS Instant DS failure slab, shear failure
Table 2. Structural Assessment Following Localized Explosions
SIMULATED NUCLEAR DETONATIONS -

FOAM HEST TESTS
Estimated Load Experimental
(Actual) Load
CASE
Weapon Peak Weapon Peak
Yield Pressure Yield Pressure
(KT) (psi) OCT) (psi)
FH-1 0.21 1850 0.2 1900
FH-2 3.1 5021 4.0 9000
FH-3 0.23 3125 0.9- 1700-
1.10 2900
FH-4 0.63 1421 0.85 1900
FH-5 1.53 9827 0.7- 7800-
7.8 17000
FH-6 1.21 5314 0.7- 6616-
2.1 9266
FH-7 1.2 2360
-Bav 1 1.03 1874
-Bav2 0.98 2421
-Bav 3 1.03 1874
CONVENTIONAL (LOCALIZED)
DETONATIONS
CASE Estimated Scaled Actual Scaled
Range Range
3C-2 2.12 2.17
3C-3 1.69 1.45
3C-4 1.38 0.98
3C-5 1.27 0.92
3D-6 1.51 1.45
3D-7 0.96 0.98
3D-8 0.92 0.725
which demonstrates that supporting a symbolic structural damage assessment

expert system with specific numeric codes which simulate structural failure
does indeed yield expert diagnoses and evaluations.
REFERENCES
ASCE (1985), "Design of Structures to Resist Nuclear Weapon Effects",

American Society of Civil Engineers, Manual 42, New York, NY.
Buchanan, B.G., and Shortliffe, E.H. (1984), "Rule-Based Expert Systems11,

Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA.
Carson, J.M., Ross, T.J., Hyndman, D., and Wong, F.S. (October 1986),
"Pattern Recognition Techniques for Distinguishing Structural Failure Modes
from High Pressure Loading Records", Proc. 4th Conference on Computing
in Civil Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, pp. 699-713, New
York, NY.
Crawford R.E. et al. (Feb. 1971), "Protection from Nonnuclear Weapons",

Technical Report No. AFWL-TR-70-127, Air Force Weapons Laboratory,
Kirtland AFB, NM.
Degroff, L., "Conventional Languages and Expert Systems", AI Expert, April

1987.
Drake, J.L., and Little, C D . (May 10-13, 1983), "Ground Shock from
Penetrating Conventional Weapons", Proceedings of the First Symposium on
the Interaction of Nonnuclear Munitions with Structures, U.S. Air Force
Academy, Colorado.
Hayes-Roth, F., Waterman, D.A., and Lenat, D.B. (1983), "Building Expert
Systems", Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA.
Kiger, S.A., and Albritton, G.E. (March 1980), "Response of Buried
Hardened Box Structures to the Effects of Localized Explosions", Technical
Report SL-80-I, Structures Laboratory, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Kiger, S.A., Getchell, J.V., Slawson, T.R., and Hyde, D.W. (Sept. 1980 -
Sept. 1984), "Vulnerability of Shallow-Buried Flat Roof Structures", Technical
Report SL-80-7, six parts, US Army Engineers Waterways Experiment Station,
Vicksburg, MS.
Krauthammer, T., and Kohler, S. (1986), "RC Structures Under Severe Loads
- An Expert system Approach", Proc. ASCE Symposium on Expert Systems
in Civil Engineering, pp. 96-108, New York, NY.
Krauthammer, T., Bazeos, N., and Holmquist, TJ. (April 1986), "Modified
SDOF analysis of RC bow-type structures11, Journal of Structural Engineering,
ASCE, Vol. 112, No. 4, pp. 726-744.
Krauthammer, T. (1987), "Damage: An Expert System for Structural

Assessment and Failure Identification Following Blast and Shock Loading
Events", Engineering with Computers, 3, pp. 69-86.
Krauthammer, T. (1990), "Structural Assessment in a Combined

Symbolic-Numeric Environment", in: Artificial Intelligence in Computational
Engineering, edited by M. Kleiber, Ellis Horwood Ltd., London, England.
Krauthammer, T., Shahriar, S., and Shanaa, H.M. (April 1990), "Response
of RC Elements to Severe Impulsive Loads", Journal of Structural
Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 116, No. 4, pp. 1061-1079.
Muralidharan, R., and Krauthammer, T. (May 1989), "A Combined Symbolic

Numeric Approach to Structural Damage Assessment in a Post Attack
Environment", Structural Engineering Report No. ST-89-01, Department of
Civil and Mineral Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN.
Parikh, M. and Krauthammer T. (May 1987), "Behavior of Buried Reinforced

Concrete Boxes under the effects of Localized HE Detonations", Structural
Engineering Report ST-87-02, Department of Civil and Mineral Engineering,
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN..
Rich, E. (1983), "Artificial Intelligence", McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
Ross, T.J., Wong, F.S., Savage, S.J., and Sorensen, H.C. (1986), "DAPS:
An Expert System for Damage Assessment of Protective Structures", Proc.
Symp. on Expert Systems in Civil Engineering, American Society of Civil
Engineers, pp. 109-120, New York, NY.
Savage, S.J., Ross, T.J., Sorenson, H., Carson, J., and Satterthwaite, B.
(April, 1988), "Development of a Rule-Based Structural Damage Assessment
Code", Report AFWL-TR-87-19, Air Force Weapons Laboratory,
Albuquerque, NM.
Speicher, S.J., and Brode, H.L. (Nov. 1981), "Airblast Overpressure Analytic
Expression For Burst Height, Range and Time over an Ideal Surface", PSR
Note 385, Pacific Sierra Research, Santa Monica, CA.
Texas Instruments, Inc. (1987), "Personal Consultant Plus (PC+)", Versions

3.01, and 3.02, Austin, TX.
U.S. Army (November, 1986), "Fundamentals of Protective Design for

Conventional Weapons", Report TM 5-855-1, Washington, DC.
M
Waterman, D.A. (1986), A Guide to Expert Systems", Addison-Wesley,
Reading, MA.
Wong, F.S., Dong, W.M., and Blanks, M. (1988), MAn Integrated PC-Based
Computer System for Protective Structures Application", Final Report
TR-88-91, Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM.
SECTION 5: IMPACT LOADING ON
REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES
DYNA3D Analysis of Cone Crack
Formation due to Heavy Dropped Loads on
Reinforced Concrete Floors
B.J. Broadhouse
Services, Winfrith Technology Centre, Dorchester,
Dorset, DT2 8DH, U.K.
ABSTRACT
The impact performance of reinforced concrete

floors subject to heavy dropped loads is being
investigated in parallel experimental and
analytical programmes. The finite element code
DYNA3D is applied, with a constitutive material
model for reinforced concrete, to analyse a drop
test. The model has previously been extensively
validated for a wide range of soft missile impact
and blast loading problems. The cone cracking mode
of failure represents the hard missile regime, and
this work develops and validates modelling
techniques and material parameters for this
extended range of application.
INTRODUCTION
The modes of failure for a reinforced concrete

floor subject to impact by a heavy dropped load
range from penetration due to crushing for small
diameter impactors to cone crack generation for
larger diameter impactors. Intermediate sized
impactors may produce a combination of these modes
of failure, cone cracking being produced when the
effective thickness to diameter ratio is reduced to
a critical value.
Impact tests have been carried out by Nuclear

Electric at their Structural Test Centre in Cheddar
to investigate these modes of failure, and to
provide data on penetration depth vs energy for
small diameter impactors, and critical cone crack
energy for larger impactors. The results of one of
these tests is used as a benchmark against which to

validate the constitutive model [1] for reinforced
concrete in DYNA3D [2], and to study the
sensitivity of results to modelling and material
parameters.
DROP TEST MODEL
Figure 1 illustrates the drop test, in which a
2.6Te impactor is dropped onto a square reinforced
concrete panel of dimensions 2m x 2m x 0.3m. The
panel is cast on all four sides onto reinforced
concrete edge beams of depth 0.6m and nominal
thickness 0.25m. The whole target is cast in grade
40 concrete, reinforced with a combination of 12mm,
16mm and 25mm bars. The entire rear face of the
target panel is reinforced, whilst the impact zone
of the front face is not. The diameter of the
impactor head is 300mm, so that the thickness to
diameter ratio is 1:1. With this ratio, crushing at
the impact site is negligible, and the primary mode
of failure is cone cracking.
Figure 2 illustrates the finite element model,
with a typical crack pattern to aid the reader's
understanding of the presented results. As the
target is square, there is two-fold symmetry, and
only one quarter of the target needs to be
modelled. The missile, which impacts on the centre
line, is omitted from the figure for clarity. The
crack patterns produced by the code exhibit a
conical band of failures on the symmetry planes,
and shallow rear face radial and circumferential
cracks. There are also flexural cracks at the
junction of the panel and support beams.
In the constitutive material model,
reinforcement is simulated as tensile stiffeners
which are smeared over the element cross section in
appropriate layers of elements, and therefore do
not appear as separate elements.
SENSITIVITY STUDIES
The initial DYNA3D analysis reproduced the measured
peak panel deflection very well, but the cone crack
width was over-estimated, and transient deflections
outside the conical plug formed by the crack were
under-estimated. A wide range of material and
modelling parameters have been investigated, in
order to determine those which have the most

significant effect on the results.
The effect of element size was investigated,

by carrying out an analysis with a coarse mesh. The
band of cone cracks was the same number of elements
wide, and therefore of larger dimensions; however
the overall crack width was the same as in the fine
mesh case illustrated in figure 2. It was concluded
that the illustrated mesh was appropriate.
There is a multitude of ways in which the

analyst could model the steel support frame and
corner hold-down bolts, both of which affect the
boundary conditions. A number of simulations were
made, and the best result was obtained by simply
supporting the foot of the support beams on a
frictionless rigid surface. This boundary condition
was used for all further analyses.
As well as the finite element discretisation

and the boundary conditions, aspects of the
material model itself have been investigated.
Figure 3 illustrates the special post-failure
treatment of elements that have failed in tension.
The crack-normal stress is seen to decay linearly
to zero over a prescribed crack opening length 1.
The typical value of 1 used in previous analyses
has been 40/xm to 100/im. Typical references such as
Petersson [3] for test data on the tensile
behaviour of concrete samples show that the tensile
stress decays very rapidly up to an extension of
about 20/xm, and then much more slowly up to 100/xm
or more. Analyses have been compared with decay
lengths of 20/xm and 80/zm, and have shown that the
lower value gives the more accurate result.
The version of the constitutive material model

used in these analyses takes no account of rate
effects on the material strengths or post failure
behaviour. The early analyses described above used
a compressive strength of 33MPa, and a nominal
tensile strength of 3.3MPa. Examination of the
computed strain rates in the region of the cone
crack indicated strain rates of about 2/s prior to
failure, and at this strain rate enhancement
factors of 1.5 or more should be expected.
Figure 4 illustrates the crack patterns

obtained with tensile strengths of 3.3 and 4.95MPa.
With the enhanced tensile strength the failure zone
is significantly narrower, and forms an almost

perfect cone crack. Figure 5 shows the computed
transient deflections for a group of nodes on the
impact face; three nodes inside the conical plug
and three nodes outside the plug. With the enhanced
tensile strength the peak plug deflection is
reduced from 5.1mm to 4.1mm, and the residual plug
depression is reduced from 1.7mm to 1.2mm. A
calculation with an enhancement factor of 2.0
further reduced the deflection and crack size.
BEST CALCULATION
The foregoing sensitivity studies enabled the best
set of parameters to be combined in a final
calculation.
Figure 6 shows the measured and computed
transient deflections at gauge positions inside and
outside the conical plug. The plug deflection is
reproduced very accurately, and the panel
deflection is quite reasonable. Figure 7
illustrates the predicted crack pattern, showing
cracks greater than 0.lmm wide and cracks greater
than 0.3mm wide. Examination of the detailed
output enables the figure to be interpretted as
indicating a through-thickness crack about 0.2mm
wide at the top and about 0.4mm wide at the bottom.
Figure 8 shows a sketch of a cross section of the
panel after cutting. The sketch shows a complete
cone crack on one side of the section, varying from
0.1mm at the top to 0.5mm at the bottom, and an
incomplete crack on the other side of the section.
CONCLUSIONS
Initial DYNA3D analyses of cone cracking in
reinforced concrete panels subject to heavy dropped
loads over-estimated the crack size and under-
estimated the global response. Calculations have
been made to determine the sensitivity of the
results to modelling parameters and material data,
and a best calculation has been performed.
The results indicate that the whole range of
modelling parameters has some degree of effect on
the accuracy of predictions, but that rate effects
are predominant. It has been shown that strain rate
enhancement can be applied to the static data in
cases such as this, in which only one mode and
location of failure is important.
The final calculation produced excellent

agreement with the experiment in terms of transient
deflections, residual deflections, and crack
widths.
REFERENCES
1. Broadhouse B. J. , Neilson A.J. Modelling

Reinforced Concrete Structures in DYNA3D. DYNA3D
User Group Conference, London, 1987.
2. Hallquist J.O. Theoretical Manual for DYNA3D.

UCID-19401, Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratories, USA, 1982.
3. Petersson P-E. Crack Growth and Development of

Fracture Zones in Plain Concrete and Similar
Materials. TVBM-1006, Lund Institute of Technology,
Sweden, 1981.
3O
^ 200 SQ
r igure 1 s Detai Ls of Drop lest
Figure 2 s Finite Element Model

T '
1h
0 w,w2 I w
Figure 3 s Crack - N o r m a l (ensile

Stress
a) q = 3. 3 MPa
b) a; = 4 . 9 5 MPa
Figure 4 s Effect of Tensi le Strength

on Crack Pattern
(f)
o
o
CD
Q)
Q
C
CD
CO
c
CD
L
CD
m s c
Q
L
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LTi
CD
(N) N0I1331J3Q L
3
a) P l u g Def l e c t i on
LJ
b) Panel Deflection
LLJ
Measurement
a
-5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0
TIME (MS)
F i g u r e 6 s G a u g e D e f l e c t ion
for Final Calculation
cracks > 0o mm w i de
On 3 mm w i d e
Figure 7 s Crack Patterns for

9U
F i na L Ca tcu Lat i on
CD
C
CD
DL
0)
C
O
o
Q)
CD
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o
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L
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CD
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Nonlinear Dynamic Layered Finite Element
Procedure for Soft Impact Analysis of
Concrete Slabs
A. Miyamoto (*), M.W. King (*), M. Fujii (**)
(*) Dept. of Civil Engineering, Kobe University,
Nada, Kobe 657, Japan
(**) Dept. of Civil Engineering, Kyoto University,
Sakyou, Kyoto 659, Japan
ABSTRACT
A nonlinear dynamic layered finite element procedure is proposed for analysis of

reinforced concrete slab structures subjected to soft impact loads. The effects of
material nonlinearity, concrete plasticity, concrete element cracking and also the
loading and unloading phenomena in the plastic regions are considered in the
analytical procedure. The analysis is capable of predicting the ultimate behaviors
as well as the impact failure modes very well. Verification of the procedure is
carried out by comparison with results from tests on full-scale reinforced concrete
slabs. Finally, analysis of different impact collisions into reinforced concrete
handrails are carried out. The results indicate that a low loading rate would result
in bending failure while the punching shear failure mode is more dominant at high
loading rates.
INTRODUCTION
The prediction of impact failure modes and also the dynamic behaviors at ultimate
states of concrete structures are necessary for designing concrete structures from
failure when subjected to impacts. The scope of the present paper is limited to soft
impacts [1]. A nonlinear dynamic layered finite element procedure is employed
together with a triaxial failure criterion for concrete to predict the dynamic
behaviors at ultimate states and also the impact failure modes of concrete slab
structures. The Newmark-p method is applied for solving the equations of
equilibrium. The effects of material nonlinearity, concrete plasticity, concrete
element cracking and also the loading and unloading phenomena in die plastic
regions are considered in the analytical procedure. The amount of damage in the
concrete slab structure can be evaluated by means of the crack pattern at failure,
degree of propagation of cracks in various directions, material states and also the
energy absorbed during an impact collision.
Analytical prediction of failure modes of concrete structures is considered to

be difficult due to the complexity of the failure mechanism in concrete structures.
Nevertheless, the proposed procedure is capable of predicting the failure modes in
concrete slabs under soft impacts, namely flexural and punching shear failure. The
effects of different loading rates on the failure modes can also be simulated in the
analysis. For relatively slow loading rates, the flexural mode is observed, while
the punching failure mode becomes the main dominant failure mode at high
loading rates. By analytically determining the transition phase at which flexural

failure changes to punching shear failure, an effective dynamic design method can
be rationally obtained.
The applicability of the proposed method is also verified through comparisons

with full size experimental results performed on concrete slabs as well as concrete
handrails. Finally, analysis on the behavior of reinforced concrete handrails to
different impact loads is carried out to study the ulimate behaviors as well as the
dominant failure modes.
NONLINEAR DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF CONCRETE SLABS
The ultimate behaviors of concrete structures can be very complex due to the
effects of material nonlinearity in concrete, cracking, interaction between concrete
and reinforcement (bond), shear transfer at cracked sections, etc. Moreover, the
dynamic aspects of the various problems arise during impact loading. A triaxial
failure and yield criterion is employed for modeling of concrete while a uniaxial
criterion is used for steel reinforcement. The material characteristics employed in
this analysis is limited to static material properties as the dynamic effects under
soft impact loadings, such as the effects of inertia and viscous damping, is accu-
rately duplicated in the analysis by applying the dynamic equations of motion [4].
Failure Criterion and Plasticity Model for Concrete

The failure criterion applied in the analysis is the triaxial failure criterion for plain
concrete which was proposed by Ottosen [11]. The failure surface for Ottosen's
Model (four-parameter model) can be expressed as [2],
y ( p (y_ 0 ) = p-Qf((Jm*Q) = 0, 0 5^60 (i\
where, p = VZ/2 rstress component perpendicular to the hydrostatic axis, (2)

2 :failure
Pf(Om,Q) = 2^[-V2- X+^2- X -Sa(3b' a m - l ) ] envelope on deviatoric plane,
(3)
om = /i/3 : octahedral mean stress, (4)
I\9 J29 6 :stress invariants, (5)
1
ki cos [^cos [k2' cos (36)j| ; for cos (30) > 0
h cos [ | - Jcos-i [-kr cos (30))] ; for cos (30) < 0
In the above equations, a, b, k\ and ki are constants calibrated from biaxial

and triaxial test results reported in the literature. In this study, ft (=ft/fc'lfc'
uniaxial compressive strength of concrete,^: uniaxial tensile strength of concrete)
= 0.12 is selected for the analytical procedure and the corresponding values for the
four parameters are 0=0.9218, fc=2.5969, A:i=9.9110, 2=0.9647 [11]. The Ottosen
model is known to have both a parabolic TOCfôct relation and also 6-dependance.
It is also capable of reproducing all the main features of the triaxial failure surface
for concrete materials.
The yield criterion for concrete is usually assumed on the basis of the known
failure criterion. In earlier plasticity models, the yield surface is assumed to be a
proportionally reduced shape of the failure surface. It is considered that this
assumption is inadequate for concrete materials as no distinct plastic zone exists in
T-C C-T
Failure surface p-pf=O
T-T
y/^ ^ Yield surface p-kpf=O
67.79 X / T: Tension C: Compression

V
-On
Fig. 1 Yield and failure surfaces for concrete
the pure tensional region of concrete. Therefore, a nonuniform hardening

plasticity model proposed by Han and Chen [2] is applied in part to modify the
yield surface where tensile forces are present. A schematic representation of the
failure and yield surfaces employed in the analysis is shown in Fig.l. During
hardening, the loading surface expands and changes its shape gradually from the
initial yielding surface to the failure surface.
A plastic potential other than the loading function (nonassociated flow rule)
is applied here in view of the fact that inelastic volume contraction at the
beginning of yielding and volume dilatation at the ultimate stages are known to
occur in concrete. The Drucker-Prager type of potential is used here.
Finite Element Model for RC Slabs [7,8,10]

A nonlinear dynamic step-by-step layered finite element method is developed for
analysis of reinforced concrete slabs subjected to soft impacts. Compared to the
conventional 3-dimensional finite element model, the layered approach is a quasi-
3-dimensional method and thus does not require as much calculation time.
Provisions for material nonlinearity, cracking in concrete elements, loading and
unloading phenomena, and transverse shear stresses are incorporated in the
analysis. The finite element model employed here is the 4-node Mindlin-type
rectangular element with a reduced integration scheme. The element is assumed to
be subjected to both in-plane and bending forces. Coupling effects between both
forces are considered, as local deformations can be expected to be quite large
during the ultimate states. Furthermore, the neutral axes of the slabs are known to
shift across the cross-section as cracks progress through the structure, causing the
coupling effects to be more pronounced.
The Newmark-p method is applied here to solve the equation of motion at

each time increment. Since the loading duration of an impact loading is usually
comparatively short, the effects of viscous damping becomes small enough to be
ignored in the case of concrete structures. The semidiscrete equation of motion at
the nodes of a finite element assembly can be treated as,
[Afl- {R)t (7)

where, [M\ = consistency mass matrix; [K\ = stiffness matrix; {R)t = external load
vector; {U]t = acceleration vector, and {U]t = displacement vector for the finite
element assembly. In this study, it is found that the parameter p=l/4 and the
discrete time increment of Af=50 microseconds provide the most stable values for
I INPUT OF DATA |
31
I INITIAL CONDITIONS & BOUNDARY CONDITIONS 1
I CALCULATION OF NEUTRAL AXES I

*
1 FORMATION OF STIFFNESS MATRIX 1
V
I FORMATION OF CONSISTENCY MASS MATRIX |
SOLVE EQUATION OF MOTION (DISPLACEMENT,

ACCELERATION & INTERNAL FORCES)
ATION PROCE
CONVERGENC
I OUTPUT OF DISPLACEMENT & ACCELERATION |
I CALCULATION OFEEELEMENT STRAINS I

I CALCULATION OF ELEMENT INPLANE STRESSES I
E
CALCULATION OF ELEMENT TRANSVERSE STRESSES
(FROM EQUATION OF EQUILIBRIUM)
I FAILURE CRITERION (OTTOSEN'S MODEL) I
I CALCULATION OF PLASTIC STRAINS]
I LOADING / UNLOADING C R I T E R J A I
1 OUTPUT OF STRAINS & STRESSES 1

| DISCRETE INCREASE IN TIME (t=t+At) |
Fig.2 Flow of analytical process
the dynamic solution. An iterative procedure is also included to improve the

accuracy of the dynamic procedure as in the following equation,
P* M (8)
where, {AU]t^t+At is the increase in displacement vector during the iterative count
of i. Details of the dynamic approach are given in Ref. [4,7,8,10] while the flow
for the entire procedure is as shown in Fig.2.
Two types of concrete slab structures are modeled using the layered finite
element procedure [5], Reinforced concrete slabs (130x130x13cm) and reinforced
concrete handrails (400xl07.5x25cm) with doubly reinforced section are modeled
as shown in Fig.3. The reinforced concrete slabs are simply supported on two
cL 350 Concrete layer

* 10@60=600 > 50
r*"B ^ 7
i
c
j. i o
t ;
o
; CO
Y ! ! II
o o
CO
CO

! o
! j 1"~
C.L z
1
Ff !
V A ^C.L
^
B
I
(Unit: mm) j " ^ ^Reinforcement layer
C!L (p|an) (Section B-B)
(a) RC slab
Concrete layer
C.L
c c
A z XX -i,
Y
A
X
8@ 100-800
^ D
4@ 150-600 3 200-600
^2000 ^'^ ^
V
Reinforcement layer
C.L (Ran) (Unit: mm
) (Section D-D)
(b) RC handrail
Fig.3 Layered finite element meshes
edges while the reinforced concrete handrails have fixed supports on one side. The
layered method allows different material properties to be assumed for each
separate layer. The figure show only a 1/4 portion of the entire concrete slab and a
1/2 portion of the entire concrete handrail, as the structures are symmetrical. The
concrete slab structures are hypothetically divided into 8 layers, 6 of concrete and
2 of reinforcement. The layering approach permits the inclusion of reinforcement
at the proper level within the thickness of the slab structures. The external force
(impact load function) is applied to the concrete slab at midspan while the external
force is applied at the level expected from vehicular collisions for the concrete
handrail, as indicated in Fig.3.
A schematic illustration of the layered approach is shown in Fig.4. The main

assumptions for the layered approach employed in the present analysis can be
summed up as follows:
(1) The slab is considered to be made up of hypothetical reinforcement

Plate thickness Concrete layers

Distributed
reinforcement layer
Fig.4 Layered model and coordinate axes
layers, which resist axial and in-plane shear forces, and concrete layers. The in-
plane shear forces in the reinforcement can be considered by including the related
terms in the material stiffness matrix.
(2) Strain in the reinforcement and concrete layers are assumed to be
proportional to the distance from the neutral axis. Concrete layers are in the state
of plane stress and there is no slip between layers.
(3) Concrete is considered to be orthotropic after cracking. The amount of
strain energy in the element is converted into equivalent nodal forces after
cracking. The numerical representation of cracking is based on a 2-dimensional
smeared crack approach in the in-plane direction, where the effects of aggregate
interlock and dowel action after cracking can be expressed in terms of a shear
retention factor [5]. The shear retention factor for cracked concrete under impact
loads is set at 0.5. In general, the factor would be a function of the crack width but
it is assumed that a constant value is adequate for transient loadings.
(4) Material properties obtained from static uniaxial test are converted into
the effective stress-effective strain relation in the multiaxial failure model for
concrete and used as the input data [8,10]. Uniaxial material characteristics are
applied for the steel reinforcement [4].
(5) Failure is defined in the analysis as the point where either concrete
crushing under compression or failure of reinforcement occurs in the structural
element. Three classifications of failure modes are defined in the analysis based
on the deformation mode, impact force versus deflection relation, failure
conditions in the elements and also crack patterns [8]. The failure modes are; (i)
Bending failure, (ii) Bending to punching shear failure, and (iii) Punching shear
failure. In the bending to punching shear failure mode, the bending mode is
dominant in the earlier stages of loading and is then followed by a transition to the
punching shear mode [7,8,10].
The effects of transverse shear stresses in plate bending problems are usually
small enough to be ignored. But when dealing with analysis of dynamic loads, it is
considered that the effects of transverse shear stresses would be more significant
and thus causing punching shear failure to occur during impact loads with a high
loading rate. Furthermore, failure progress through the slab is enhanced by the
stresses, causing the ultimate behaviors such as crack patterns and the failure
modes to be affected. The transverse shear stresses are interpolated at each
integration point [6] and then applied to the failure criterion.
VERIFICATION OF ANALYTICAL PROCEDURE
Test Procedure [4.101

The validity of the analysis is verified by comparisons with available experimental
data. Full-scale reinforced concrete slabs with a dimension of 130x130x13cm
were subjected to failure tests. The tested concrete slabs were similar to the model
applied in the layered finite element analysis. The apparatus used for the impact
failure test was a pendulum type impact testing machine [4,10] which was
specially designed to derive only one sine-wave impact load function. The falling
weight had a mass of SOOkgf. In order to derive soft impacts, a rubber pad (lcm
thick) was placed on a square steel loading plate (15x15x1 cm) at the impact face.
The height of fall for the failure tests were first estimated by applying the
analytical procedure. Based on the assumption that the failure energy is totally
transferred to the slab during impact, the height of fall was estimated from the
total energy obtained by integrating the impact force-midspan deflection function
from the analysis. Static tests were also carried out on other similar slabs in order
to be able to distinguish the difference in failure modes and failure conditions.
The impact force-time relation was measured by acceleration sensors attach-

ed to the falling mass. Measurements for deflection, acceleration response and
crack widths were carried out. The measuring system consisted of non-contact
displacement transducers, acceleration sensors, crack gauges and an analog data
recorder. The load function measured during experiments were digitalized using
an A-D transformation process by means of a mini computer and is then input into
the analysis. Material test results such as Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio, uniax-
ial material characteristics from uniaxial compressive (concrete) and tensile
(concrete and reinforcement) tests are used as input data for the material proper-
ties. It should be noted that the uniaxial material test results are converted into the
effective stress-effective strain relation before application into the analysis [10].
Test results and discussions

Fig.5 shows the impact force versus midspan deflection curves for the analysis
and experiments of two different reinforced concrete slabs, i.e., slab (I) and slab
(II). The height of fall for the 500kgf mass is indicated by the notation *7f. In the
first test, the height of fall was set at /*=30cm while the height of fall for another
different concrete slab was set at /*=60cm. The results show that the analysis gives
a very good approximation of the ultimate behaviors of the reinforced concrete
slabs, even after the point of maximum impact force. A small difference between
the analytical values and the experiments begin to appear after the maximum
impact force, i.e., when the unloading process begins. A slight difference can be
noticed in Fig.5(a) in the initial elastic stages, but it can be concluded here that the
analysis gives a good prediction of the real behavior as it is a usual phenomenon
for die curve to be parabolic in the initial stages during impact loadings due to
inertial effects. The larger deflection in the tested slab can be attributed to initial
small gaps at the supports of the tested slab. On the whole, the analysis is capable
of giving a good prediction of the overall response.
The deformation mode at failure for both concrete slabs obtained from the
analysis are shown in Fig.6. An overall deformation can be noticed in slab (I),
where total structural failure is expected. The failure mode in this case is the bend-
ing failure mode. When the height of fall is increased, as in slab (II), the loading
rate (=maximum impact force/duration to maximum impact force, [4,10]) for the
impact load function also increases. This causes local failure to be more evident,
as noticeable in the middle of slab (II) in Fig.6(b). The failure mode in this case is
Test
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

Deflection (mm)
(a)RCslab(I);/*=30cm
Test
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

Deflection (mm)
(b) RC slab (II); h=60cm
Fig.5 Comparison of impact force-midspan deflection curves for RC slabs
considered to be the bending to punching shear failure mode, where the bending
deformation is dominant in the earlier stages (not indicated in the figures) and
then followed by a transition into the punching shear mode at the final stages.
Fig.7 shows the comparison of crack pattern at failure for the analysis and
test of slab (II). The analytical results show the direction perpendicular to the
maximum principal stress at the bottom (rear) layer (8th layer) of the slab, giving
an indication of the cracking pattern. In the analysis, the cracks basically radiate
from the center of the slab towards the edges. Cracks perpendicular to these cracks
also appear in the form of a circle, giving an implication of punching shear failure,
which was the failure mode noticed in this experiment
ANALYSIS OF RC HANDRAILS
A practical application of the analytical procedure is the analysis of vehicles

colliding into concrete handrails of expressways. An ideal design procedure of
concrete handrails for expressways is rather difficult as the handrail should
withstand the impact from a colliding vehicle. The handrail should not act as a
solid barrier to stop the collision but more as a flexible wall that is capable of
absorbing most of the impact collision energy. Therefore, it is necessary to design
concrete handrails to fail under bending, as energy absorption is better during
ductile type of failure [3,10].
Three different cases of analysis is performed to study the behavior of

iC.L
Transverse
Longitudinal/'
'^--.direction
direction /
< Support
(a)RCslab(I);/i=30cm
iC.L
Longitudinal / Transverse
direction / ' ^-_ direction
< Support
(b) RC slab (II); /i=60cm

Fig. 6 Deformation mode for RC slabs at failure (Analysis)
(Full size) (1/4 size)
\ \ \
\
C.L. -
(a) Experiment (b) Analysis (Diiection perpendicular to main principal stress)

Fig.7 Crack pattern of RC slab (II) at failure
concrete handrails under different

impact collisions. The configuration 250T
of the handrail is as shown in Model I
Fig.3(b). A rigid 2.5tf mass colliding
at a speed of 4.54m/sec (denoted as
Model I) and a system of three inter-
connected lumped masses with total
weights of 1.2tf (Model II) and 1.6tf
(Model III) colliding at a speed of
22.2m/sec are analytically carried
Models II & III
out. Model I is meant to simulate the
results of full-scale tests performed
in the past on a similar type of
handrail [4,9]. On the other hand, 1 2
Models II and III are meant to Deflection (mm)
simulate a front engine car and a
small truck, respectively. Details on Fig. 8 Impact force-deflection
the two latter models are given in curves for RC handrail
Ref.[7].
The impact failure mode can be determined mainly based on the
deformation characteristics in the handrail. Fig.8 shows the analytical results of
impact force-deflection relation for the three impact loading conditions while the
distribution of deflection in the cross-sections at failure are shown in Fig.9. The
loading rate for the vehicles (Models II & III) are approximately the same,
therefore similar failure and deformation modes are expected in both cases. This is
evident in the results in Fig.8. The figure indicates that the loading rate for Model
I and Models II & III are of totally two different types. The loading rate in the
former is larger because the impacting body is rigid and therefore, resulting in a
higher initial stiffness as well as loading rate. This phenomena can be attributed to
the effects of inertia in the structure. A larger amount of inertia can be expected
under higher loading rates. In the case of both vehicles, deformation of the
vehicles occur during the collision and thus resulting in a slow loading rate. Even
though the maximum impact force is larger for Model I, the deflection at failure is
small when compared with Models II & III. This phenomenon can be attributed to
(Top of Model
handrail) y
Model II
o.bf
Model II
Model III
(Bottom of (Side end

handrail) H 1 of handrail)
0 1 2 3 4 (Center of handrail)
Deflection (mm)
(a) Deflection in D-D section of Fig.3(b) (b) Deflection in C-C section of Fig.3(b)
Fig.9 Distribution of deflection for RC handrail
C.L.
(a) Punching shear failure mode (Model I)
C.L.
(b) Bending failure mode (Model II)

Fig. 10 Deformation mode for RC handrail
the short duration of loading in Model I. The final amount of deflection in Model
I can be expected to be larger, i.e., appearing only after failure (concrete crushing
or reinforcement failure in analysis) occurs but since this analysis is performed
until the point of failure, this phenomenon is not noticeable.
From Fig.9, it is clear that the deflection is concentrated only at the middle
of the slab for Model I while the deflections are distributed all over the structure
for Models II & III. Fig. 10 shows the deformation mode at failure from the
analysis. The deformation mode for Model I indicates punching shear failure at
the middle of the handrail. This is due to the large impact force being applied in a
very short duration, causing local failure to occur immediately. On the other hand,
bending or total structural failure can be expected for Model EL
CONCLUSIONS
The ultimate behaviors and failure modes of concrete slabs are studied using the
proposed analytical method. The analysis gives results that are in good agreement
with actual impact phenomena. Analysis of different impact collisions into
concrete handrails are also performed. The proposed method is applicable for
drafting a dynamic design method for impact resistant structures in future.
The main results from this study can be summarized as follows:
(1) The nonlinear dynamic layered finite element method, together with the
Ottosen failure model and the Drucker-Prager plastic potential, is suitable for
application to concrete slab structures subjected to soft impact loads. The analysis
is capable of giving good predictions of the ultimate behaviors and also the failure
modes. Furthermore, predictions of the behavior in the unloading regions agree
well with the experimental results.
(2) A simple four-node rectangular finite element is found to be adequate for

the dynamic analysis of soft impact loadings if properly applied with the
following conditions: material nonlinearity, concrete cracking, loading and
unloading criteria, transverse shear stresses, and triaxial failure criterion for
concrete.
(3) The impact failure modes for concrete handrails can be predicted based
on the proposed analytical procedure. The failure modes are affected by the
rigidity of the impacting body. The bending failure mode would be prominent for
slow loading rates (Models II & HI) while a high loading rate (Model I) results in
punching shear failure.
REFERENCES
1. Brandes, K. "Behaviour of Critical Regions under Soft Missile Impact and

Impulsive Loading", RILEM, CEB, IABSE, IASS Interassociation Symposium:
Concrete Structures Under Impact and Impulsive Loading - Introductory Report,
Berlin(BAM), pp.91-111, June 2-4th., 1982.
2. Chen, W.F. and Han, DJ. Plasticity for Structural Engineers, pp.606, Springer-
Verlag Inc., New York, 1988.
3. Eibl, J. "Design of Concrete Structures to Resist Accidental Impact", The
Structural Engineer, Vol.65 A, No.l, pp.27-32, Jan. 1987.
4. Fujii, M. and Miyamoto, A. "Performance improvement of precast, reinforced
and prestressed concrete raft units under impulsive loading" Chapter 5, Precast
Concrete Raft Units, Bull, J.W.(ed.), pp.193, Blackie & Son Ltd., London, 1991.
5. Hand, F.R. et al. "Nonlinear Layered Analysis of RC Plates and Shells",
Journal of the Structural Div., ASCE, Vol.99, No.ST7, pp. 1491-1505, July 1973.
6. Harmon, T.G. and Zhangyuan, N. "Shear Strength of RC Plates and Shells
Determined by Finite Element Aiialysis Using Layered Elements", Journal of
Structural Div., ASCE, Vol. 115, No.ST5, pp. 1141-1157, May 1989.
7. King, M. W., Miyamoto, A. and Fujii, M. "Analytical Prediction of Impact
Failure Modes in Concrete Slab Structures due to Accidental Collisions",
International Symposium on Natural Disaster Reduction and Civil Engineering -
Proceedings, pp.147-158, Osaka (Japan Soc. of Civil Engineers), Septl8,1991.
8. Miyamoto, A., King, M.W. and Fujii, M. "Analysis of Failure Modes for
Reinforced Concrete Slabs Under Impulsive Loads", ACI Structural Journal,
V.88, No.5, pp.538-545, Sept-Oct 1991.
9. Miyamoto, A., King, M.W. and Fujii, M. "Improvement of Impact Resistance
and Establishment of Design Concepts of Prestressed Concrete Structures", FEP
1990, Xlth International Congress on Prestressed Concrete - Proceedings, Vol.2,
pp.T50-T53, Hamburg, June 4-9,1990.
10. Miyamoto, A., King, M.W. and Fujii, M. "Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis of
Reinforced Concrete Slabs Under Impulsive Loads", ACI Structural Journal,
Vol.88, No.4, pp.411-419, July-Aug. 1991.
11. Ottosen, N.S. "A Failure Criterion for Concrete", Journal of Engineering
Mechanics Division, ASCE, Vol.l03(EM4), pp.527-535,1977.
RC Cantilever Columns Under Lateral
Impact Load: An Experimental
Investigation
J.M. Louw (*), G. Maritz (*), M.J. Loedolff (**)
(*) Dept. of Civil Engineering, University of
Stellenbosch, 7600 Stellenbosch, South Africa
(**) Van Wyk & Louw Inc., P.O. Box 905,
0001 Pretoria, South Africa
ABSTRACT
The response of 28 reinforced concrete cantilever columns subjected to a soft

horizontal impact load applied at about midheight, were examined through
experiments. Eight further columns were, as references, subjected to an
increasing static horizontal load instead. The pertinent variables considered
were the magnitude of the horizontal loading, the percentages of longitudinal
and shear reinforcement and the concrete strength. A limited variation in the
initial axial load was also imposed.
Peak impact loads significantly higher than the maximum static loads were
obtained. Columns subjected to an impact loading such that flexural and shear
cracks had fully developed, were able to sustain the same static horizontal load
as undamaged equivalent specimens.
Moment-shear interaction values under both static and impact horizontal loads
were compared with strengths predicted by the modified compression field
theory. The predicted strengths under impact loading was significantly lower
than the measured strengths despite making allowance for dynamic strain effects
in the material properties.
INTRODUCTION
There are noticeable differences in the magnitude of the specified load

prescribed by various authorities for the design of bridge columns of reinforced
concrete subjected to lateral impact. This could be due to a lack of information
on the behaviour of such columns during a collision and in particular on the
combined behaviour of a vehicle-column system.
Experiments by Reinschmidt et al.1 on 205 columns, 125x125 mm in cross

section, could be classified as hard impact cases as the impact load was applied
eccentrically or concentrically through a hydraulic testing machine. They
concluded that dynamically loaded short columns carried about 30 to 40% more
load than their static counterparts, while inertial forces enabled columns with
slenderness ratios up to 25, to withstand 70 to 100% higher loads.
Feyerabend2 conducted an extensive experimental investigation of

300x300x4000 mm simply supported reinforced concrete columns subjected to a
hard lateral impact. Based on the reported curvatures and reinforcing details
and assuming a 10% increase in dynamic material resistance values, the
maximum increased moment resistance of about 20% could not have been the
maximum as complete failure of the specimens had not occurred judged by the
fact that the residual deflections were far less than the maxima during impact.
Over recent years several analytical and experimental studies on the structural
behaviour of rail and road vehicles3'4'5'6 subjected to end loadings, clearly
demonstrated that the colliding vehicle would exert a soft impact on the bridge
column. Therefore, the above-mentioned two investigations1'2 could be
considered to be on the extreme end of the loading spectrum.
Popp3 conducted several full-scale impact tests on five reinforced concrete

columns between 1958 and 1961. The columns were hinge-supported at 3,8 m
apart. An 18 ton road truck struck the column horizontally at 1,20 m above the
lower hinge. He calculated the horizontal static load that each column could
withstand when applied at the same level. Values of the ratio of peak dynamic to
static reactions at failure reached as high a value as 2,7. Perhaps a lower ratio
would have been obtained if the static failure load was considered to have
occurred like the dynamic failure, at an irreversible deflection (see Figure 1)
rather than at an arbitrarily chosen condition like the yielding of the
reinforcement. Furthermore, for these particular loading and boundary
conditions, the ratio of the maximum dynamic to the maximum static shear will
always exceed that of the maximum moment ratio. As the moment controlled
the strength here, therefore, the mentioned ratio cannot be representative of the
real increase in structural strength under impact loading.
A number of questions on the behaviour of a reinforced column under lateral,

especially soft, impact remains unanswered; even more so when the combined
action of the colliding vehicle and column is considered. Some pertinent
questions are: (a) is the increase in structural strength under impact loading
comparable to the increases obtained when testing coupons of reinforcing steel
and concrete? (b) is the increase in structural strength influenced by the relevant
boundary conditions? (c)what are the influences of concrete strength and
percentage reinforcement?
To find answers to at least some of these questions Loedolff7 tested thirty-six

350x150x1600 mm cantilevers reinforced columns. This paper reports on this
work.
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
Laboratory setup
Figure 2 depicts the experimental setup. The buffer was designed to furnish a
duration time from contact to peak impact load of between 20 to 100 ms and
strain rates in the column of about 10"3 to 10"2 per second. The load cell between
the buffer and cradle was a 280x280x65 mm mild steel plate with four strain
gauges glued to its rear and statically calibrated up to a maximum of 500 kN load
applied perpendicular to it.
The striker was always released from a level 2,7 m above the point of impact on
the column at which it reached a horizontal position. The magnitude of the
impact load was varied by varying the striker mass from 650 to 1450 kg resulting
in an impact velocity of 6,4 to 7,1 m/s.
The test specimens were divided into eight groups according to the percentage
of reinforcing steel, concrete strength and initial axial load. See Table 1. All
columns in a specific group were identical. Each column was 150x350x1600 mm
and clamped in a rectangular steel base which was stressed to the laboratory
floor by four Dywidag bolts, one at each corner. The lateral resistance to the
impact load at floor level was provided in shear by these tightly sleeved bolts.
The average yield and ultimate stress and modulus of elasticity of the main
column reinforcement were 518 and 756 MPa and 207 GPa respectively. Yield
occurred at constant stress till strain hardening set in at a strain of about
1,2.10" 3 . The respective values for the stirrups were 376 and 499 MPa and
203 GPa.
Test procedure
An initial total axial load of about 100 kN was applied to each column except for
group six for which it was reduced to about 22 kN. At least one column of each
group was subjected to a very slowly increasing horizontal load, supplied at the
contact point 740 mm from the lower column end, till failure occurred. From
now on this type of load will be referred to as a static load. For the rest of each
group this horizontal static load was replaced by the impact load caused by the
striker. It was tried to generate an impact load large enough to just cause failure
of at least one column in a group by varying the impact load for successive
specimens in a group. Any column that did not fail under the impact load was
subsequently further subjected to an increasing horizontal static load at the
contact point, till it failed. This failure was labelled as a static failure of a
damaged column. This subsequent static loading thus also indicated the reserve
resistance of the damaged column to a slowly applied horizontal load. Failure
was considered to have occurred if there was no deflection recovery of the
column. See Figure 3 and Table 1.
Data recorded
The horizontal impact load, the axial load, the vertical reactions under the steel
footing, the deceleration of the vehicle, the lateral acceleration of the column at
0,60 m and 1,55 m from its lower end and the strains on the rear face of the
column at 100-200 mm and 690-810 mm from the lower end were all recorded
versus time up to 186 milliseconds (ms) commencing just before impact. Lateral
displacements of the column were derived from the recorded accelerations.
During static tests, lateral displacements instead of accelerations, were recorded
at levels 0,60 and 1,55 m. The impact velocity, that is, the velocity immediately
prior to contact, was also registered as well as the permanent deformation of the
buffer. All data was temporarily stored in the ram memories of two
microcomputers and then later transferred to floppy discs for further
processing.7
Typical test results

Figure 4 depicts typical recorded external forces. The vertical reaction shown is
the total compression force load under the footing. Strain rates on the rear face
of the column were between 10"3 to 10"2 per second. Figure 5 shows a typical
crack pattern as displayed here by column 4C. The more pertinent test data and
results are summarised in Table 1. Columns 3A and 5A were for all practical
purposes identical and so were 5C and 5D. The results of the first pair proved
the repeatability of the static test while the second pair confirmed that for the
dynamic test.
General observations
A very important phenomenon was the increase in axial load both under impact
and static load. See Figure 4. This had also been observed by Feyerabend2. As
the column cracked, especially in flexure, the neutral axis moves away from the
centroidal axis causing an extension of the member along the latter. The
lengthening along this axis easily exceeded the downward displacement of the
column top due to lateral flexure. This resulted extension was restrained by the
flexural stiffness of the horizontal transfer beam on top of the column resulting
in an increased axial load.
In most tests almost no visible local damage occurred at the point of impact.
Only a few specimens displayed slight spalling at this point. The maximum
compression of the buffer was 74% of its original length which indicated that the
impact remained soft right throughout the load application phase.
ULTIMATE STRENGTH
Measured
The effective shears and moments generated at the bottom of the column were
calculated from the recorded impact load and the lateral inertia forces which
were derived from the measured accelerations. It was assumed that these
accelerations were distributed along the column as a third degree polynomial
subjected to the relevant boundary conditions. Typical results are shown in
Figure 6. The ratios of maximum applied dynamic shear, V^, to the static shear
capacity, V s , and maximum applied dynamic moment, M^, to static moment
capacity, M s , are listed in Table 1. Also listed are the ratios of the measured
maximum dynamic to static compressive reaction below the footing. These latter
ratios are smaller than the above-mentioned shear or moment ratios. It can
easily be proved that this is true for these boundary conditions.
Predicted
The static and dynamic ultimate moment (Mu)-shear (Vu)interaction of the
various series were calculated using the modified compression field theory
(MCFT)8. For impact loading the relevant material properties excluding the
modulus of elasticity, were increased arbitrarily by 10% to account for strain
effects. Typical results are depicted by the moment-shear interaction diagrams
shown in Figures 7 to 10.
INFLUENCE OF SELECTED VARIABLES ON COLUMN BEHAVIOUR
Concrete strength
Figure 7 shows the influence that the concrete strength will have on the M/V-
relationship by comparing the results of groups 7 and 8. (See Table 1.) The
initial axial load was 100 kN for all cases. According to the MCFT the concrete
strength would be more influential in a predominant shear mode than in a
flexural one. Comparing the horizontal impact failure loads of columns 8C and
8D with 7D (see Table 1) shows that about 93% increase in concrete strength
resulted in about 33% increase in impact strength of the column. A comparison
of the average static failure loads of groups 7 and 8 shows an increase of about
17% in static strength.
Shear reinforcement
Figure 8 shows the effect of the variation in the spacing of shear reinforcement.
Comparing the strengths of columns 1G and 2E (see Table 1), a 100% increase
in ultimate impact strength was obtained by reducing the stirrup spacing from
250 mm to 100 mm.
Longitudinal reinforcement
Figures 9 and 10 give and indication of the effect of an increase from 1,5%
(group 3) to 3,0% (group 1) in longitudinal reinforcing area. Despite the change
in shear steel it can still be concluded that the increase in strength due to the
increase in longitudinal steel is significant, particularly in a predominant flexural
mode.
Axial load
Though this aspect had not been deeply investigated, it would appear that
neither a reasonable variation of the initial axial load nor the accompanying
increased axial load associated with a practical vertical restraint during
deformation of a column would have any significant influence on the ultimate
horizontal static or impact resistance of the column.
CONCLUSIONS
Within the constraints of the investigation reported on here, a number of

conclusions can be reached.
1. The increase in lateral structural strength under strain rates normally

associated with civil engineering structures seems to be significantly higher
than the corresponding increase displayed by test coupons of either concrete
or reinforcing steel. This could perhaps be due to imperfect experimental
arrangements and equipment and prevalent boundary and loading
conditions. Substantially more experimental work is required to unravel this
anomaly. It might also be that the difference in the degree of early-stage
cracking between hard and soft impact could contribute to the higher
increases in structural resistances as reported by Popp and Loedolff. It must
also be kept in mind that during a hard impact the high strain rates occur
when the flexural strains are small, whereas during a soft impact the greater
flexural strains are accompanied by high strain rates. Further investigation
will be required in this regard.
2. Concrete strength and shear reinforcement appears to be the more
significant parameters controlling the shear resistance of a column while
primarily the longitudinal reinforcement dictates the flexural strength.
3. Columns subjected to a lateral impact loading such that flexural and shear
cracks had fully developed, were able to sustain the same horizontal load as
undamaged equivalent specimens.
4. At present the modified compression field theory seems to be conservative
in predicting the behaviour of a reinforced concrete element such as a bridge
column subjected to a given lateral impact loading which generates axial,
flexural and shear forces. The extension of this theory making it more
suitable for finite element implementations9 might yield better results.
However, more experimental data than available at present is required to
verify this approach. Having established this, a finite element model of the
complete vehicle-column could then be implemented.
REFERENCES
1. Reinschmidt, K.F., Hansen, R.J. and Yang, C.Y. 'Dynamic tests of reinforced
concrete columns', Journal ofACI, Vol.61, p.317, 1964.
2. Feyerabend, M. 'Der harte Querstoss auf Stiitzen aus Stahl und Stahlbeton',
Dr.Ing.-dissertation, Universitat Karlsruhe (TH), 1988.
3. Popp, C. 'Untersuchungen iiber den Stossverlauf beim Aufprall von
Kraftfahrzeugen auf Stiitzen und Rahmenstiele aus Stahlbeton', Deutscher
Ausschuss fur Stahlbeton, Heft 172, 1965.
4. Dodd, R.J.M. and Scott, G.A. 'Elastic-plastic collapse of a rail vehicle body
end', Structural Impact and Crashworthiness, Vol.2, Elsevier, London, p.771,
1984.
5. Sutton, A. and Lewis, J.H. 'Elastic/plastic interaction of rakes of rail vehicles',
Structural Impact and Crashworthiness, Vol.2, Elsevier, London, p.783, 1984.
6. Kanal, N.M. and Wolf, J.A. Modern automotive structural analysis, Van
Nostrand Reinhold, 1982.
7. Loedolff, MJ. 'The behaviour of reinforced concrete cantilever columns

under lateral impact load', Ph.D-dissertation, University of Stellenbosch,
1989.
8. Collins, M.P. and Mitchell, D. Trestressed concrete basics', Canadian
Prestressed Concrete Institute, Ottawa, 1987.
9. Stevens, N.J., Uzumeri, S.M., Collins, M.P. and Will, G.T. 'Constitutive model
for reinforced concrete element analysis, ACI Structural Journal, p.49,1991.
Concrete Peak Maximum
Reinforcing 7-day (MPa) Striker Impact horizontal horizontal v M R f =
d d d
Column Strength Mass Velocity impact static
No (kg) (m/s) load load v H R failed
Longitudinal
us s
X Stirrups Compressive Tensile (kN) (kN)
B t
1A 8Y16 3,0 R8 a 100 30,78 3,27 169,7 1,0

o
1B 32,16 4,02 750 6,398 182,2 180,2 1,36 1,32 1,27
1C 29,91 3,37 950 6,611 283,9 177,8 1,60 1,38 1,46
1D 31,89 3,77 1150 6,644 268,5 184,6 1,57 1,48 1,48
1E 28,76 3,03 - - - 185,1 - -
1F 28,99 2,87 1250 6,940 259,2 170,9 - -
1G 28,01 2,97 1450 6,683 328,0 - 1,43 1,62 1,55 f
I 2A 8Y16 3,0 R8 a 250 30,78 3,31 . 158,3 1.0
2B 29,08 2,63 750 7,123 147,6 - C/3
2C 30,84 3,32 750 6,462 125,0 139,0 0,87 1,23 1,14
2D 30,63 3,38 950 6,407 165,6 0,92 1,42 1,09
2E 29,10 3,07 850 6,522 160,9 157,5 1,24 1,30 1,18 f
s 3A AY16 1,5 R8 a 150 27,53 2,59 . 117,0 1*0
M 3B 26,50 2,64 650 6,766 - 116,0 - -

3C 26,35 3,00 850 7,222 147,1 115,4 -
3D 25,35 2,83 1050 6,517 178,4 118,3 1,53 1,57 1,19
3E 31,69 3,64 1150 6,751 206,4 119,6 1,64 1,27 1,14
8 AA AY16 1,5 R8 a 200 30,80 3,33 116,2 1,0
AB 28,10 3,03 650 6,652 121,6 116,9 1,21 1,09 1,07
AC 28,90 2,81 850 7,137 151,4 117,0 1,36 1,56 1,30
en AD 30,10 3,27 1050 6,439 197,5 - 1,48 1,30 1,26 f
M 5A AY16 1,5 R8 3 150 26,40 2,85 . 117,5 1.0
5B 23,00 2,79 850 7,196 146,A 111,6 1,27 1,73 1,33
d 5C 19,70 2,37 1150 6,749 175,6 1,58 1,27 1,15 f
M 6A AY16 1,5 R8 a 150 29,30 3,30 110,2 1,0
6B 28,20 2,80 650 6,931 147,7 114,0 - - -
H 6C 30,00 3,A3 850 7,163 157,1 116,0 1,67 1,56 1,05
60 30,00 3,36 1150 6,660 224,6 1,74 1,82 1,12 f
7A AY16 1,5 R8 3 150 41,50 A,06 126,2 1,0
CO 7B 37,90 3,62 750 7,123 149,8 125,0 1,16 1,24 1,08
7C 37,40 3,67 950 6,716 167,0 123,4 1,35 1,34 1,13
7D 36,70 3,19 1250 7,046 229,8 1,37 1,39 1,18 f
8A AY16 1,5 R8 a 150 16,40 1,73 107,4 1,0
8B 16,60 1,83 650 6,820 131,3 106,4 1,52 1,38 1,27
8C 18,20 2,18 950 7,051 181,9 - 1,58 1,48 1,27 f
80 19,80 2,29 850 7,091 164,6 1,44 1,52 1,39 f
Maximum applied dynamic moment, shear and vertical compressive reaction excluding axial load, not necessarily at the same instant.
Ultimate static moment and shear as measured, Rs = Maximum static vertical compressive reaction excluding axial load.
Flexural Displacement (mm)

100
Displacement (mm)
column C column G
Fig.1 Popp's Impact Test DBVIIK 3) Fig. 3. Displacement at point

of impact for group 1.(7)
TRANSFER BEAM
LOAD CELLS
PENDULUM SWNG CABLES \
n
195
860
TENSION FORCE
CABLE PROVIDES
REMOVABLE LEAD BLOCKS INITIAL AXIAL FORCE
IN COLUMN
I PENDULUM STRIKER
740 LOAD CELL (IMPACT FORCE)
PIPE BUFFERS FOR SOFT IMPACT 150

REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMN ~
- STEEL FOOTING
COLUMN FOOTING HORIZOTALLY RESTRAINED
SIDE VIEW FRONT VIEW
Fig. 2. Test setup of Loedolff.(7)

Forces (kN) Shear (kN) and moments (kNm)
20 40
Time (ms) - Shear
Fig. 4. External forces recorded for Fig. 6. Resultant shears and moments
column 3D.(7) at base of column 3D.(7)
column uncracked above impact zone
Impact zone
initial cracks developed
in Impact test
%additional cracks developed
in static test
& zones of minor spading
or crushing
Fig. 5. Crack pattern of column 4C.(7)

Shear (kN) Shear (kN)

300
dynamic resistance
static resistance
dynamic resistance
dynamic resistance
static resistance''
20 40
60 80 100 120 140 160 50 100 150 200
Moment (kNm) Moment (kNm)
Group 7 (40MPa) Group 8 (15MPa) Group 1 (R8100) Group 2 (R8#250)
' test column 7D + test column SD ' test column 10 + test column 2E
theory theory theory theory
Fig. 7. Influence of concrete strength Fig. 8. Influence of shear steel

on impact strength.(7) on impact strength.(7)
Shear (kN) Shear (kN)

250
dynamic resistance
dynamic resistance
150
-static resistance
50 100 150 200 50 100 150 200

Moment (kNm) Moment (kNm)
Group 1 (3%) Group 3 (1,5%) Group 2 (3%) Group 4 (%5%)
+
test column 10 test column 3E ' test column 2E + test oolumn 4D
theory theory theory theory
Fig. 9. Influence of longitudinal Fig. 10. Influence of longitudinal

steel area on impact strength.(7) steel on impact strength.(7)
Local Fracture Analysis of a Reinforced
Concrete Slab by the Discrete Element
Method
H. Morikawa, N. Kobayashi
Information Processing Center, Kajima
Corporation, 1-2-7 Motoakasaka Minato-ku,
Tokyo 107, Japan
ABSTRACT
This paper describes the discrete element method applied to the

prediction of local damage to reinforced concrete slabs subjected to
impact loading and compares computational and experimental
results.
The discrete element method idealizes a structure as an assemblage
of rigid circular elements connected to each other by non-linear
springs and dashpots. Particular attention is given to interactive
conditions between these particles. These conditions include the
incorporation of simple bonding and non-linear interaction forces
resulting from the fracture criteria.
INTRODUCTION
The design of reinforced concrete slabs and shells in nuclear power
plants must ensure structural safety under impact loading, e.g. an
aircraft crash. Structural damage induced by the impact of a
projectile includes local damage and global elasto-plastic structural
response. Local damage comprises spalling of concrete from the
impacted area, scabbing of concrete from the rear face of the target
and perforation of the projectile through the target. Global structural
response yields flexural failure or punching shear failure. These
failure modes have been simulated by the finite element method.
However, it is very difficult to analyze local damage using procedures
based on continuum mechanics such as the conventional finite
element or finite difference methods. The discrete element method
was introduced by Cundall[l]. In this method, the rock medium is
considered as an aggregate of elements divided by many
discontinuous planes and is specifically designed to analyze problems

where continuity between separate elements does not apply.
The authors have applied the discrete element method to
analysis of local damages to reinforced concrete slabs subjected to
impact loadings. They have compared numerical results with
experimental results and empirical formulas, and evaluated the
applicability of the analytical method .
FORMATION OF THE DISCRETE ELEMENT METHOD

The discrete element method is based on the assumption that every
element satisfies the equations of motion and that the transmission
of force between elements follows the law of action and reaction.
Interaction forces between contact elements
Two-dimensional disk-shaped rigid elements connected to each other
by springs and dashpots are used to model the concrete and
reinforcing bar particles as shown in Figure 1. Interaction forces
between particles are divided into two states as follows.
State 1 In the initial state, the interaction forces between particles
in contact are defined as compression, tension and shear forces as
shown in Figure 2. When these forces exceed the tensile failure
criterion, the interactive condition changes to State 2 .
State 2 In the secondary state, compression and shear forces work
between particles. This condition is defined as that when separate
particles come into contact.
The interaction forces between discrete elements are estimated
from the interactive motion of adjacent particles which generate
incremental forces. The interaction forces are given by
Afn = k n Au n + 7nAu n /t
Afs = k s Aus + ? s Au s /t (1)
where Afn and Afs are the incremental normal and shear forces
acting at the contact point, k n and ks are the normal and shear
stiffness, Aun and Aus are the incremental normal and shear
relative displacement between particles, and rjn and ys are the
normal and shear viscosity.
Fracture Criteria
The Mohr-Coulomb model, with a tension cutoff law, is applied to the
discrete fracture model of concrete. Figure 3 shows fracture criteria

defined by the maximum tensile strength, the compressive strength,
the angle of internal friction and the cohesion. Three modes of brittle
failure can occur, shear, compressive and tensile, using this material
model. In particular, the tensile failure criterion is based on the
fracture mechanics of concrete[2,3]. The tensile failure is idealized
based on the elasto-plastic stress-strain curve as shown in Figure 3,
in which the tensile strength is maintained between the elastic limit
and fracture, and the displacement at fracture is three times the
displacement at the elastic limit. The reinforcing steel bars are
assumed to be elaso-plastic as shown in Figure 4.
Equations of motion and numerical implementation

The components of interaction forces in the global x and y directions
and the rotation at time t are expressed respectively as,
[Xi] t = 2 ([fn] t cosaij + [fs] t sinay ) + 2;rEAi[ui] t/bi

[Yi] t = 2 ([fn] t sinay + [fs] t cosay ) (2)
[Mi]t = -ri2 [f s ] t
where the subscript i indicates particle i, a is the angle between the
global x axis and the normal direction of contact particles, u is the
displacement in the x direction, E is the elastic modulus, A is the
area, b is the horizontal distance from the center of the structure to a
particle, r is the radius and the last term of the first expression is
considered for the axi-symmetric condition. The rigid body equations
of motion for translation and rotation are given by
mi [iii] t = [Xi] t
mi [vi] t = [Yi] t (3)
where m is the mass, I is the moment of inertia, ui and vi are the

accelerations in the x and y directions, and '</>[ is the angular
acceleration.
Using an explicit central difference scheme, the velocity in the x
direction at time t-h At is given by
[udt+At = [udt + [uiltAt (4)

The displacement in the x direction at time t + At is similarly giv^n
by
(5)
To obtain a stable solution using the explicit integration scheme, the
stability limit for a time increment At is
At = 2/(m/k)l/2 (6)
where m is the mass of the smallest particle and k is the maximum
normal contact spring stiffness .
CALCULATION OF INPUT PARAMETERS

Spring constants
Spring constants between particles are determined by substituting a
discrete element model in a linear elastic continuum body[4]. The
difference approximation of displacements U and V in local
coordinates is given by
av/ax=(Vi - Vj)/lij (7)
where ly is the distance between particles. Strain energy ey per unit

volume is expressed as,
ey = l/(2a)k n ly (aU/dx)2
+ l/(2a)k s ly ( /?-aV/ax)2 (8)
where /? = (n + rj j ) / ly , assuming that springs between

particles are arranged at intervals of'a'.
Translating Equation (8) into global coordinates and using the
principle of strain energy, the constitutive equation is expressed as,
*kl = aey /dek\ (k, 1=1,2) (9)
where #ki and ekl a r e stress and strain in global coordinates.
Assuming that Equation (9) expresses the constitutive equation of
linear elasticity, the spring constants are defined as follows.
For the case of plane stress ,
k n = V3Et/(3(l-i/))
ks = V3(l-3y)Et/(3(l-i/)2) (10)
and for the case of plane strain and axi-symmetric stress,
kn = V3EW(3(1 + v)(l-2u))
ks = V3(l-4y)E*/(3(l + i/)(l-2i/)) (11)
where t is thickness , v is Poisson's ratio, K is 1 in plane strain and K
is 7rb in axi-symmetric stress.
Material properties of reinforced concrete slab
It has been demonstrated by experiments[5,6] that the strengths of
concrete and steel increase with increasing strain rate . However,
although it has been investigated extensively, it has not been
precisely evaluated. In this study, it is assumed that the strain rate
influences tensile strength, compressive strength, cohesive strength,
the spring constant of concrete and the yield strength of steel. The
experimental functions introduced by Yamaguchi[5] are adopted
here. The failure strength is estimated using experimental functions
which are in proportion to strain rate,
F = (D.I.F.) X f X D X 2 ; r b (12)
where D.I.F. is a dynamic increase factor calculated from
experimental functions, F is compressive, tensile and cohesive
strength, f is static cylindrical test strength and D is particle
diameter.
SIMULATION OF IMPULSIVE LOCAL DAMAGE
The discrete element method is applied to simulate a local damage
test on reinforced concrete slabs performed by Muto et al[7].
Comparison with test results is made to investigate the applicability
of the proposed method.
Discrete element model

Details of the test specimens may be found in Reference 7. Forty-four
specimens comprised 1.5m square reinforced concrete slabs with ten
different thickness ranging from 6.0 to 35.0 cm. Three specimens
with thicknesses of 15cm are analyzed. The impact velocities are
100,150 and 215 m/sec. The discrete element model is assumed as an
axi-symmetric plate with fixed edges. Figure 5 shows a cross section
of the reinforced concrete slab. The model is represented as 1908
particles with radii of 0.375 cm. Table 1 shows input parameters of
the slab model. The time interval is 0.2*10-6 second.
Numerical results
Figures 6 and 7 show time histories of the impact force and projectile
velocity computed as forces and velocities of rigid particles. The
impact forces becomes zero 0.5msec after initial contact.
Figures 9A, 9B and 9C show the fracture processes of the
reinforced concrete slab models, the damage mode of the test slabs,
the velocity vector and the energy transfer processes. The observed
damage to the test slabs is classified into two modes; perforation and
scabbing. Perforation of the projectile through the target occurs at an
impact velocity of 215m/sec and scabbing of concrete from the rear
face of the target occurs at impact velocities of lOOm/sec and
150m/sec. According to the analyses, the projectile passes through
the target when the velocity is 215m/sec, whereas they rebound when
the velocity is lOOm/sec and 150m/sec. The maximum strain velocity
is 105/sec and the maximum dynamic increase factor is about 5, as
calculated from the experimental function. Scabbing diameters of the
rear slabs are 3.0cm, 6.0cm and 9.0 cm in order of velocity and they
are similar to the test results. As shown in energy transfer processes,
the kinematic energy of a particle is transferred rapidly to the strain
energy in 0.25msec. Local damage such as penetration and scabbing
as predicted by the proposed method are in fairly good accord with
test results.
Comparison with empirical formula

Figure 8 compares the numerical results with the empirical formulas
for the relations between perforation thickness and projectile
velocity. The numerical results are in relatively good agreement with
the formulas of Chang[8], Degan[9] and CRIEPI[10]. The modified
NDRC [11] formula shows notable differences from the test and
numerical results.
CONCLUSION
The authors have developed a discrete element method for the
fracture analysis of reinforced concrete structures and have shown
results of impulsive local damage analysis of reinforced concrete
slabs. The numerical results show good agreement with
experimental results and empirical formulas.
The proposed method is applicable to the quantitative prediction of
local damage to reinforced concrete structures.
REFERENCES
1. Cundall, P.A. 'A Computer Model Simulation Progressive,

Large Scale Movement in a Blocky Rock System' Symp. ISRM,
Nancy, France, Proc, Vol.2, ppl29-136,1971
2. RILEM Report of the Technical Committee 90 FMA, Fracture
Mechanics of Concrete Structures, Edited by L. Elfgren,
Chapter 4, Chapman and Hall ,1989
3. Shirai, N. 'Numerical Analysis of Cracking in Concrete'
Chapter 4 Proc. ofJCI Colloquium on Fracture Mechanics of
Concrete Structures, March 1990(in Japanese)
4. Matsuoka, O., Kato, S. and Koide, H. 'Continuum Mechanics of
Shell Structures Composed of Grid Works' Trans, of Arch. Inst.
of Japan, No.184, pp63-71,1971.6 (in Japanese)
5. Yamaguchi,H. and Fujimoto, K. 'Strain Rate Effect on Dynamic
Response of Reinforced Concrete Slabs under Impact Loading'
Trans, of Arch. Inst. of Japan, No.406, pp25-36 ,1989.12(in
Japanese)
6. Konig, G. and Dargel, H.J. 'A Constitute Law for Reinforced
Concrete with Consideration to the Effect of High Strain Rates'
Symposium on Concrete Structures under Impact and Impulsive
Loading, BAM Berlin, 1982
7. Muto, K. et al. 'Experimental Studies on Local Damage of
Reinforced Concrete Structures by the Impact of Deformable
Missiles' Proc.10th SMiRT J-Session, 1989
8. Chang, W.S. 'Impact of Solid Missiles on Concrete Barriers'
Journal of the Structural Division, Proc. ofASCE, Vol.107,
No.ST2,pp257-271
9. Degen, P.P. 'Perforation of Reinforced Concrete Slabs by Rigid
Missiles' Journal of the Structural Division, Proc. ofASCE,
Vol.106, No.ST5, ppl623-1642
10. Ohnuma, H., Ito, C. and Noumachi, S.G. 'Dynamic Response
and Rupture of Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab under
Impact Loading' Proc.8th SMiRT, J-Session, 1985
11. National Defense Research Committee Effect of Impact and
Explosion, Summary Technical Report on Division 2 , Vol. 1,
Washington D.C., 1946
Table 1. Input parameters of reinforced concrete slab

Steel unit kg,cm Concrete unit kg,cm
Name Value Notes Name Value Notes
Spring Particle
1.76X105X2;rb EA/L spring 1.78XlO5x2/rb
constant KB
Spring constant Kn
constant KB# 4.16X106 2*EA Particle
Yield spring 0.59 X105 X2;rb
ay = D.I.F. X
Strength FB 378X2;rb 5000kg/cm2 constant Ks
Particle
Yeild ay- D.I.F. X spring 6.66X105 2TTEA
Strength FBe 378X2;rX5 5000kg/cm2
constant Kg
Compressive considering
Strain rate effect (Concrete(Ref. 5)) strength Fc 195X27rb D.I.F.
Tensile considering
Compressive strength, 19.5 X2;rb
strength Ft D.I.F.
spring constant Kn,K^(in compression) considering
D.I.F.= ai+a2log(enxl06)+a3(log(enxl06))2 Cohesion C 48.8 X27rb
D.I.F.
Tensile strength , cohesion , Angle of
spring constant Kn,K^t Ks(in tension) internal 11.3 ^ = 0.20
friction ^
D.l.F.= a4+a5log(ntSxl06)+a6(log(n,sxl06))2 Mass of Density
cn = Aun/(ri + rj)/At, es = Aus/(ri + rj)/At particle 2.56X10-3x2;rb 2.4 t/m3
ai = 1.021, a2 = 0.05706, a3 = 0.02583 Damping
constant h 3%
a4 = 0.8267, a 5 = 0.02987, a6 = 0.04379 Time
interval At 0.2X10-6Sec
Particle j (Compression)
(Shear)
Spring and dashpot STATE 1 STATE 2

X
*^ Figure 2. States
Figure 1. Spring and dashpot between particles
Gs
e n ; Normal force of spring
e s ; Tangential force of spring
un ; Normal displacement of
spring
u s ; Tangential displacement
of spring
Fc; Compressive strength
Ft; Tensile strength
C ; Cohesion
^ ; Angle of internal friction
Fracture
u
nt U nt f(3XU nt )
Tension
Compression
Shear
Figure 3. Fracture criteria
JrtL -
Projectile
Number ;65
Diameter ;0.75cm
Slab
Number ; 1908
Diameter ; 0.75cm
^ Mass ;3.6kg
Tension
Fracture
Concrete Steel
fc = 260 kg/cm2 Cy = 4560 kg/cm2
ft = 26 kg/cm2 P o = 0.42 %
E = 2.4 X 105 kg/cm2
c = 65 kg/cm2
Compression
= 0.17
Figure 4. Model of steel bar Figure 5. Cross section of RC slab
P(ton) -215m/sec
500 150m/sec
215m/sec "lOOm/sec
150m/sec V(m/sec)
lOOm/sec 3001
250 1 :' 200
100
0
0.5 1.0 0.5 1.0
Time(msec) Time(msec)
Figure 6. Impact force Figure 7. Projectile velocity
time histories time histories
25 Empirical formulas
CRIEPI
1 20 Chang
M-NDRC
i Degen
c r T r
LJ L
"S 15

3 Numerical result
c
.2 / /U- B Perforation
" 10
Scabbing
50 100 150 200 250

Projectile velocity (m/sec)
Figure 8. Comparison of empirical formulas
Front face Projectile velocity V = 215(198) m/sec

( Observed and simulated )
Time
2
ir t = l msec
"SI
1
Ii
t = 2msec
Section
t = 3 msec j |
t = 4 msec
Perforation
Fracture processes
Damage of test slab
t=Q.I msec t = 0.2 msec
t = 0,3 msec t=0.4 msec
Particle velocity vector (t = 0.10.4 msec)
1.0X106
-Total
K
\ y"-"" Strain and plastic energy
.--^N/ Kinematic energy
Damping energy .
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0
Time (msec)
Energy transfer processes
Figure 9A. Numerical results and damage mode of test slab

(V = 215m/sec)
Projectile velocity V = 150(141) m/sec

( Observed and simulated)
t = 2msec
Section
Back face
t = 3msec
t = 4 msec
Scabbing
Fracture processes
Damage of test slab

t=0.1 msec t= 0.2 msec
t = 0.3 msec t = 0.4 msec
Particle velocity vector (t=0.1-0.4 msec)
0.5 X10 6
,/Total
~ Strain and plastic energy

Xy Kinematic energy
- Damping energy
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0
Time (msec)
Figure 9B. Numerical results and damage mode of test slab
(V = 150m/sec)
Front face Projectile velocity V = 100(97) m/sec

( Observed and simulated)
rV^~Is
f _ Jo
t = 2msec
Section
Back face
t=3msec
Penetration
t = 4 msec
Scabbing
Fracture processes
Damage of test slab

t=0.1 msec t=0.2 msec
t=0.3 msec t=0.4 msec
Particle velocity vector (t = 0.1-0.4 msec)
0.25 X106
- Total
bo
r
bo Strain and plastic energy
u X iKinematic energy
C / X , /Damping energy
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0
Time (msec)
Figure 9C. Numerical results and damage mode of test slab
(V = 100m/sec)
Modified Analysis of Reinforced Concrete
Structures Under Localized and Distributed
Impulsive Loads
T. Krauthammer (*), H.M. Shanaa (**)
(*) Dept of Civil Engineering, Penn State
(**) AEC Engineers & Designers, Minneapolis,
MN 55415, U.S.A.
ABSTRACT
The response of reinforced concrete structural elements subjected to high

intensity, short duration, dynamic loads is investigated. The analytical
approach utilizes the Timoshenko Beam theory for the analysis of reinforced
concrete beams and one-way slabs in the dynamic domain. Nonlinear material
models, simplified approach for estimating strain rate effects and are used to
derive the resistance of the element in flexure and shear. Sixteen cases that had
been studied experimentally by other investigators, are analyzed and discussed.
INTRODUCTION
The objective of this study is to investigate and describe the response of

reinforced concrete structural elements to severe impulsive loads, and to extend
earlier research by Assadi-Lamouki and Krauthammer (1988) in several
respects. First, the loading conditions are broadened to include concentrated
and non-uniformly distributed loads, in addition to the uniformly distributed
loads considered in the earlier study. Second, a unified theory is developed and
used to predict the strain rate in the structural member, as well as its effect.
Finally, the complete response of structural elements is calculated, from the
onset of loading, through the initiation of failure, to collapse. From this overall
response, the behavioral modes of structural elements and the post-loading
conditions are predicted. This is unlike the aforementioned study, where only
the initiation of failure was predicted, without regard to either the complete
response or the complete failure. This latter extension facilitates a more
comprehensive description of behavior and prediction of failure.
THE ANALYTICAL/NUMERICAL APPROACH
The Timoshenko Beam equations are used as the structural model of the
vibrating beam under the transient loads. These equations are written as
follows:
where, M,Q are the bending moment and shear force, respectively, I is the
moment of inertia, A is the cross-sectional area, p m is the material density, p
is the rotation of the cross section due to bending, W is the transverse
displacement of the midplane of the beam, and q is the uniformly distributed
dynamic load transverse to beam length. In the above formulation, q is a
function of time only, since it is uniformly distributed. In this study the goal
is to enable consideration of concentrated (localized) loads, as well as
uniformly or nonuniformly distributed loads. Hence, q is a function of both
time and space.
To simplify the problem, Timoshenko (1921) assumed that the shear stress is
constant over the cross sectional area. To correct for the error stemming from
this assumption, a factor K is introduced, such that:
Q - K A rxz (3)
A is the cross-sectional area, and r x z is the shear stress. There are several
methods for obtaining the coefficient K (Timoshenko 1921 and 1922,
Sutherland and Goodman 1951; Mindlin 1951, Cowper 1966). For a
rectangular section: K = 7r2 / 12 = 0.822. This value of K represent an
intermediate value for low and high frequency modes. It is believed that this
value represent a good compromise to the problem, as suggested by Ross
(1983) and Assadi-Lamouki and Krauthammer (1988).
The bending moment, M, is related to the curvature, 0, through the moment-

curvature relationship (Krauthammer et al. 1987). The shear force, V, is
related to the shear strain, y x z , through the diagonal shear relationship based
on the Modified Compression Field Theory (Collins and Mitchell 1991). For
the relative slip between structural members, the reactions at the supports, V d ,
are related to the slip (or deflection), A, at the support by the Hawkins direct
shear model (1982). These three relationships are referred to in this paper as
the resistance models. Provisions are included for unloading, re-loading, and
load reversals, as discussed by Krauthammer et al. (1990).
The finite difference method is utilized in this study for the numerical solution
of the Timoshenko Beam equations. This method is based on discretizing the
continuum into an assemblage of nodes, and then, expressing the partial
derivatives in the differential equations in terms of the differences with respect
to neighboring nodes (Assadi-Lamouki and Krauthammer 1988).
STRAIN RATE EFFECTS
This study includes consideration of strain rate effects on the strength of

concrete and steel. For a homogenous simply supported elastic beam loaded at
midspan with a concentrated static load, the extreme fiber stress at the center
of the beam is given by a = 0.125 P L h / I. The corresponding strain is
given by e = a I E = 0.125 P L h / (E I). The moment and curvature are
related by M = E I </>, or E I = M / 0. Now, if the beam is assumed to
consist of cracked concrete, then E I must correspond to the cracked value. A
good estimate of this value is M y / <p , where M y and <py are the moment and
curvature at the yield point on the moment curvature diagram. This leads to e
= 0.125 P L h 0 y / M y . If it is further assumed that the load is now dynamic
(of course the formulas are approximations), then differentiating with respect
to time will result in:
( }
at at 8 M
This would be the strain rate at the extreme fibers at the center of the beam,
that has been directly related to the loading rate 3P/3t. Hence, an estimate of
the strain rate can be obtained from the loading rate. Similarly, one can derive
other relationships for other support and loading conditions. For instance, for
a fixed-fixed beam with a uniform load, and considering the fibers at the
support (the location of maximum stress) the following relationship is obtained:
dj_ aw L 2 h <t>y
= ( )
at at 24 My
The above formulas are only an approximation for the strain rate at the
maximum stress (and strain) location in the structural member. It is assumed
that this strain rate is valid for: 1. Over the whole length of the beam; 2. For
the duration of the analysis (during and after loading); 3. In the nonlinear
range past the yield moment; and 4. For all resistance mechanisms. The
enhancement models of Soroushian and Obaseki (1986) are used for steel and
for concrete in compression, while the model of Ross et al. (1989) is used for
the concrete in tension. These enhanced strength are used, thereafter, to derive
the resistance models discussed above.
APPLICATION OF CONCENTRATED LOADS
The application of uniformly distributed loads is a straightforward matter, since

the Timoshenko Beam equations accommodate them directly (Eq. 2). For
nonuniformly distributed loads, the procedure does not vary much, except that
now at each node a different load value is applied. There are two problems
associated with the application of a concentrated force. The first difficulty is
due to the discontinuity in the shear diagram at the point of application. This
problem is eliminated by splitting the load into two concentrated forces at two
adjoining nodes where the load is applied. The second difficulty is because the
Timoshenko Beam formulation was not derived for the application of
concentrated loads. This is overcome by assuming that the load is uniformly
distributed over the node (or nodes when the load is split into components)
where it is applied. The solution follows as any other case with a distributed
equivalent load q(x,t).
FAILURE AND COLLAPSE CRITERIA
The behavior models extend beyond the peak point to utilize the postpeak
strength. Experimental observations indicate that before a section fails in
flexure, damage must spread into the beam to a distance equal to about the
height of the beam around the critical section. This damaged area of the beam
is referred to as a hinge (a flexural hinge in this case), and its length is the
hinge length. Therefore, after the damaged length reaches approximately the
beam height, the cross section cannot resist any additional moments and it will
rotate freely without any restraint. Before this stage is reached, however,
geometrical conditions will continue to restrain the section from free rotation.
Thus, additional moment (and load) can be supported until the hinge is fully
developed (i.e., when its length equals approximately the height of the beam,
as discussed by Pijoudier-Cabot and Bazant, 1987). Thus, before the beam
collapses there must be a finite area (the hinge) over which failure occurs. This
approach has been extended also to the shear response of the beam. Also, it
should be noted the formation of a hinge, in flexure or shear, as described
above, at one location along the beam may not cause the full collapse of the
member. To avoid mesh dependency, a nonlocal definition for hinge formation
is used. The curvatures are averaged over the hinge length, and if this average
curvature exceeds the ultimate curvature on the moment curvature diagram,
then the hinge is assumed to have fully developed. A similar observation and
procedure is used for shear hinges.
The numerical procedure is used to analyze five cases of impact loaded

(concentrated loads) reinforced concrete beams tested by Feldman and Siess
(1958). In addition, it is used to analyze eleven roof slabs of box type
structures that were tested by Slawson (1984). These roof slabs were subjected
to explosion effects that resulted in a distributed load. The results obtained
from this analysis are presented next.
BEAM CASES OF FELDMAN AND SIESS (1958)
The reinforced concrete beams tested by Feldman and Siess (1958) were
simply supported spanning 106 inches and loaded at midspan with an impact
load. There were five beams, designated herein by C-l, G-l, H-l, J-l, and I-
1. The sections were 6 inches wide, 12 inches high, and 10 inches for the
effective depth. Reinforcement consisted of two No. 7 bars in tension, two No.
6 bars in compression, and No. 3 stirrups at 7 inch spacing. Yield strength of
the reinforcement was about 46 ksi, while the compressive strength of concrete
was about 6000 psi. For all cases, except Beam C-l, the shear reinforcement
consisted of closed and welded stirrups. Hence, for these cases, the state of
stress in the compression concrete is triaxial, and the concrete core could be
considered confined. The impact load was applied to the center of the beams
through a 6 inch thick 12 inch long stub that was built integrally with the
beam.
As mentioned above, the load was applied to these beams through 12 inch long
stubs. This loading condition does not represent a concentrated load (i.e. a load
at an infinitesimal point) nor a uniformly distributed load over the stub length.
The actual distribution will be somewhere in between these two limits. Because
of the solution will be dependent on the choice of the loading type, each case
is analyzed twice: one with the load concentrated and the other with the load
distributed. It is shown from such analysis that the experimental response is
somewhere in between these two limits.
For the elastic modulus, the ACI 318 (1989) equation is used, i.e. E = 57000
Jfc. An average value of 0.2 is used for the concrete's Poisson's ratio (Park
and Paulay 1975, p. 17). y w of concrete is taken as 145 pcf, and this results
in a mass density of 2.172xlO"7 kip-sec2/in4. The mass of the stub was
included in the analysis according to: W total = W ^ n + a W stub , where a is
a factor that depends on the deflection shape of the structure. The concentrated
mass at the center (the stub) is redistributed over the length of the beam
through the equivalent SDOF the mass factor 1/3 for the plastic domain (Biggs
1964, p. 209), from which the effective mass density of the beam is computed
to be 2.54xlO"7 kip-sec2/in4. 54 nodes (i.e. 53 segments) are chosen, resulting
in a nodal spacing, Ax, of 2 inches. For this nodal spacing, and to assure
stability of the numerical solution, the critical time step is computed from Atcr
= Ax / C L , where C L is the dilatational wave speed. For these beams, Atcr is
computed to be 0.000013 seconds, and a time step of 0.00001 seconds is used.
The moment-curvature relationship is computed without any strain rate

enhancement, from which the point corresponding to the yielding of steel, <py
and M y , is obtained. The load is then obtained from the experimental record,
and is idealized and approximated by a piece-wise-linear load. From this load
function, the initial load rate, 3P/3t, is obtained. Next, the strain rate is
computed from Equation (4), and the corresponding enhanced steel and
concrete strengths are obtained. These enhanced values are then used to
compute the moment-curvature and the shear force-strain relationships. Then,
all the derived data for the nodal spacing, time step, and resistance, are input
into the computer program and the solution is derived. Each solution required
about 4 minutes on a 25 Mhz 386/387 micro-computer.
The results from the analysis of beam H-l are shown in Figures (1 and 2)
along with the experimental data. The computed midspan deflection follows the
experimental curve closely (Figure 1). Also, it is observed that the
experimental solution lies between the two numerical solutions (one for
concentrated and one for distributed loading) as anticipated. Similarly, the
computed reaction for the concentrated conditions (as well as the distributed
condition) follows the measured reactions closely, as shown in Figure 2.
Similar results are obtained for the other four beams.
ROOF SLAB CASES OF SLAWSON (1984)
This experimental program consisted of two series of reinforced concrete box

type structures, with the roof slabs subjected to explosive pressure. The first
test series consisted of five structures that will be designated in this study by
DS1-1 to DS1-5. The second series consisted of six cases, and are designated
by DS2-1 to DS2-6. The main difference between the first and the second
series is the span to effective depth ratio. The first test series had an effective
depth of 4.8 inches, and a clear span, face to face of the wall, of 48 inches,
resulting in an L/d of 10. For the second series, d was 6.44 inches, L was
44.75 inches, resulting in an L/d of 7. For reinforcement the first series had
a ratio of 1 % on each face. For the second test series, three cases had a ratio
of 0.75% and the other three had a ratio of 1.2%.
The values for E, v, G, K, are obtained as for the beams. Because the amount
of steel in these test cases is relatively large, the unit weight, y w f concrete
is taken as 150 pfc. From this, the mass density of concrete, p, is computed
2.247xlO"7 kip-sec2/in4. Here, 25 nodes (i.e. 24 segments) are chosen, hence,
the nodal spacing varies between 2 inches for the DS1 slab series and 1.865
inches for the DS2 slabs. From this nodal spacing, the critical time step for the
analysis is computed, as for the beam cases, to be 0.000012 seconds. This time
step, however, would result in only 10 increments to the peak pressure, and
70 points for the first pulse duration. This would not produce a good resolution
for the load. Hence, a time step of 0.000001 sec (or 0.001 msec) is used,
resulting in 700 points for the primary pulse. Fixed rotation boundary
condition were assumed.
The loading function has been derived based on experimental data and it
consisted of a primary triangular pulse and a secondary constant pressure. The
ratio of the peak pressures of the primary pulse at the support and the center
is then obtained as being equal to the ratio of the impulses at the termination
BeamH-1
10
9
8
^
5 7
U
.E 6
c 5
o
^ 3 Dist. Load
Cone. Load
O 2 Experiment
1
0'
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
Time (sec)
Figure 1: Midspan Deflection of Beam H-l.
Beam H-1
-5
-10
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
Time (sec)
Figure 2: Reaction at Supports of Beam H-l.

of the primary pulse. Similarly, the ratio of the secondary constant pressure at
the center and the support is taken as being equal to the ratio of the
incremental impulse. It is further stipulated that this later ratio cannot exceed
2.0 for cases that did not separate from the wall, and 1.5 for cases that slipped
less than 4 inches in the first 10 msec. These limits are selected arbitrarily to
obtain a consistent approximation of the load distribution along the slab. The
solution approach followed the same path as for the beams, and each solution
required about 5 minutes on a 25 Mhz 386/387 micro-computer.
For example, roof Slab DS1-5, the results from the analysis are shown in
Figures (3 and 4), along with the experimental measurements. The computed
slip of 8 inches confirm the separation of the slab from the wall, as observed
from the experimental record and the posttest photograph of the experiment.
Results from tracing the resistance functions along the beam indicate that a
direct shear slip at the supports occurs at 0.46 msec. Along the entire length
of the beam, both flexure and diagonal shear remained well below their
respective ultimate points, indicating that the primary mode of failure is in
direct shear.
For roof Slab DS2-4, the computed midspan deflection follow closely the
measured deflection as shown in Figure 5. In addition, the computed support
slips of 3 inches confirm the separation of the slab from the wall as indicated
by the posttest photograph. Results from tracing the resistance functions along
the beam indicate that a diagonal shear hinge at the supports is initiated at 0.26
millisecond and fully developed at 0.37 millisecond. Much later, at 6.08
millisecond, the supports slipped leading to the severing of the slab from the
walls. The analysis indicated that there was severe diagonal shear damage,
while there was little flexural distress. This indicates a change in response
from the early direct shear failure of the first case to an early diagonal shear
failure in this case. The significant amount of diagonal shear damage followed
by the slip is believed to have caused the final collapse of the structure.
All other cases are similar in response to one of the above two cases.
Therefore, the cases are classified into two groups, according to the failure
conditions observed and predicted. The first group consists of Slabs DS1-1 to
DS1-5, DS2-1, and DS2-2. For this group, the failure is clearly attributed to
the early separation (within the first millisecond of loading) of the slab from
the walls, after which the slabs move rapidly as a rigid body. Hence, the first
group can be classified as failing primarily in direct shear. For the second
group, consisting of Slabs DS2-3 to DS2-6, the failure is clearly attributed to
diagonal shear with a much later direct shear failure.
CONCLUSIONS
The proposed numerical-analytical approach can predict successfully the

response and failure of reinforced concrete elements under different impulsive
SlabDS1-5
14
y-J2
CO
CD
510 Experiment
c
Q.
Support SI
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010

Time (sec.)
Figure 3: Support Slip for Slab DSl-5
SlabDS1-5
14
y
12
Deflection (in ches)
10 Experiment
/ ^ ^
0'
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
Time (sec.)
Figure 4: Midspan Deflection of Slab DS1-5

SlabDS2-4
12 r 9
y
y
1n
lect ion ( ches)
8 Experiment
c.
6 -
4 -
(D
0(
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
Time (sec.)
Figure 5: Midspan Deflection of Slab DS2-4

loading conditions. The models used herein to obtain the moment-curvature,

the shear force-strain, and the shear force-slip relationships seem to predict
accurately the response of reinforced concrete elements in these modes.
Furthermore, the dynamic cycling model is confirmed. The simplified
procedure to compute the strain rate in the structural member is justified, as
well as all the assumptions regarding a single initial value of strain rate. In
addition, the models used for the strain rate enhancement for different
materials seem to be accurate. The proposed failure criteria seem to predict
accurately the failure modes.
REFERENCES
ACI 318-89 (1989). "Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete,"

American Concrete Institute, Detroit.
Assadi-Lamouki, A. and Krauthammer, T. (1988). "Development of Improved

Timoshenko Beam and Mindlin Plate Theories for the Analysis of Reinforced
Concrete Structures Subjected to Impulsive Loads," Report No. ST-88-02,
Civil and Mineral Engineering Department, University of Minnesota.
Biggs, J.M. (1964). "Introduction to Structural Dynamics", McGraw-Hill,

New York, p. 209.
Collins, M. P., and Mitchell, D. (1991). "Prestressed Concrete Structures",

Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Cowper, G.R. (June 1966). "The Shear Coefficient in Timoshenko's Beam

Theory," Journal of Applied Mechanics, ASME, New York, Vol. 33, pp. 335-
340.
Feldman, A., and Siess, C.P. (1958), "Investigation of Resistance and

Behavior of Reinforced Concrete members subjected to dynamic loading, Part
III," SRS Report No. 165, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
Hawkins, N.M. (1982). "Direct Shear Resistance," letter report to U.S. Navy,
reproduced in appendix A of Murtha, R.N., and Holland, T.J. (1982),
"Analysis of WES FY82 Dynamic Shear Test Structures," Technical
Memorandum 51-83-02, Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory, Port Hueneme,
California.
Krauthammer, T., Shahriar, S., and Shanaa, H. M. (1990). "Response of RC

Elements to Severe Impulsive Loads," Journal of Structural Engineering,
ASCE, 116(4), pp. 1061-1079.
Krauthammer, T., Shahriar, S., and Shanaa, H.M. (1987). "Analysis of

Reinforced Concrete Beams Subjected to Severe Concentrated Loads,"
Structural Journal, ACI, 84(6), pp. 473-480.
Mindlin, R.D. (March 1951). "Influence of Rotatory Inertia and Shear on

Flexural Motions of Isotropic, Elastic Plates," Journal of Applied Mechanics,
ASME, Vol. 18, pp. 31-38.
Park, R., and Paulay, T. (1975). "Reinforced Concrete Structures", John

Wiley and Sons, New York.
Pijoudier-Cabot, G., and Bazant, Z.P. (1987). "Nonlocal Damage Theory,"

Report No. 86-8/428n, revised January 1987, Center for Concrete and
Geomaterials, Northwestern University.
Ross, T.J. (1983). "Direct Shear Failure in Reinforced Concrete Beams under
Impulsive Loading," Report No. AFWL-TR-83-84, Air Force Weapons
Laboratory, Kirtland Air Force Base, New Mexico.
Ross, C.A., Kuennen, S.T., and Strickland, W.S. (1989). "High Strain Rate
Effects on Tensile Strength of Concrete," Proc. Fourth International
Symposium on the Interaction of Non-nuclear Munitions with Structures, Vol.
1, Panama City Beach, Florida.
Slawson, T.R. (1984). "Dynamic Shear Failure of Shallow-Buried Flat-Roofed

Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Blast Loading," Technical Report
SL-84-7, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg.
Soroushian, P. and Obaseki, K. (1986). "Strain Rate Dependent Interaction

Diagram for Reinforced Concrete Sections," ACI Journal, 83(1), pp. 108-116.
Sutherland, J.G., Goodman, L.E. (April 1951). "Vibration of Prismatic Bars

Including Rotatory Inertia and Shear Deformations," Project NR-064-183,
University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
Timoshenko, S.P. (1921). "On the Correction for Shear of the Differential
Equation for Transverse Vibrations of Prismatic Bars," Philosophical
Magazine, Series 6, Vol. 41, pp. 744-746.
Timoshenko, S.P. (1922). "On the Transverse Vibration of Bars of Uniform

Cross-Section," Philosophical Magazine, Series 6, Vol. 43, pp. 125-131.
Direct Impact Testing of Reinforced
Concrete Structures
A. Scanlon, A. Aminmansour, A. Nanni, M. Faruqi
Department of Civil Engineering,
The Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, PA 16802, U.S.A.
ABSTRACT
Recent work on impact testing of reinforced concrete structures at The

Pennsylvania State University is described. Impact tests are conducted
using a large scale pendulum facility. Results are summarized for a series
of tests on concrete bridge barriers. A project currently underway to
investigate loading rate effects on reinforced concrete beams is also briefly
described.
INTRODUCTION
A large scale pendulum impact testing facility has recently been

constructed at The Pennsylvania State University. The facility was
originally developed to evaluate the performance of concrete bridge
barriers under severe impact loading and tests have been performed on
both cast-in-place designs and precast concrete designs. A project is
currently under way to investigate fundamental aspects of behavior of
concrete beams under impact loading. This paper briefly presents
highlights from these two investigations.
EVALUATION OF CONCRETE BRIDGE BARRIERS
The standard cast-in-place concrete barrier with the New Jersey shape has
been used successfully in Pennsylvania and other states for many years.
Other designs, for example using precast parapets, have been installed in
recent years. Concerns have been raised about the safety and performance
of these newer systems under severe impact loads. The test program
described below was conducted to establish the performance characteristics
of standard bridge barriers under severe impact loading. The test results
were then used to develop a test specification that could be used to
evaluate alternative designs.
TEST PROGRAM
The test program included the design and construction of test specimens
and impact testing of the specimens.
Test Facility
In order to conduct full-scale impact testing without resorting to vehicle
crash testing a large-scale outdoor pendulum facility was constructed at
The Pennsylvania State University. The pendulum facility as shown in
Figure 1 consists of a 50 ft-high steel frame and a pendulum mass
suspended by four steel cables. The pendulum mass consists of a steel
box containing removable steel plates allowing adjustments in the weight
of the mass. The weight of the pendulum mass used in this test series was
5300 lbs. By adding additional plates the weight can be increased to about
10,000 lbs. The impact force is delivered by a bumper arrangement that
can be adjusted to produce either a distributed impact force or
concentrated impact force. A load cell is placed between the bumper and
the main portion of the mass to record the impact force during impact.
The form of the impact force function can be adjusted by placing various
types of energy absorbing material between the bumper and the steel box.
For the present test program layers of plywood were used to produce
impact force functions that are similar to those produced during vehicle
impact (Scanlon et. al.(1990)).
Specimens to be tested were securely bolted to a heavy concrete base.

The pendulum is raised to a desired drop height using a power-operated
winch and a quick release hook is operated to allow the mass to fall under
its own weight producing an impact force on the specimen at a desired
location. At the same time as the mass is released, a data acquisition
system is activated to record data including impact force, acceleration of
the mass, and strains and displacements in the specimen during impact.
Test Specimens
The AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges (1977) require
that bridge railings be designed for a 10 kip transverse load applied 32 in
above the base using the working stress procedure. The transverse load
is distributed over a 5 ft width of barrier. Since the primary concern in
T^
SPECIMEN
\ ! '
r .^ : n concartt B/I^C re
[ . .' ' -^ **l ^ SPECIMEN SUPP0M1
<-COMCNCU H K
FRONT VIEW
Figure 1 Impact pendulum arrangement
this project was with the connection between the barrier and the deck slab
it was decided to perform full-scale tests on 5 ft lengths of barrier. The
barrier sections were cast on deck slabs 5ft x 12ft in plan and 1 ft in depth
as shown in Figure 2.
Barrier reinforcement is based on PennDOT standard details. The

reinforcement in the deck slab was proportioned to ensure that the barrier
bars would yield before the deck slab bars. All bars were epoxy coated.
Details of concrete compressive strength and reinforcing bar data are given
in a report by Scanlon et al. (1990). Concrete cylinder strengths at the
time of testing averaged 4325 psi for the deck slab and 4700 psi for the
barriers of the 12 in specimens. Nominal Grade 40 bars used in the 12
in barriers had an average measured yield strength of 57 ksi while Grade
60 bars used in the deck slab had an average yield strength of 69 ksi.
Test Procedure
Each specimen in the program was tested under a series of impacts at pre-
selected drop heights. The first six 12 in specimens were subjected to a
sequence of impacts at various drop heights to establish the general
behavioral characteristics under impact loading. Based on the results of
this first series the last three specimens were tested under the same
sequence of increasing drop heights. This sequence was established to
provide significant changes in permanent deformation after each impact
event as discussed under "Test Results".
Barrier Length=5ff
T
^3/4" Clear
/Test Bed
7 \'"'-} J\J i ' 7 i l i I /. 7 / 7 7 /
H-*5B ^3af12"TandB
12'-0
Figure 2 Barrier Specimen
Test Results
Data obtained from the test include impact force vs time, mass
acceleration vs time, displacement vs time at the top of the barrier and at
the base of the parapet (crack opening), and crack patterns. Examples of
the type of response histories obtained are shown in Figure 3. The impact
force function shows a steep rise to a peak value followed by one or two
secondary peaks. The impact force duration ranged from 70 to 80 ms in
most cases. The displacement vs time plots indicate a permanent
deformation remaining after impact. Dial gage readings provided an
independent check on the displacement measurements obtained using linear
potentiometers.
Damage sustained by a specimen after a series of impacts from 0.5, 1.0,

and 3.0 ft is illustrated in Figure 4. Damage to the barrier itself above the
construction joint at the barrier/slab interface is very minor. However the
opening of the crack at the construction joint measures approximately 0.75
in. The slab element also shows significant flexural cracking. However
the crack widths are significantly smaller due to the heavier reinforcement
in the top of the slab.
Summaries of the data presented in Figure 5 in the form of plots of drop

height vs peak load and drop height vs permanent deformation (crack
opening at the base of the barrier). Most specimens were subjected to
drop heights ranging from 0.5 to 3 ft. However Specimen 12.1 was
subjected to a drop height of 4 ft after sustaining impact from a 3 ft drop
height. Because the 3 ft drop height produced considerable damage,
-0.030 0.000 0.030 0.060 0.090 0.120 0.150

1 SO 1 ' ' i i i i i i
SPECIMEN 12.8 _
150- DH: 0.5 FT -150
- DH: 1.0 FT -
120- A DH: 3.0 FT -120
- LOAD CELL -
00
90-
1 -00
60- -60
30- ^ 0
J
0- r-0
30-
-0.030 0.000 0.030 0.060 0.090 0.120 0.150
TIME (SEC.)
Figure 3 (a) Impact force vs time
-0.030 0.000 0.030 0.060 0.090 0.120 0.150

1
1 00 ' ' 1 . . . ,.i ^<^
SPECIMEN 12.8
0.80 - DH: 0.5 FT h-0.80
POT. (TOP)
POT. (BOTTOM)
0.60 - -0.60
00 _
2 2 o.4O - -0.40
*"* 0.20- -0.20

^*
1
0*
0 ^0 - r\ on
-0.030 0.000 0.030 0.060 0.090 0.120 0.150

TIME (SEC.)
Figure 3(b) Deflection vs time

Figure 4 Crack pattern in specimen after test

DROP HEIGHT ( f t )
3.5 12.1
3.0 f fP
2.5
12.3-
20
12.9^
1.5 12.8,
1.0
L-12.7
0.5
0.0 ^ . . - ^ ^ - i n . Specimens
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
PEAK LOAD (kips)
DROP HEIGHT ( f f |
3.5
12 in. Specimens
Joint opening at base
of barrier
0.5 1.0 1.5

PERMANENT DEFLECTION (in.)
Figure 5 Plots of drop height versus peak load and permanent deflection
including straining the parapet bars well into the yield range the specimen
had insufficient reserve capacity to resist the final impact load as
evidenced by the drop off in measured peak load at the 4 ft drop height.
At this level of impact the barrier deformations were sufficiently large to
permit the pendulum mass to travel beyond the face of the barrier with the
bumper of the pendulum mass coming to rest on top of the barrier. Up
to a 3 ft drop height the increase in drop height was accompanied by an
increase in peak load. The peak loads sustained during impact are
considerably higher than the peak loads sustained under static load. Peak
static loads were found to be about 62 kips (Scanlon et al. (1990)) while
peak impact loads were found to range up to 120 kips. The large
difference is related to the very short duration of the impact loads. Both
the static and dynamic peak loads are well above the design working load
of 10 kips specified by AASHTO.
The plot of drop height vs permanent deformation shows increasing

permanent deformation with increase in drop height and a significant
increase in deformation at the 4 ft drop height for Specimen 12.1.
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
Based on the results of the nine tests on 12 in specimens the performance

characteristics of the barrier were characterized in terms of level of
permanent deformation as measured at the base of the barrier associated
with three increasing drop heights.
For a 0.5 ft drop height, crack widths ranged from 0.012 to 0.068 in.
The relatively wide range can be attributed largely to the variability of the
tensile strength across the construction joint. A drop height of 1 ft
produced a significant increase in crack width with measured values
ranging from 0.094 to 0.288 in. Finally, a drop height of 3 ft produced
crack widths ranging from 0.714 to 0.775 in. Based on these results a test
specification was developed in which limits are placed on permanent
deformations induced by three increasing drop heights for a pendulum
mass weighing 5300 lbs. Full details of the test specification including
details of the pendulum system required to provide the required impact
severity are given by Scanlon et al. (1990).
EFFECT OF LOADING RATE ON BEHAVIOR OF REINFORCED

CONCRETE BEAMS
A project is currently underway to investigate the effects of loading rate

on reinforced concrete specimens using the impact pendulum facility.
Tests will be conducted on simply supported beams under both static and
impact loading. Previous work done by other researchers including
Takeda et al. (1982), Perry et al. (1984), Brown and Jirsa (1971), and
Chung and Shah (1989) suggests that increased loading rates may change
the failure mode from ductile to a more localized brittle failure. In the
current test program the beams are being tested under mid-point loading
and reinforcement has been designed to provide a range of shear strength
to flexural strength ratio. To investigate scale effects, a companion set of
tests will be conducted on small scale specimens at Northwestern
University under the direction of Prof. S. P. Shah. Results of this joint
test program will be reported at a later date.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Funding provided by the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation and

the National Science Foundation is gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
American Association of State Highway Officials (1977). Standard

Specifications for Highway Bridges, 12th Edition.
American Association of Highway Officials (1989). Guide Specifications

for Bridge Railings.
Brown, R. H. and Jirsa, J. O. (1971) "Reinforced Concrete Beams Under

Load Reversals," ACI Journal, V. 68, No. 5, pp. 380-390.
Chung, L. and Shah, S. P. (1989) "Effect of Loading Rate on Anchorage-

Bond and on Beam-Column Joint," ACIStructural Jr., Vol. 86, No. 2, pp.
132-142.
Perry, S. H., et al. (1984) "Factors Influencing the Response of Concrete

Slabs to Impact," Proceedings, Structural Impact and Crashworthiness,
Vol. 2, Elsevier LTD, Barking, England, pp. 617-627.
Scanlon, A., McClure, R. M., Spitzer, P., Tessaro, T., and

Aminmansour, A. (1990). Performance Characteristics of Cast-in-place
Bridge Barrier. Report No. PTI 9006 to the Pennsylvania Department of
Transportation, Harrisburg, PA.
Takeda, J. et al. (1982) "Fracture of Reinforced Concrete Structural

Members and Structures Subjected to Impact and Explosion,"
Proceedings, Structures Under Impact and Impulsive Loading, RILEM-
CEB-IABSE-IASS, Berlin, pp. 289-295.
SECTION 6: IMPACT LOADING ON METAL,
GLASS AND COMPOSITE STRUCTURAL
ELEMENTS
The Use of Mathematical Models of
Ceramic Faced Plates Subject to Impact
Loading
R. Cortes, C. Navarro, M.A. Martinez, J. Rodriguez,
V. Sanchez-Galvez
Department of Materials Science, E.T.S. de
Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puertos,
Polytechnic University of Madrid, Ciudad
Universitaria s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
ABSTRACT
The penetration of ceramic targets backed by thin metallic plates

when impacted by cylindrical projectiles is studied by a full two-
dimensional numerical analysis of the normal impact process. An
elasto-plastic behaviour of the materials with a rupture criterion is
considered, and an erosion condition is included as a limit situation
when the role of the ruptured material in the penetrafion process is
limited to purely inertial effects. A detailed picture of the
penetration of the target by the impacting projectile is obtained. The
results of the numerical analysis are compared with recent
experimental observations of the projectile/target interaction using
flash X-ray techniques. There is remarkable agreement between the
computations and the experimental findings, which confirms the
usefulness of the main assumptions of the numerical analysis.
INTRODUCTION
The response of ceramics to impact loading has received a large

attention since the pioneering work of Wilkins [1-2], who identified
some of the main aspects of the response of ceramic targets. Wilkins
found that mass loss of the projectile takes place after the initial
contact with the ceramic plate, and that this process is related to the
distortion resistance of the ceramic plate. With the aid of a two-
dimensional numerical analysis, he also concluded that a fracture
conoid develops in the ceramic plate immediately ahead of the
projectile, enlarging the area of the backup plate bearing the
impulsive loading. It was also verified that an increase in the tensile
strength of the ceramic leads to an improvement in the ballistic
limit of the ceramic plate, due to the delay in fracture initiation.
However, further details of the eroding effects of ceramics and on
ceramic fracture were still lacking.
More recently, Mayseless et al. [3] concluded on the basis of a
large number of tests that targets prefaced by ceramic plates are more
efficient than purely metallic targets for impact velocities above 250
m/s. They also related the eroded length of the projectile to the
initial velocity and the thickness of the ceramic layer, observing that
the energy required to erode the projectile was several orders of
magnitude larger than that consumed in the fracture process of the
ceramic plate. Moreover, Woodward [4] has been able to develop
simple models for impact on ceramic targets backed by either thin or
thick plates, assuming some particular failure modes of the target.
On the other hand, Shockey and co-workers [5] made a
detailed study of the fracture behaviour of confined ceramics at high
impact velocities. They suggested that the key process in the
penetration of confined ceramics is the crushing of a small volume
of ceramic immediately ahead of the projectile, since otherwise
penetration is not possible. This implies that some non-
conventional parameters such as dynamic compressive failure
energy, as well as the frictional and abrasive properties of pulverized
ceramic, play a major role in the penetration of confined ceramics.
This work presents a full numerical analysis of the normal
impact of cylindrical, blunt steel projectiles on ceramic targets backed
by aluminium plates. Time histories of several variables are
obtained, thus giving a detailed picture of the penetration process. A
comparison with experimental measurements shows good
agreement with them. The results obtained indicate certain aspects
of the behaviour of ceramics under impact loading, such as the
erosive properties and dynamic strength of ceramics, which require
further investigation.
NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
(a) Physical concepts and assumptions.
The numerical analysis is performed using conditions of axial

symmetry, and employing a non-commercial finite difference
Lagrangian computer code for the numerical analysis of dynamic
problems involving contact or impact. This code was used by the
authors in the successful modelling of both the plugging failure of
aluminium targets [6] and the spall fracture in aluminium, copper

and steel plates subjected to explosive loading [7].
Material properties employed in the analysis were taken from
the literature. For steel and aluminium an elasto-plastic behaviour
was considered. For alumina, a pressure-dependent strength was
assumed, in agreement with the experimental findings. To define
such pressure dependence, typical values of tensile and compressive
stresses for aluminium oxide were used to define a linear
dependency of the strength upon pressure. This latter selection
seems to be important, since as previously noticed for a one-
dimensional modelling of ceramic penetration [4], agreement with
the experimental results depends upon the selected value of the
strength of the ceramic material. Strain rate dependence of the
material properties was not taken into account. A simple fracture
criterion based on a critical value of the effective plastic strain was
considered for all materials. In the ceramic material, a very small
amount of plastic strain was allowed, after the ceramic strength was
reached, in order to damp the sudden fluctuations in stress
frequently found in this type of calculation. Thus, in the numerical
analysis, the value of the ceramic strength was used as a yield locus.
After rupture of a computational zone, the material within this
zone was assumed to bear only compressive hydrostatic stresses.
When ruptured computational cells became excessively distorted or
when stresses fell to very low values, those zones were eroded and
subsequently the computational zones were replaced by a series of
point masses moving freely and eventually impacting against the
moving solids. Contacts between solids or between a solid and point
masses were modelled by introducing forces opposing the
interpenetration of bodies.
(b) Problems analyzed and main results.
The impact problem considered in this work is the normal

impact of steel cylindrical blunt projectiles on alumina tiles backed by
an aluminium plate. The steel projectile was 6.0 mm in diameter
and 31.8 mm in length, had a weight of about 7.0 grams and a
performance similar to that of a 7.62 mm NATO AP projectile. The
armour plate had an alumina facing of 8.1 mm thickness, supported
by a 6061-T6 aluminium backing plate of 6.0 mm. The impact
velocities considered were 815 m/s and 916 m/s, just below and
above the experimental ballistic limit of experiments. Alternatively,
impact experiments at velocities of about 800 m/s and 1000 m/s were
simulated for thicknesses of the backup plate of 4.0 mm and 8.0 mm,
respectively. However, since experimental information
corresponding to these latter cases was scant, we make only passing
reference to them, centring our exposition on a backup plate
thickness of 6.0 mm.
The initial finite difference mesh is shown in Figure 1, and
consists of 889 nodes and 790 zones. Fixed end conditions are
imposed at the boundaries at a distance of 50 mm from the axis of
symmetry.
It was found from the analysis for an impact velocity of 916
m/s, that ceramic fracture initiates at the zone adjacent to the outer
radius of the projectile at a time of about 0.3 |is after the initial
contact, and that it propagates very rapidly in the in-depth direction.
In Figure 2(a), which corresponds to a time of 6.0 |is after the initial
contact, it can be appreciated that the zone of fractured material
ahead of the penetrator has adopted a well defined conical shape. In
Figure 2(b) the deformed configuration corresponding to 78 [is is
shown. The typical conical shape of the fractured ceramic zone is
again observed, although its dimensions have increased with time.
Also, a thin zone of fractured ceramic tends to develop along the
alumina/aluminium interface, probably due to the shear stresses
developed at the interface. In Figure 2(b) it is clearly seen that the
ruptured zones traverse the whole armour, showing that the
projectile has perforated the armour. Another interesting aspect of
the numerical simulation, is that circumferential cracks start to
appear in the ceramic tile at 12 |is, and continue to develop. This
phenomenon is observed in experiments. The cracks tend to be
perpendicular to the plane of the tile face. No attempt is made to
model the radial cracking observed in experiments, since this should
be analyzed as a three dimensional problem. An outstanding feature
of the numerical simulation is that the projectile is not able to
penetrate the ceramic material, but rather pushes the ruptured
ceramic ahead of it. This agrees with experimental observations [8].
Figures 3, 4 and 5 show the time histories of the positions of
the rear face of the projectile, the projectile/target interface, and the
bottom of the backup plate, respectively. Experimental points
corresponding to these positions using a flash X-ray technique [8] are
also shown. Excellent agreement between numerical analysis and
experiment is evident from Figure 3 for the rear part of the
projectile, and in spite of the scatter of the experimental results,
agreement is good also for the position of the projectile/armour
interface (Figure 4). Agreement is poor, however, for the deflection
of the backup plate (see Figure 5), but this may be related to the fact
that the ballistic limit corresponding to the numerical model is
closer to 916 m/s than the experimental value; the failure of the
backup plate may be produced earlier in the experiments than in the
numerical simulation, giving rise to a rapid conversion from elastic
to kinetic energy of the emerging plug, and a consequent departure
from the numerical predictions. After impact, the projectile mass is
reduced to about 2.6 grams (experimental value: 2.3 grams),
implying a 63 % mass reduction which agrees with the experimental
value of 70%.
Qualitatively similar results were obtained for the case of
normal impact at 815 m/s. In this latter situation, the target is able to
defeat the projectile. According to the numerical results, the final
mass of the projectile is 2.8 grams, a mass reduction of 60%, which
coincides exactly with the experimental value.
Additional computer runs were made to estimate the ballistic
limit for backup plate thicknesses of 4.0 mm and 8.0 mm. For the
first case, impact velocities of 750 m/s and 830 m/s were assumed,
and in the second one initial velocities of 920 m/s and 1000 m/s
were considered. In both cases, at the highest impact velocity the
projectile was able to defeat the armour, while at the lowest velocity
the armour stopped the projectile. The results for a backup plate
thickness of 4.0 mm agree with the experimental observations [8],
where a ballistic limit of about 810 m/s was found. However, for a
backup plate thickness of 8.0 mm the numerical ballistic limit lies in
a range lower than the experimental interval of 1000 m/s to 1100
m/s [8]. This suggests that care must be taken when applying the
present numerical model to impact conditions other than those
studied, because the dependence of mechanical behaviour and
fracture parameters upon strain rate may be an important factor in
target performance.
DISCUSSION
The detailed micromechanisms involved in the fracture of
ceramics are not considered in the numerical simulation. In fact, a
constitutive model which completely quantifies the progressive
microfracture of ceramic materials until macroscopic fracture is
detected is not known to the authors. Microcrack nucleation and
growth theories such as those described in Reference [9] seem the
most appropriate for ceramic materials, but their extreme brittleness
makes it very difficult to undertake an experimental study of the
micromechanics of their fracture. A typical result of impact
experiments similar to those performed in confined ceramics [5] is a
distribution of small fragments, so it is virtually impossible to arrest
the experiment at an intermediate stage to get an adequate picture of
the fracture process, and simpler models of ceramic fracture must be
sought. In tensile fracture, for instance, a rupture criterion based on
a critical value of the maximum principal stress is frequently
defined. However, the performance of ceramic armours often takes
place in a state of large compressive stresses. So, a precise knowledge
of the fracture of ceramics under high compressive stresses is also a
point of major interest.
In addition, the behaviour of fractured ceramic subjected to
large dynamic compressive stresses should be further studied, since
it has been found that the behaviour of finely pulverized ceramic
may control the penetration process in ceramic targets [10,11]. Some
attempts of modelling the pulverized ceramic behaviour have been
made by others [12,13]. In this respect, it seems that the studies of the
behaviour of granular materials, usually associated to the realm of
soil mechanics, such as those summarized in references [14-15], are
of relevance when dealing with the constitutive response of the
zone of comminuted ceramic ahead of the penetrator.
Despite the approximations made in the numerical model,
especially with regard to the dynamic fracture strength of ceramics
under compressive stresses and the behaviour of pulverized
ceramics, the numerical analysis gives a reasonable picture of the
behaviour of the ceramic armour, and seems to be a useful tool to
further the understanding of the penetration process.
CONCLUSIONS
This work undertakes the full two-dimensional numerical
modelling of the normal impact of blunt cylindrical projectiles on
composite ceramic armours at velocities ranging from 750 m/s to
1000 m/s. In the numerical analysis, fracture criteria for both the
ceramic and the projectile are included, as well as an erosion criteria
for dealing with computational zones where the role in the
penetration process is limited to purely inertial effects. The history
of the fracture of the ceramic plate can be followed in detail,
although the use of an accurate model for the microscopic
mechanisms causing the fracture of ceramics is avoided. Neither are
the details considered of the interaction between ceramic fragments
and the projectile, leading to erosion of the latter. However, the
comparison of computations with empirical data shows remarkable
agreement, which suggests that the main trends of the armour
response are fairly represented by the numerical model. Since the
fracture and erosive properties of ceramics are of great importance
for the full numerical modelling of the impact problem, it would be
advisable to perform additional research into these aspects.
REFERENCES
1. Wilkins, M.L. 'Mechanics of Penetration and Perforation', Int. J.

Engng. Sci., Vol. 16, pp. 793-807,1978.
2. Wilkins, M.L. 'Third Progress Report on the Light Armour

Program' (Report UCRL-50460), Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory, University of California, 1969.
3. Mayseless, M., Goldsmith, W., Virostek, S.P. and Finnegan, S.A.,

'Impact on Ceramic Targets', /. Appl. Mech., Vol. 54, pp. 373-378,
1987.
4. Woodward, R. L. 'A Simple One-Dimensional Approach to

Modelling Ceramic Composite Armour Defeat', Int. J. Impact
Engng., Vol. 9, pp.455-474,1990.
5. Shockey, D.A., Marchand, A.H., Skaggs, S.R., Cort, G.E., Burkett,

M.W. and Parker, R. 'Failure Phenomenology of Confined Ceramic
Targets and Impacting Rods', Int. ]. Impact Engng., Vol. 9, pp.263-275,
1990.
6. Elices, M., Cortes, R., Navarro, C. and Sanchez-Galvez, V. 'A

Comparison between Numerical Techniques and Analytical Models
for Impact Problems', in SUSI 89 (Ed. Bulsen, P.S.), pp.165-175,
Proceedings of the Structures Under Shock and Impact Conference,
Cambridge, Mass., 1989.
7. Cortes, R., Elices, M. and Bilek, Z. 'Numerical Analysis of Spall

Fracture in Ductile Metals', in SUSI 89 (Ed. Bulsen, P.S.), pp.227-237,
Proceedings of the Structures Under Shock and Impact Conference,
Cambridge, Mass., 1989.
8. den Reijer, P.C. 'On the Penetration of Rods into Ceramic Faced
Armours', Vol. 1, pp. 389-400, Proceedings of the 12th International
Symposium on Ballistics, San Antonio, Texas, 1990.
9. Curran, D.R., Seaman, L. and Shockey, D.A. 'Dynamic Failure of

Solids', Physics Reports, Vol. 147, pp. 253-388, 1987.
10. Mescall, J. and Tracey, D.M. 'Improved Modelling of Fracture in

Ceramic Armour', Proceedings of the 1986 Army Science
Conference, U.S. Military Academy, West Point, 1986.
11. Mescall, J. and Weiss, V. 'Materials Behaviour Under High
Stress and Ultrahigh Loading Rates - Part II', Proceedings of the 29th
Sagamore Army Conference, Army Materials and Mechanics
Research Center, Watertown, Mass., U.S.A., 1984.
12. Klopp, R.W. and Shockey, D.A. The Strength Behaviour of

Granulated Silicon Carbide at High Strain Rates and Confining
Pressure', /. Appl. Phys. (submitted for publication).
13. Curran, D.R., Seaman, L. and Cooper, T. 'Micromechanical
Model for Comminution and Granular Flow of Brittle Material
Under High Pressure and High Strain Rate; Application to
Penetration of Ceramic Plates', Progress Report of SRI to the Office of
Naval Research, Contract NQ N00013-88-C-0734, 1991.
14. Subhash, G., Nemat-Nasser, S., Mehrabadi, M. and Shodja, H.

'Experimental Investigation of Fabric- Stress Relations in Granular
Materials', Mech. Mater., Vol. 11, pp. 87-106, 1991.
15. Bathurst, R. and Rotenburg, L. 'Observations on Stress-Fabric
Relationships in Idealized Granular Materials', Mech. Mater., Vol. 9,
pp. 65-80,1990.
Figure 1. Initial computational mesh. The ceramic tile is shaded.
Figure 2(a)
rtttrttfcttJ
Figure 2(b)
Figure 2. Deformed meshes corresponding to two different times

after the initial contact for an initial impact velocity of 916 m/s. The
ceramic tile is shaded and the ruptured zones are shown mottled, (a)
6.0 us; (b) 78 \xs.
35
30
N 5
6 20
15
S IO
-5
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time (|LLS)
Figure 3. Coordinate of the rear end of the projectile for the impact at
916 m/s. Results of the numerical simulation are represented by a
continuous line, whereas triangles correspond to experimental
measurements.
-2
n -8
-10
-12
,--r-r-.--T--,- r v - , - , - , . r , T , r , , , -| , , r - . - p , r r r , T . i .
-14
10 20 30 <IO 50 60 70 0
lime (fis)
Figure 4. Coordinate of the projectile/armour interface for the

impact at 916 m/s. Results of the numerical simulation are
represented by a continuous line, whereas triangles correspond to
experimental measurements.
-10
-14 iAAA
B
6 18
O
PH
-26
-30 T..l_r_r_1.-T_l.-I..I_T._T.T_T-.I., r - r ,
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time (|LLS)
Figure 5. Coordinate of the free surface of the backup plate for the
impact at 916 m/s. Results of the numerical simulation are
represented by a continuous line, whereas triangles correspond to
experimental measurements.
Semi-Empirical Equations for the
Perforation of Plates Struck by a Mass
H-M. Wen, N. Jones
Impact Research Centre,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, The
University of Liverpool, P.O. Box 147, Liverpool,
L69 3BX, U.K.
ABSTRACT
A dimensional analysis is used to obtain a semi-empirical

equation for the perforation of mild steel plates struck by
blunt or flat-ended projectiles. The formulation is based on
the experimental observation that there are significant plastic
deformations in the plates as well as a plugging (shear) failure
at the impact points. The present equation correlates well with
some recent low velocity experimental test results reported by
the authors on mild steel plates.
INTRODUCTION
The penetration and perforation of plates by a projectile is a

highly complex phenomenon and it has been investigated
experimentally for more than two centuries and analytically
largely during the last few decades [1-3]. As noted in
Reference [1], the impact process may involve elastic and
plastic wave motions and strain rate, viscous, thermal
softening, hydrodynamic and unstable effects as well as fracture
initiation and propagation, fracture surface sliding, crushing,
shattering and even erosion and impact explosion at very high
velocities or hypervelocities. Thus, a single theoretical model
incorporating all the mechanisms for a given problem and capable
of predicting all features of the event has thus far proved
impossible.
On the other hand, from a engineering viewpoint, there is

still a considerable interest in the development of empirical of
semi-empirical equations for the perforation of plates [1]. Two
fairly simple formulae that have been used widely are those of
SRI and BRL [4-6]. The SRI correlation is based on the
experimental data from more than six hundred tests covering a

range of projectile and target sizes. The parameter range for
the BRL formula is less clear. Recently, Ohte et al. [7] and
Neilson [5] have examined the applicability of the available
empirical equations. Neilson has proposed an expression for the
perforation of steel plates by a long penetrator, while Jowett
[6] has derived several empirical equations for the perforation
of mild steel plates by short missiles. Neilson [5] used the
principles of dimensional analysis and the experimental results
conducted on mild steel plates at AEE, Winfrith.
In this paper, a new formulation for the perforation of

plates impacted by a blunt or flat-ended projectile is suggested
on the basis of some observations from a recent experimental
study [8] and previous work [9-16] that there is a significant
dishing displacement in the plates as well as a plugging failure
at the impact site. Semi-empirical equations for the perfora-
tion of plates are obtained through a dimensional analysis. The
correlations with experimental data are presented and discussed.
COMPARISON OF THE TEST DATA IN REFERENCE [8] WITH EXISTING

EQUATIONS
The SRI empirical equation for the perforation of plates can be

expressed in the form [4-6]
E p /a u dH 2 = (42.7 + S/H)/10.3 , (1a)

or
E p /a u d 3 = (42.7/10.3)(H/d)2 + (1/10.3) (S/d)(H/d) (1b)
when 10 < L/d < 50, 5 < S/d < 8, 0.1 < H/d < 0.6 and 21 < Vj_ <
122 m/s and where Ep is the perforation energy of a plate (Nm),
o u is the ultimate tensile strength of the target (N/m2) and d,
S, H are the projectile diameter (m), unsupported span (m) and
target thickness (m), respectively. Equation (1) is the average
of the maximum energy giving no perforation and the minimum
energy giving perforation and, hence, it provides an estimate of
the mean perforation energy of a plate at which there is a 50?
chance of a blunt cylindrical projectile perforating a target.
The experimental results in Reference [8] for the mild steel
circular plates are summarised in Table 1 and are compared with
the SRI formula in Figure 1. It is evident that the correlation
is poor and equation (1) overpredicts significantly the mean
perforation energy for the plates in Table 1. However, the
impact velocities in Table 1 lie below the lower limit for the
validity of equation (1), while S/d is significantly larger than
the permitted range of values. Moreover, the striker in
Reference [8] has a complex shape which may exercise some
influence on the behaviour.
Table 1. Experimental results for mild steel

circular plates with S/d = 40 from Reference [8]. G, V c r a c j < and
V c are projectile mass, velocity at which a visible crack forms
on the distal side of plate and the ballistic limit,
respectively
s H a
y 0u d G v
crack vc
(mm) (mm) (MPa) (mm) (kg) (m/s) (m/s)
(MPa)
203.2 2 254.9 340 .6 5.08 5.60 3.52 4 .05

203.2 4 310.3 441 .8 5.08 5.60 6.90 7 .10
203.2 6 261 .7 417 .7 5.08 5.60 9.56 9 .88
203.2 8 246.6 407 .3 5.08 5.60 11.88 12 .17
The BRL equation for the perforation of steel plates struck

by a projectile is [4-6]
Ep 1.4 x (2a)
or
E p /a u d 3 = 1.4 u (2b)
u
A comparison of the experimental data for the mild steel plates
in Table 1 is made with equation (2b) in Figure 1 which
indicates a good correlation between the predicted values and
the experimentally obtained perforation energies. It is
demonstrated by further comparisons with the available
experimental data that the BRL equation is slightly conservative
for the perforation of mild steel plates struck by a flat-ended
projectile provided they do not fail by adiabatic shear
plugging.
Neilson [5] developed an empirical equation for the

perforation of mild steel plates by long penetrators which may
be cast into the form
E p /a u d 3 1.4 (3)
when 4 < S/d < 22 and 0.14 < H/d < 0.64. It is evident from
Figure 1 that NeilsonTs equation gives poor agreement with the
present experimental results for the mild steel plates in Table
1. However, the S/d ratios for all of the test specimens in
Table 1 and the H/d ratios for most of the specimens in Table 1
lie outside the inequalities associated with equation (3).
25
20
15
10
0
05 1-0 1-5 20
Figure 1. Comparison of various empirical formulae with the

test data in Table 1 for mild steel plates struck at
the centre.
equation (1b)
equation (2b)
equation (3)
equation (4a)
equation (4b)
equation (8b)
indicate perforation and
o, cracking conditions, respec
tively [8]
Jowett [6] derived some empirical equations for the

perforation of mild steel plates by short missiles with S/d > 12
which may be written as
E p /o u d 3 = 6.0(H/d)1-7lt (4a)
and
Ep/auci3 = 1.73(H/d)-8i+ (4b)
for 0.1 < H/d < 0.25 and 0.25 ^ H/d < 0.65, respectively. It is
clear from Figure 1 that Jowettfs equations give reasonably good
correlation with the present experiments for the smallest value
of H/d, but the agreement is poor for the remaining experimental
points. However, the present experiments with the largest H/d
ratios lie beyond the upper limit for the validity of equation
(4).
A NEW FORMULATION FOR THE PERFORATION OF PLATES
There has been recent interest in the penetration and perfora-

tion of plates in the low velocity range (below normal ordnance
velocity) from several metres per second up to a few hundred
metres per second, involving blunt or flat-ended projectiles and
relatively thin ductile metal targets in comparison with the
projectile diameter. Such conditions generally result in both
the formation and ejection of a plug from the target and large
permanent structural displacements. This particular class of
problems is of interest for safety calculations in many civil
and military applications For such complex problems which
involve bending, stretching and shearing, it is virtually
impossible to incorporate all the deformation modes in a
theoretical analysis and retain simplicity with a useful degree
of predictiveness. A number of papers [7-22] have presented
experimental data and various theoretical idealisations for the
perforation of plates by the normal impact of blunt or
flat-ended projectiles. In practice, it is common for the
conditions to be ill-defined in that only broad estimates of
likely impact situations are possible, and, thus, the methods
for solution must be adaptable and efficient.
In the present experimental programme, there is also clear

evidence that the perforation process involves considerable
global deformations as well as plugging failure at the
projectile-target interface. Thus, it is reasonable to divide
the kinetic energy of a projectile into two separate parts. One
part (Ws) is associated with shearing out a plug of the same
diameter as the projectile from the target. The other part (Wg)
represents the energy absorbed by a global structural response
including the effects of bending and stretching. Thus,
E p = Ws + Wg , (5)
or
W g = E p - TrKaadH2/4 . (6)
where aa and K are an appropriate flow stress and a constraint

factor, respectively and when assuming that W s = irKaadH2/4. The
constraint factor (K) has a theoretical value of 2 and is
usually determined from quasi-static constrained compression
tests, as discussed in the Appendix of Reference [11]. The
magnitude of K and its variation with strain appear to be
material dependent. If the projectile diameter is taken as the
characteristic length, then the standard technique of dimen-
sional analysis indicates that the energy absorbed by a global
structural response (Wg) when normalised with respect to Ka a d 3 ,
is related to the geometric properties of the projectile and the
target by a relationship of the form
W g /Ka a d 3 = A(S/d)a(H/d)& . (7a)
Substituting into equation (6) gives
Ep/Kaad3 = (ir/4)(H/d)2 + A(S/d)a(H/d) 3 , (7b)
where A, a, and 3 are constants which are to be determined from

experiments.
Equation (7b) is established on the basis of the experi-

mental observations that there are significant dishing
displacements in the target as well as shear failure at the
periphery of the striker-target interface. The first term on
the right hand side of equation (7b) represents the dimension-
less energy associated with shearing a plug from the target
having the same diameter as a blunt or flat-ended projectile.
This has the same form as the first term in equation (1b) but
with a different coefficient. The second term, which' has a
similar form to those used in equations (1b) and (3), represents
the dimensionless energy dissipated in a global structural
response, i.e., membrane stretching and bending. Equation (7b)
is, therefore, applicable only to targets which do not fail by
adiabatic shear plugging when struck by a blunt or flat-nosed
missile.
CORRELATION WITH EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In the last section, a new formulation has been proposed for the
perforation of plates by the normal impact of projectiles. Given
the value of the constraint factor (K), which is here taken as
2, equation (7b) is rearranged by taking logarithms of both
sides. Substituting the experimental results gives simultaneous
equations for the three unknown constants A, a, and 3, which,
using a curve-fitting technique, are A = 1 , ot = 0.21 and 3 =
1.47 for the experimental tests in Table 1. Thus, equation (7b)
can be recast in the form
Ep/2ayd3 = (ir/4)(H/d)2 + (S/d) 21 (H/d) *' h7 , (8a)

or
E p /a u d 3 = (2ay/au)[(ir/4)(H/d)2 + (S/d) 21 (H/d)l h7 ] (8b)
Table 2. Comparison of Equation (8) with Neilson's data [5]
Target Projectile Ballistic Limit
Span Target a
y
Diameter Mass Experiment Calculation
(mm) Thickness (MPa) (MPa) (mm) (kg) (m/s) (m/s)
(mm)
220 1 220 320 32 4.3 12.5 8.17
127 1 220 320 32 4.3 9.5 7.75

o
588 15 340 470 63 19.8 80 64.00
en
588 25 340 470 63 19.8 102 95.80 c
3
1500 6 340 473 85 9.72 79 59.37
GO
1500 12 3^0 473 85 9.72 99 100.88
1500 6 3^0 473 43 1 .22 98 101 .10
280 1 340 420 40 1 .0 43 24.92
280 3 340 420 40 1.0 83 57.38

when using aa = av, where av is the static uniaxial yield

stress.
The experimental results from Reference [8] for mild steel

circular plates struck transversely by a mass at the centre are
compared with equation (8b) in Figure 1 . Comparisons are also
made in Table 2 and Figure 2 between the predictions of equation
0 005 0-1 015 02 0-25 H

d
Figure 2. Comparison of various empirical formulae with the

experimental results obtained by Langseth and Larsen
[13]
equation (1b)
equation (2b)
equation (3)
equation (4a)
equation (4b)
equation (8b)
experiment [13]
(8b) and the experimental data in References [5] and [13],

respectively. Again good agreement is found between the
semi-empirical predictions and the corresponding experimental
results. Figure 3 shows the critical energies according to
equation (8b) for the mild steel plates examined in Reference
[9]. It is interesting to note that good agreement is obtained
between the predictions of equation (8b) and the corresponding
Figure 3. Comparison of various empirical formulae with

experimental results obtained by Corran et al. [9].
equation (1b)
equation (2b)
equation (3)
equation (4a)
equation (4b)
equation (8b)
experiment [9]
experimental values up to some critical value of H/d. This is

due, possibly, to a change in the energy absorbing mechanisms in
the plates from a global structural response combined with a
shear failure at the projectile-plate interface to a predominant
plugging.
The BRL formula given by equation (2b) does not account for
the effects of material strength, although it does give
reasonably good predictions for the perforation of plates, as
shown in Figures 1, 2 and 3. Practical applications of
Neilson's equations are limited by its imposed geometric
restrictions, i.e., 4 < S/d < 22, L/d > 13 and 0.14 < H/d <
0.64. Figures 2 and 3 also show the comparison of Neilson?s
equation with the experimental results on mild steel plates
obtained by Langseth et al. [13] and Corran et al. [9],
respectively. It is evident that Neilsonfs equation gives poor
correlation with the test data reported in References [9] and
[13] because it is restricted to plate perforation by a long
penetrator.
Jowettfs equations are also compared in Figures 2 and 3

with the experimental results on mild steel plates obtained by
Langseth et al. [13] and Corran et al. [9], respectively. It is
clear from Figure 3 that JowettTs equations give reasonably good
correlation with the experimental data which lies within the
range of their validity. This can be expected since equations
(4) were derived partly using these test data [6]. Figure 2
shows poor agreement between Jowettfs equations and the
experimental results obtained by Langseth et al. [13].
The SRI formula, equation (1b), has a form which is similar

to equation (8b) for the perforation of mild steel plates.
However, a closer examination of equations (8b) and (1b) reveals
that the first term on the right hand side of equation (1b),
which is the dimensionless energy dissipated in simple shear at
a projectile-target interface, is significantly larger than its
counterpart in equation (8b). Thus, the SRI equation may
overestimate significantly the energy absorbed by the shearing
action and, therefore, possibly, the total energy for the
perforation of plates. Indeed the large differences between the
predicted values of equation (1) and the minimum experimentally
observed perforation energies in Figures 1 , 2 and 3 here and in
Figure 2 in Reference [5] partly support the above observations.
Thus, large exit velocities could be obtained for most targets
and, therefore, targets or barriers designed according to this
formula could provide inadequate industrial designs or
insufficient protection for personnel.
CONCLUSIONS
A semi-empirical equation has been obtained for the perforation

of plates struck by blunt or flat-headed missiles using the
principles of dimensional analysis. Experimental observations

indicate that there are significant permanent plastic deforma-
tions in the plates apart from the plugging (shear) failure at
the striker-target interface. Thus, the kinetic energy of a
projectile is divided into two separate parts. One part (Ws) is
associated with shearing a plug with the same diameter as the
projectile from a target, and the other part (Wg) represents the
energy absorbed by a global structural response including the
effects of bending and stretching.
It is found that good correlations exist between the

present predictions for the perforation energy and the
experimental results for mild steel plates provided adiabatic
shear plugging does not occur. It is also shown that the
present formulation is advantageous over the existing equations,
although the BRL formula does give reasonably conservative
predictions for the perforation of plates.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to express their thanks to the Impact Research

Centre in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the
University of Liverpool, especially to Dr. R. S. Birch and Mr.
G. Swallow. Thanks are also due to Mr. H. Parker for tracing
the figures, and Mrs. M. White for typing the manuscript. The
first author is indebted to the British Council and to the
Chinese Government for financial support. He also wishes to
express his gratitude to Taiyuan University of Technology for
granting a leave of absence.
REFERENCES
1. Backman, M. E. and Goldsmith, W., 'The Mechanics of

Penetration of Projectiles into Targets", Int. J. Eng.
Sci., Vol. 16, pp. 1-99, 1978.
2. Zukas, J. A., 'Penetration and Perforation of Solids1, in
1
Impact Dynamics1, eds. Zukas, J. A., et al., John Wiley,
New York, pp. 155-214, 1982.
3. Anderson, C. E. Jr. and Bodner, S. R., 'Ballistic Impact:
the Status of Analytical and Numerical Modelling1, Int. J.
Impact Eng., Vol. 7. No. 1, pp. 9-35, 1988.
4. Gwaltney, R. C , 'Missile Generation and Protection in
Light Water-Cooled Power Reactor Plants1, Report ORNL-USTC-
22, Oak Ridge National Lab., Tenn., U.S.A., September
1968.
5. Neilson, A. J., 'Empirical Equations for the Perforation of
Mild Steel Plates', Int. J. Impact Eng., Vol. 3, pp.
137-142, 1985.
6. Jowett, J., 'The Effects of Missile Impact on Thin Metal
Structures', UKAEA SRD R378, April 1986.
7. Ohte, S., Yoshizawa, H., Chiba, N. and Shida, S., 'Impact
Strength of Steel Plates by Projectiles', Bull. J.S.M.E.,
Vol. 25, pp. 1226-1231, 1982.
8. Wen, H. M. and Jones, N., 'Experimental Investigation into
the Dynamic Plastic Response and Perforation of a Clamped
Circular Plate Struck Transversely by a Mass 1 , Impact
Research Centre No. ES/85/92, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, The University of Liverpool, 1992.
9. Corran, R. S. J. Shadbolt, P. J. and Ruiz, C , 'Impact
Loading - An Experimental Investigation', Int. J. Impact
Eng., Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 3-22, 1983.
10. Awerbuch, J. and Bodner, S. R., 'Experimental Investigation
of Normal Perforation of Projectiles in Metallic Plates',
Int. J. Solids and Structures, Vol. 10, pp. 685-699, 1974.
11. Woodward, R. L. and de Morton, M. E., 'Penetration of
Targets by Flat-Ended Projectiles', Int. J. Mech. Sci.,
Vol. 18, pp. 119-127, 1976.
12. Palomby, C. and Stronge, W. J., 'Blunt Missile Perforation
of Thin Plates and Shells by Discing', Int. J. Impact Eng.,
Vol., 7, pp. 85-100, 1988.
13. Langseth, M. and Larsen, P. K., 'Dropped Objects, Plugging
Capacity of Steel Plates: An Experimental Investigation',
Int. J. Impact Eng., Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 289~316, 1990.
14. Liss, J. and Goldsmith, W. , 'Plate Perforation Phenomena
Due to Normal Impact by Blunt Cylinders', Int. J. Impact
Eng., Vol. 2, pp. 37-64, 1984.
15. Jeng, S. T., Goldsmith. W. and Kelly, J. M. , 'Effect of
Target Bending in Normal Impact of a Flat-Ended Cylindrical
Projectile Near the Ballistic Limit', Int. J. Solids and
Structures, Vol. 24, No. 12, pp. 1243-1266, 1988.
16. Crouch, I. G., Baxter, B. J. and Woodward, R. L.,
'Empirical Tests of a Model for Thin Plate Perforation',
Int. J. Impact Eng., Vol., 9, No. 1, pp. 19-33, 1990.
17. Shadbolt, P. J., Corran, R. S. J. and Ruiz, C , 'A
Comparison of Plate Perforation Models in the Sub-Ordnance
Impact Velocity Range', Int. J. Impact Eng., Vol. 1, No. 1,
pp. 23-49, 1983.
18. Bai, Y. L. and Johnson, W. , 'Plugging: Physical Under-
standing and Energy Absorption', Metals Techn., Vol. 9, pp.
182-190, 1982.
19. Awerbuch, J. and Bodner, S. R., 'Analysis of the Mechanics
of Perforation of Projectiles in Metallic Plates', Int. J.
Solids and Structures, Vol. 10, pp. 671-684, 1974.
20. Liss, J., Goldsmith., W. and Kelly, J. M., 'A Phenomeno-
logical Penetration Model of Plates', Int. J. Impact Eng.,
Vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 321-341, 1983.
21. Ravid, M. and Bodner, S. R., 'Dynamic Perforation of
Viscoplastic Plates by Rigid Projectiles', Int. J. Eng.
Sci., Vol. 21, pp. 577-591, 1987.
22. Woodward, R. L., 'A Structural Model for Thin Plate
Perforation by Normal Impact of Blunt Projectiles', Int. J.
Impact Eng., Vol. 5, pp. 129-140, 1987.
Dynamic Response of Window Glass Plates
under Explosion Overpressure
D. Makovicka (*), P. Lexa (**)
(*) Klokner Institute, Czech Technical University,
CS-166 08 Prague, Czechoslovakia
(**) Research Institute of Occupational Safety
CS-814 35 Bratislava, Czechoslovakia
ABSTRACT
The paper deals with the response analysis of

interaction of a gaseous impact wave with a plate
structure with particular reference to the character
of the excitation impulse. In order to determine
the criteria of assessment of window structures exposed
to the shock effects an analysis of the influence of
the parameters of the loading pulse on the character
of the time function of the response and the
magnitude of the dynamic coefficient for the given
load type was made. For the given purpose
particularly the steepness of the front of the impact
wave and the duration of the pulse load in comparison
with dominant natural frequency of the structure and
the influence of the consideration or neglect of the
underpressure phase of the load were assessed. The
assumptions and results of theoretical solution are
compared with experimental results.
INTRODUCTION
When designing and analyzing structures subjected to

a pulse load produced e.g. by the effect of impact
waves propagating in gaseous medium, the dynamics of
the problem is simplified very often by the reduction
to the investigation of the response of the structure
considering a simplified load history (Handbook [6])
and the simplification of the influence of the whole
spectrum of natural frequencies of the structure on
the character of the response. This means that the

problem of the response is expressed in a simplified
manner by the function of time T(t) which is the
function of the ratio of the frequency
40,5 N
44,8 N
45,1 N
""~ 45,3 N
15
10 -
5 -
0 y[mm]
Fig.l Dependence of loading force p on deflection

y of single supported glass beam by its bending test
for e'= 1.89 . 10~bs~L
Tab.l Results of bending tests of glass beam samples

for 3 groups of 4 samples
e* a e y E
[10~6s"1] [MPa] [%] [mm] [104MPa]
1.89 35.07 0.462 1.87 6.88
41.87 0.555 2.28 6.74
40.08 0.53 3 2.19 6.73
43.08 0.563 2.36 6.70
198 59.27 0.787 3.36 6.47
56.43 0.741 3.12 6.63
54.50 0.723 3.00 6.64
58.91 0.756 3.28 6.57
803 64.62 0.884 3.77 6.27
51.79 0.607 3.01 5.87
64.24 0.892 3.84 6.14
57.36 0.816 3.44 6.12
ot e, y limit strength, strain, deflection,
e* strain velocity, E Young modulus of elasticity
characteristics of the excitation impulse and that

natural frequency of the structure, the lowest as
a rule, for which own period of the structure is
approximately equal to the length of the excitation
impulse. With this assumption, for instance, the
deflection of the structure y(t) can be written in
the form of
y(t) = y0 T(t) (1)
where the static deflection due to a static

Q
load produced by an impact wave. The function T(t)
or, to be accurate, its maximum magnitude, mostly in
absolute value, is called dynamic coefficient. First,
the present paper deals with the analysis of the time
function or dynamic coefficient in dependence on the
parameters of the load function p(t) and the tuning
of the structure. Second, the experimental data of
the response of window glass plates charged with very
short impulse waves (about 3.10~3s) are analyzed.
ASSUMPTIONS OF THE SOLUTION
We assume the loading of the structure by a planar

pressure wave (in comparison with the dimensions of
the structure). For beam theory of plate structure
the magnitude of the force effects of the load on the
structure is linearly dependent on the width of the
beams; since the bearing capacity of the beam

structure is also dependent linearly on beams width,
the width parameter can be excluded from the
analysis. In the case of plate theory it is not
possible. We have used both theories. The exceeding
of the ultimate bending stress was selected as the
criterion for the origin of failure ( see
experimental stress - strain function - Fig.l,
Tab.l). So the conclusions of this solution can be
applied to thin plates.
Analyses of dynamic bending, depending on the

parameters of the structure and the impact wave
(i.e. the stress field produced by the resulting
incident and reflected wave) have been computed,
which produces the ultimate stress of the structure.
Pressures greater than those computed results in the
collapse of the structure. The safety of the
structure is considered with a coefficient 1 in the
computation.
RESPONSE ANALYSIS
During an explosion of gaseous mixture, arising

particularly at the time of accidents in the chemical
industry, the gaseous impact wave has
a non-negligible underpressure component (below the
atmospheric pressure) which, in an ideal case, may
drop to the zero level of absolute gas pressure. For
this reason the history of the pressure wave was
modelled by various types of relations according to
Fig.2. These relations differed in their character,
i.e. in the length of duration of the individual
phase, the maximum magnitude and steepness of the
front of the pressure wave. It follows from our
experiments that for low load intensities the form of
!Tp = J -f M s nearer to reality, while for greatet
intensities the form of !Tp =4 is more adequate,
which is limited by the zero absolute pressure in the
underpressure phase for physical reasons.
The solution of the dynamic response (dynamic

coefficient 6) was carried out numerically, by the
solution of the equation of motion of the system with
one degree of freedom considering the right hand side
of this equation with functional relations in
accordance with simplified load functions. The
function of dynamic coefficient reveals, for
a concrete load type (in this particular case T p = 1)
that the underpressure phase of actually loading
functions of the dynamic coefficient for the basic
produces the superimposed peaks on the initial
1
pit)
Fig.2 History of the dynamic coefficient & in

dependence on the pulse form T and the tuning of the
structure
a)
qlkPa]
30
25
20
\
15 4mm-
10 V 3mm
2mm
5
0 0,25 0,7 1,0 2,0 3,0 r , 4,0

I Im] *^
4 5
-3
T[10s] -
Fig.3 Calculated p/1 diagrams;
(a) Dependence of q pressure on structure span 1
(b) Dependence of q pressure on the overpressure wave
length T
triangular history of the pressure wave (T- = Id). In

this meaning also the curvilinear limitations of the
graphic relations for the other type of load T can
be observed in Fig.2.
A comparison of the relations of the dynamic

coefficient reveals the seriousness of the
consideration of the influence of the underpressure
phase which has no negligible influence particularly
for the comparable magnitude of the period of the
natural vibrations of the structure and the length of
the load application T.
In the course of interaction of the pressure wave

with the structure, the structure is first made
to vibrate with forced vibrations, the character of
which depends on the parameters of the loading pulse.
When this load has ceased to act, the structure
vibrates in free vibrations.
Loading capacity p(l) or q(l) as a function of

plate dimensions was selected as a generalized
criterion for the possible scope of failure, (p is
pressure generaly, q is loading overpressure due to
incident and reflected waves, I is the smallest span)
The minimum values of functional relations p(l)
corresponding with the vibrations of the structure in
the proximity of its resonance peaks are of
importance. If we adopt the hypothesis that failures
are probable, when the values of the load p on the
lower envelope of the functional relations p(l) have
been attained, we are on the safe side, and the
ultimate bearing capacity (for experimental data
- see Fig.3) for the selected configurations of the
pulse and the geometry of the structure may be 40%
higher, and particularly for very short T (T
0.01s) the safety may be even higher. In comparison
to presented experiments (see the next heading) the
measured dependences p(l) are 20 - 30% higher than
calculated ones. It follows from the limit impact
failure - strength used in the calculation. It seems
(see Fig.l, Tab.l) that a a 61MPa is not high enough
for so short duration of loading. Because a is
proportional to q in calculation of Fig.3 it is
possible to move graphs on Fig.3 20-30% upwards. As
we have stated in the introduction, real
stress-strain function as a linear elastic function
of the glass plate structure until its failure is
considered, the failure being the centre of our
interest. However, it is necessary to realize that
for other real structures than glass plates such
a state is merely an idealization. Actually in other
a)
t[10"3s]
secondary
reflection
Fig.4 Recorded experimental data;

(a) Pressure duration on the way to the structure
(b) Pressure duration in the front of structure
(c) Bending stress in the centre of the plate
(1 vertical, 2 horizontal)
a) 60
50
40
30
20
10
2 4 6 8 10 12 13
PmIkPO-
b) 60
50
40
r
At
20 y V
10
8 10 12 13
Fig.5 Dependence of the first peaks of measured

bending stresses c^ and a2 in the centre of the plate
span on the pressure p^ of incident wave: (a) New
glass, thickness 2.98 - 3.05mm (b) Old glass,
thickness 3.61 - 3.92mm
materials higher loads produce plastic flow of the

structure as well as, for small T, also an increase
in the material strength due to the accelerated
velocity of deformation of the structure can be
observed. Also the fact that the damping of the real
structure has been neglected, results in the
conclusion that the actual ultimate bearing (-loading)
capacity p may be higher. Both lines for chosen
thicknesses of glass in Fig.3 are calculated for
various possible boundary conditions (combination of
hinged and free supports). Thus the selected
criterion of ultimate bearing capacity is approached
(being most dangerous for the given type of
structure) by the pulses of the duration around T =
0.1s. For T > 0.1s safety increases again.
Let us consider the ratio T2 /T-,, i.e. the ratio

of the periods of duration of the individual parts of
the loading pulse. To this ratio similar conclusion
apply, viz. that if the ratios of T I / T M | or ^ ^ f 1)
are within the interval (1, 10), these parameters
Tlf T2 are significant and neglecting them may cause
an error in the determination of the ultimate bearing
capacity of some 20%. Outside the above mentioned
interval the error due to their neglect is of
percentage units order only.
Let us consider the dependence of the response to

the ratio of T/T,-^^ (T is the duration of pulse
application, T,^_) the period of natural vibrations of
the system). For small values of T/T^K ratio the
response is unable to "copy" the form or the pulse,
particularly its steep start or sudden change of
form; consequently, for T<T,^x the pulse form may be
practically neglected; r/T/J < 1 is enough. On the
t
contrary, f
for /
T/T,^ th response practically
> 10 the till
follows the geometry of the loading pulse;
consequently, the pulse form is significant.
EXPERIMENT
The response of glass window plates was tested on the

real window structures; the size ofglass plates being
0.7 x 0.7 m. Stresses a in the centre of the glass
plate and in the neighbourhood of it's supports and
deflection y in the centre of the span were measured
by strain gauges and relative inductive pickups
during the explosion effect. For example the duration
of measured bending stresses (c) (Fig.4) in the
centre of the plate caused by incident load wave (a,
b) are seen (record No El/50). At the beginning of
this record (a) the forming of the incident
overpressure value pm may be recognized as the first
a)
y[mnr
50
/h
40
/
30 ^=
- -- 7 G
20
-
10

0
0 8 10 12
pm [kPa]-~
b) 1
e^lMPa] y[mm]
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 8 10 12
P m [kPa]
Fig.6 Dependence of the first peaks of measured

bending stress a^ and deflection y in the centre of
plate span on the pressure p^ of incident wave: (a)
New glass, thickness 2.95 - 3.05mm (b) Old glass,
thickness 3.61 - 3.92mm
peak and the reflected overpressure q as the second

peak (the piezo-electric pressure transducer in the
length of 7 cm before window structure). In the part
(b) duration of the pressure in front of the window
is illustrated.
The dependence of measured bending stress a and

deflection y of glass plate on incident overpressure
p m is in Figs 5 and 6. The variation of response
values is gained by means of various parameters of
glass plates (new and 10 years old glass, different
thicknesses e . t . c ) . It is also possible to compare
the increase in the first two stress-peaks of the
measured transient phenomena.
CONCLUSIONS
The data on the influence of the gaseous impact wave

dynamics on building structures during their
interaction were compared to the assessment of the
significance of different history of impulsive load
for the character of the structure responses. The
results obtained have been used for the formulation
of criteria for the assessment of window glass plate
structures threatened by an accidental explosion of
gaseous mixtures. The simplifications we have applied
are sufficiently satisfactory for deciding if
a structure should be or should not be subjected to
the detailed analysis with reference to design
standards.
REFERENCES
1. Korenev, B.G. (Ed). Spravochnik po dinamike

sooruzhenii (in russian : Handbook on the Dynamics of
Structures), Stroyizdat. Moscow, 1971-1981.
2. Makovicka, D.'Interaction of an aerial impact wave
with a building structure * (in czech) Pozemni
stavby, Vol.11, pp. 508 - 511, 1988
3. Makovicka, D.and Kupka, J. *Estimate of Failure of
Beam and Plate Structures Subjected to an Impact
Wave' (in czech) Stavebnicky casopis, Vol.10, pp.749-
760, 1990
Keywords: Dynamic Response, Glass Plate, Failure

Criterion
Surface Wave Propagation due to Impact in
Cross Ply Composite Plates
M.B.J. Walters, E.R. Green
Department of Engineering, University of
Leicester, Leicester, LEI IRE, U.K.
ABSTRACT
To gain further insight into the problem of surface impact on

composite materials we have examined the wave propagation resulting from a
surface impact on a laminated plate. Theoretical and numerical techniques
have been developed for the case of an impulsive line load acting on the upper
surface of a plate. The results that are reported are for both analytical and
experimental work, and they show the responses for the upper and lower
surfaces of a plate subjected to a line load impact. The angle of the line load is
varied relative to the ply directions. These results consist of graphs which
show the strain on the surfaces of the laminate as a function of time. The
experimental procedure for obtaining the data will be described in full, as will
a comparison of the analytical and experimental results.
INTRODUCTION
The increasing use of advanced fibre reinforced materials on the outer skin of
structures has led to a need for a better understanding of the response of such
materials under impact. Examined in this paper are the surface effects of the
elastic waves propagated from a surface impact. Theoretical investigations
have been carried out by Green [1], who reports analytical predictions of the
response of a symmetric cross ply laminated plate consisting of four layers of a
uni-directional fibre reinforced composite to a surface impact. The procedure
involves the solving of the full three dimensional equations of elasticity in each
layer, matching the solutions across the interfaces and satisfying the
appropriate boundary conditions.
Experimental work that has been reported which is of relevance here

has been conducted by Daniel et al [2,3], Sachse et al [4],and Gorman [5].
Daniel [2,3] has recorded signals received from surface and embedded strain
gauges in order to analyse a variety of characteristics of the propagating wave
resulting from a surface impact on a laminated plate. Sachse [4] has employed
a pulse laser technique to produce a short duration impact to measure wave
speeds in plates. Also he monitors the effect of damage on the elastic wave
transmission. Gorman [5] has monitored the acoustic emissions from the
waves travelling through the plate propagated from a lead break.
The current paper is the first report of experimental work undertaken to

examine the verification of the analytical procedure developed by Green [1],
An impact system has been established and initial tests examining the surface
response of a four layer symmetric cross ply laminated plate are reported.
Also included are the analytical results for the same plate, and a comparison
between the two is presented. The experimental results do show some
evidence for the theoretical predictions reported in Green [1]. Further
experimental work has commenced to examine the waves propagated within a
laminated plate, and will be reported in due course.
THEORY
This is described in some detail in Green [1], thus only an outline of the
method will be given here. The plate consists of a symmetric cross-ply
assembly of four layers of an uni-directional fibre composite material. This
material comprises of a single family of straight, parallel, strong fibres
embedded in an isotropic matrix and is modelled as a homogeneous continuum
of transversely isotropic elastic material with the axis of transverse isotropy
parallel to the fibre direction.
A Cartesian co-ordinate system of axes is set-up with the origin in the

mid-plane, the xx axis being normal to the plate and the x 2 and x3 axes being
parallel to the fibres in the two outer and two inner layers respectively. The
line source is taken to be a delta function impulse acting on the upper surface
in the negative xx direction at an angle n/2 - y to the x3 axis. The consequent
plane wave propagation will be at an angle y to the x3 - axis and parallel to the
layers, figure 1. Hence, each strain and displacement component at any point x
may be expressed as functions of xvx and t only, where x=x2siny+x3cosy and t
is the time. It is convenient to take the Laplace transform with respect to t and
the Fourier transform with respect to x for each of these components. Utilising
the appropriate constitutive equations, the full three-dimensional equations of
elasticity are solved for each layer. The ensuing solutions are subjected to the
traction free conditions appropriate to the two outer surfaces, apart from the
stress discontinuity at the upper surface due to the impulsive loading. The
perfect bonding conditions imply continuity of strain and displacement at each
interface.
Once all these conditions have been implemented it is possible to

express the transformed strain and displacement components at any point on or
within the plate in terms of the material constants, the propagation angle and
the transform parameters. To derive the full solution to the problem the
transforms are inverted in order to recover the strain and displacement
components as functions of x and t. This inversion is carried out numerically
using residue theory for the spatial inversion followed by integration with
respect to frequency using standard techniques. Due to the symmetry of the
plate, any disturbance separates into two distinct motions, flexural
(antisymmetric) and longitudinal (symmetric). The numerical techniques are
applied to the two motions separately and the full solutions are obtained upon
using an appropriate combination of the two partial solutions. The limits of
integration are chosen to be consistent with the continuum theory and the
summation is restricted to a frequency upper limit of co = 14ci / h where c\ is
a typical body wave speed, and k is the ply thickness.
Figure 1, Geometry of plate
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
The main objective of the experimental work was to produce experimental data
that could be realistically compared with the theoretical solutions. This
involved the setting up of an experimental system that could reproduce the
theoretical conditions as closely as physically possible. The main constraints
the theoretical solution presented were firstly that the elastic response was to
be studied, so all deformations were to be in the elastic region. The second
constraint was that the impact had to be a line load. It has been reported by
Cantwell et al [6] and others that initial impact damage can start as low as 1J.
Therefore it was decided that the maximum impact energy should be 0.5J, to
ensure that all deformations were of an elastic nature. Another consideration
was the effect of the impactor acting as a damper onto the plate. Taking both
these constraints into consideration the best form of impact would be of low
energy, but high velocity. To achieve this style of impact a gas gun was used
with a low mass projectile of lg. The gas gun had an air reservoir which was
pressurised using an external pressure controller, with a nitrogen gas supply.

The reservoir was pressurised and then a fast response valve was used to
release the gas into the gun barrel to accelerate the projectile. This system
produced projectile velocities of 80ms-1 to 150ms-l which gave a projectile
energy of 3.2J to 11J. This was greater energy than was required, but the
energy of the projectile had to be transferred to a line load on to the plate.
To produce a line load an impactor was placed between the projectile

and the plate. This striker was a triangular section bar of case hardened steel,
mounted on a light flat spring system to support its weight. A plate of size
180mm by 200mm was mounted vertically in a frame constrained at the top
and bottom. The gas gun was mounted horizontally with the striker, see figure
2, so there would not be any static mass resting on the plate. The projectiles
were made of lead, so the coefficient of restitution between the projectile and
the striker was low to attain the maximum momentum transfer between
projectile and the striker. The projectile impacted the striker which in turn
after a small displacement, impacted the plate to produce the line loading. This
produced a maximum impact energy of 0.5J, which could be reduced by
changing the initial pressure of the gas gun. The velocity of the projectile was
measured using two optical sensors mounted on the end of the gun barrel.
HI SPEED COMPUTEF
DATA CAPTURE
UNITS SIGNAL
PROCESSING
OUTPUT
FROM SENSORS
LOAD STRIKER
PLATE MOUNTING POSITION ADJUSTMENT
OPTICAL VELOCITY AIR GUN

MEASUREMENT DEVICE*1" U U N
PRESSURE
CONTROLLEF
LOAD STRIKER
NOT TO SCALE
Figure 2, Complete experimental impact system
The elastic response produced by the impact was detected using piezo
electric transducers. These transducers were made from a thin Piezo-electric
co-polymer film which was screen printed with silver ink on both side to
produce electrical contacts. The transducers were of a custom design and had
an active area of lmm by 0.5mm. Although the size of the active region meant
that there was an integration of the waves as they passed the active area they
were the smallest physical size possible to manufacture. The design of the
gauges can be seen in figure 3. This size of gauge has a frequency response of
2KHz -lGHz, and can produce large outputs for a small applied strain, so no
further amplification was required. The transducers recorded the strains
developed on the surface of the plate due to the disturbances caused by the
surface waves. The output of the transducers was recorded on data capture
units sampling at 20MHz, and then down loaded to a computer where post
processing of the signals took place.
UPPER SURFACE
INK DESIGN
ACTUAL SIZE
ACTIVE REGION
I 7
POLYMER LOWER SURFACE
7
AXIS INK DESIGN
Figure 3, Piezo-electric transducer design
The combined impact and strain detection system was first evaluated
using a steel plate, as the wave propagation in an isotropic medium is well
understood. Tests were then carried out on cross ply laminated plates. The
plates were manufactured from a composite material, in a (0,90)s lay-up.
The material was a glass/polypropylene composite called Plytron which was
donated by ICI. Two cases are presented here, one where the line load is
parallel to the fibres in the outer layers, with y^0 and the other where the line
load is perpendicular to the outer fibers, with y=90
COMPARISON OF ANALYTICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL WORK

As outlined earlier, the aim of this work is to investigate the validity of the
numerical results which have shown that the presence or absence of high
frequency surface waves on laminated plates is dependent on the angle of the
wave direction to the fibres, the angle y. The analytical results that have
demonstrated these effects have been obtained using idealised impact

conditions of a delta function impulse on an infinite plate.
The examination of the experimental results was assisted with the use
of digital filters. The aim of this filtering was to remove the low frequency
impact response of the plate so it would not dominate the high frequency
signals. The filters used were 10th order Butterworth band pass filters. The
lower limit of the filter was set to avoid the dominance of the low frequency
response, the upper limit determined by the frequency limits used in the
theoretical integration. The limits used are presented in table 1. To ensure
compatibility between the numerical and experimental data the same filter was
applied to both sets of data.
Material Lower frequency limit Upper frequency limit

Steel 400KHz 4MHz
ICI Plytron 200KHz 3MHz
Table 1: Filter frequency limits
There were two criteria applied for the assessment of the presence of
surface waves in the experimental and numerical data. The first was that
Rayleigh type surface waves are only present on the impact surface, whereas
propagated shear waves would be present throughout the material. The second
criteria was that when the Rayleigh type surface wave was present its measured
speed from both the numerical and experimental results was consistent with
that calculated from the material constants.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Presented here are three sets of results all of which show the surface strain in
the direction of propagation. Figures 4 and 5 refer to an evaluation test for a
steel plate. The numerical results in figure 4 show the upper and lower surface
strains in the x3 direction, and the experimental results in figure 5 show the
output of the piezo electric transducers in volts. Both sets of results are for a
position 15mm away from the line of impact. Figure 4a shows quite clearly a
high frequency wave travelling on the upper surface at a speed of 2.9* 103 MS 1
which is absent from the lower surface figure 4b. The theoretical Rayleigh
wave speed for steel calculated from the material constants is 2.95*103 MS 1 .
Comparing figures 5a and 5b (the upper and lower surfaces respectively) It can
be seen that there is more disturbance on the upper surface which is consistent
with the presence of the Rayleigh wave.
It has been shown by Green [1] that the limiting wave velocity for a
laminated 4-ply plate is the smaller of two wave speeds, the Rayleigh type
surface wave in the upper layer VR, or the shear wave speed in the inner layer
V s . For the Plytron material these waves are equal when the angle of
propagation y is 46.14.
For 7 < 46.14 V R <V S
and for y> 46.14 V R >V S
Therefore a surface wave effect would be expected when y = 0 and absent

when y^=90 as V s would be the slower wave speed. From the elastic constants
of Plytron when ?=0 then VR = 0.792* KPMS1.
Figures 6a and 7a show the upper surface analytical and experimental

results respectively for plytron when y=0. They both show large amplitude
waves which are not transmitted to the lower surface (figs 6b,7b), which
indicates the presence of a Rayleigh type surface wave. The velocity of the
wave in fig.6a is 0.79*10-3MS1 and the velocity of the experimental wave is
0.8*lO 3 MS 1 , both of which are in good agreement with the calculated value
of VR. The corresponding figures for y = 90, figures 8 and 9 for y=90 show a
complete absence of any large surface waves which is consistent with the
theory above.
In conclusion, it has been shown that the theoretical predictions for the
presence and speed of surface waves on a laminated plate have been validated
by both the numerical and experimental results. Work is in hand to monitor
the response at the interfaces in order to examine the validity of the prediction
that in the absence of a surface wave, the high frequency response is
channelled in the inner layers.
300
Strain
,*M
-300
0.0 Time (|xS) 20
(a)
300
Strain " ... , .. -
---- .....
f .... i
-300
0.0 Time(|iS) 20
(b)
Figure 4, Analytical surface waves for steel,
a) upper surface, b) lower surface.
0.05
Strain
(V)
-0.05
0.0 Time 20
(a)
0.05
Strain
(V)
A
-0.05
0.0 Time 20
(b)
Figure 5, Experimental surface waves for steel,
500
U
Strain
u__ 1it
._ _J_
-500
0.0
! 1
Time (|iS) 30
(a)
500
[
Strain s
i.1
[
-500
0.0 Time 30
(b)
Figure 6, Analytical surface waves of Plytron, y = 0
0.10
Strain
(V) vw
J1
-0.10
0.0 Time(nS) 30
(a)
0.10
Strain
(V)
j.--| 1 1 +"
-0.10
0.0 Time (|iS) 30
(b)
Figure 7, Experimental surface waves for Plytron, y = 0
500
Strain
_. _. .
..... _
-500
0.0 Time (^S) 30
(a)
500
*~
Strain
u L . _
-500
0.0 Time (p.S) 30
(b)
Figure 8, Analytical surface waves for Plytron, g = 90
0.10
Strain
(V)
ih
-0.10
0.0 Time (jiS) 30
(a)
0.10 1
1
1
4.
1
1
Strain
(V)
I .3, _. _.
-0.10 1
I
0.0 Time (jiS) 30
(b)
Figure 9, Experimental surface waves for Plytron, y = 90
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to express our appreciation for the financial support given to
this work by SERC, (Grant No. GR/F/74448), t o D r W A Green for his many
helpful discussions, and to Mr C J Morrison for his invaluable help with the
experimental work.
REFERENCES
1. Green, E.R. Transient Impact Response of a Fibre Composite

Laminate. ActaMech, Vol.86, pp.153-165,1991
2. Daniel, I.M., Liber, T., and Labedz, R.H. Wave Propagation in

Transversely Impacted Composite Laminates. Expt. Mech., Vol.19,
pp.9-16,1979
3. Daniel, I.M., and Wooh, S.C., Deformation and Damage of

Composite Laminates Under Impact Loading. Impact Response and
Elastodynamics of Composites, ASMEAMD Vol 116, pp. 107-134,
1990
4. Sachse, W., Every, A.G., and Thompson, M.O. Impact of Laser

Pulses on Composite Materials. Impact Response and Elastodynamics
of Composites. ASME AMD Vol 116, pp. 51-62, 1990.
5. Gorman, M.R. Plate Wave Acoustic Emission in Composites,

Impact Response and Elastodynamics of Composites., ASME AMD
Vol 116, pp. 107-134, 1990.
6. Cantwell, W.J., and Morton, J. Comparison of the Low and High

Velocity Impact Response of CFRP. Composites, Vol 20, No. 6, pp.
545-551,1989.
Validation of Computer Modelling
Techniques for Predicting the Impact
Performance of Containers for the
Transportation of Radioactive Materials
G.J. Attwood, N. Butler
Services, AEA Technology, Winfrith Technology
Centre, Dorset, U.K.
ABSTRACT
Finite element computer codes are being used to

study the impact response of transport containers,
both at the design stage and in subsequent safety
assessments. Validation is by comparison with data
from experimental tests on full and reduced scale
models.
The codes must be able to represent diverse

container geometries, contacting and sliding
interfaces, closure mechanisms and appropriate
dynamic loading conditions. Identifying
suitable failure criteria and allowing for scale
effects are particularly important. All this
provides a severe test of both the skill of the
analyst and the versatility and robustness of the
computer codes. Care must be taken to select the
optimum code, the choice of features within the
code, and in the design of the finite element mesh.
For dynamic problems, the code DYNA3D has generally
given good results, and has been widely used in
impact simulations. Where necessary, special
developments of DYNA3D have been made.
Studies of three types of container are

described: a thick-walled cylindrical steel flask,
a ruggedised ISO container and a steel-clad
concrete package. Deformation, lid closure
integrity and weld failure have all been examined
successfully.
INTRODUCTION
Research into the response of structures under

impact has been motivated, to a large extent, by
the stringent safety requirements of the Nuclear
Industry. Historically, the work has fallen into
two areas: the dynamic response of typical nuclear
power plant structures; and the impact performance
of containers for transportation of radioactive
materials. At AEA Technology both areas are the
subject of ongoing research. This paper describes
progress with the transport container programme.
The transport container studies involve both

experimental testing and theoretical analysis.
Apart from the simplest of calculations, analysis
requires the use of finite element computer codes.
These codes use a lot of processing power when run
for realistic cases. They also require
considerable skill in their application, and need
good graphics facilities for interactive pre- and
post-processing. Nevertheless, the use of such
codes can be a cost-effective alternative to
experimental testing, eg. of design prototypes, and
may reveal potential weaknesses that are not
apparent from the tests.
When a new design concept is analysed, the

calculation methodology needs to be validated
against experimental tests for typical and worst
case impact situations. To enable such a
comparison to be made, the test models are fitted
with suitable instrumentation and detailed pre- and
post-test measurements are made. Calculations can
also be made in advance of the test in order to
maximise the amount of useful information gained
from the experiment.
To date, validation exercises have been

carried out for three categories of transport
container:
1. Thick-walled solid steel flasks, such as

are used for transporting spent nuclear fuel.
2. Ruggedised ISO type containers, used for

carrying radioactive waste.
3. A steel-clad concrete package, used to

transport decommissioning waste.
After briefly describing the experimental and

analytical facilities, results are presented from
selected impact tests and analyses on each of these
container types.
EXPERIMENTAL FACILITIES
Impact tests on containers are carried out at

Winfrith using either a large drop test facility or
a compressed air gun known as the Horizontal Impact
Facility (HIF).
The drop test facility is capable of dropping

up to 90 tonne from 30 m or 50 tonne from 55 m,
using a large crane. The target is a massive
concrete block covered by a thick steel plate. The
facility is used primarily for testing transport
containers, both at full scale and reduced scale,
and is featured in Figure 1.
The HIF is a versatile impact test facility,

and can accelerate a 2000 kg projectile to 45 ms" 1
or a lower mass to higher velocities with a limit
on the maximum missile energy of 2 MJ. Four
interchangeable barrels are available ranging from
250 mm to 2000 mm in diameter. The HIF is used for
testing of scale models of transport containers and
large scale structural performance experiments.
There is also a smaller gas gun capable of

reaching even higher velocities (up to 3 50 is" 1 ) .
This is useful for testing samples of structural or
shock absorbing materials. Finally, there is a
3 00 tonne press which is used for static testing,
eg of shock absorbers
ANALYTICAL CAPABILITIES
The most commonly used finite element code for

impact analysis at Winfrith is DYNA3D [1] which
originates from Lawrence Livermore Laboratories in
the USA. DYNA3D has an explicit time integration
scheme which makes it suitable for short duration
dynamic loadings such as blast and impact. It also
has a robust contact/impact algorithm which allows
complex three dimensional contact surfaces to be
modelled. The code has a number of structural
elements such as beams and shells as well as solid
elements.
Pre- and post-processing is carried out using

I-DEAS, PATRAN and TAURUS [2,3,4]. The finite
element codes ABAQUS [5] and HONDO-II [6] are also
used for static and axisymmetric analyses
respectively [7].
The finite element codes contain a range of

material models such as elastic-plastic behaviour
for metals which may include strain hardening and
strain rate effects, crushable materials such as
concrete, and anisotropic materials such as wood.
New material models can be developed if required
and implemented in the codes. For example, a
reinforced concrete model has been developed at
Winfrith [8,9] for use with DYNA3D.
THICK-WALLED STEEL FLASKS
These flasks are of a very robust design, with both

the body and lid made from monolithic steel
forgings (Figure 1 ) . The thick walls provide
radiation shielding as well as impact protection.
In normal use, the ends are fitted with shock
absorbers; however a number of tests were done on
flasks without shock absorbers to examine the
impact integrity under very severe conditions. An
extensive experimental programme of 45 tests has
been conducted, in order to study various aspects
of the impact performance. Three of these are
presented here: replica scaling validation; leakage
through seals; and lid bolt failure.
Replica Scaling Validation
Experimental testing is often made using

reduced scale models, for reasons of economy and
ease of handling. The assumption is that these
smaller replicas behave in just the same way as the
full scale flasks, with deformations scaled
in proportion to linear dimensions. It is known
that scaling is violated at high strain rates, when
the metallic flow stress becomes substantially
enhanced. In addition, fracture initiation and
propagation do not scale over a large range. It is
therefore important to establish whether the
scaling assumption is valid over a given scale
range, and for a specified severity of impact.
Two tests were carried out using the main drop

test facility: one was of a full scale half-length
fuel flask (Figure 1 ) ; the other was of a 1/4.5
scale model. Both were dropped from the same

height (6m) on to a rigid target block,
impacting on the lid corner. The two models were
fitted with simulated contents to give an enhanced
loading on the lid.
As a result of the impacts, a significant

flattening of the lid corner region occurred, and a
few lid studs in the impact zone failed by shearing
and gross deformation. A quick visual comparison
of the two flasks was sufficient to confirm that
the level of damage was approximately the same;
however, there were some differences in the
conditions that prevented a quantitative comparison
being made. In particular, the impact angle was
not precisely the same (28 for the full scale
flask, 34 for the small scale model). In
addition, the number and size of studs was
different, because it was not possible to scale
thread sizes exactly using standard threads (this
is a common problem in using scale models).
By carrying out finite element simulations,

these differences were accounted for. The deformed
mesh (half-symmetry) for the full scale flask is
shown in Figure 2. The conclusions of this study
are that replica scaling holds reasonably well over
the range 1 : 0.22 for a 6 m drop. The peak
strain rate (in the smaller model) was 800 s" 1 ,
which leads to a small scaling deviation. This
could become more significant at higher impact
velocities.
Leakage through seals
Containers carrying hazardous substances such as

radioactive materials need to be kept leak-tight.
This is generally achieved using elastomeric 0-ring
seals, compressed by tensioning the lid bolts. It
is clearly important to be able to model any lid-
body gap opening, both transient and permanent,
which may occur during an impact.
In the two flask models used for the replica

scaling tests, there was a double 0-ring seal with
an interspace annulus used for leak testing. This
annulus was pressurised immediately prior to the
test, and the transient pressure was monitored
during the test. The pressure transducer recorded
a substantial drop but no permanent leak occurred.
Using gas flow formulae, an estimate could be made

of the maximum orifice area at the seal face.
In the finite element models, each lid stud

was represented by a combination of one-dimensional
discrete spring elements. The stiffness and yield
behaviour of the springs was chosen to represent
the stud behaviour. As in the experiment, it was
found that no permanent gap was left, but there was
a transient opening. Work on this is still
progressing, and validation of the technique is not
yet complete.
Lid Bolt Failure
Under severe impact conditions, the lid-securing

bolts can fail and the lid may become completely
detached. The contents can then escape, resulting
in a loss of shielding. Figure 3 shows the damage
to an unprotected quarter scale model of a generic
flask, impacted in the HIF on its lid corner at a
velocity of 17 ms~1 . In this case, most of the lid
bolts failed. The lid was just held on by the
remaining bolts, which were severely deformed.
To model this behaviour, it is necessary to

use more sophisticated techniques than the one-
dimensional spring elements mentioned in the last
section. As well as a failure criterion, one needs
an appropriate post-failure treatment that allows
the loading to be transmitted to the remaining
intact bolts at any instant. The bolts should
ideally be modelled in such a way that bending,
shear and compression are represented, and the
weakening effect of the bolt thread is taken into
account.
For these reasons, some of the tests on thick-

walled flasks have been modelled using explicit
finite element representations of each bolt.
Although the mesh is relatively crude, it has been
shown to be adequate for the cases considered
[10].
When the maximum principal stress in a bolt

element exceeds the failure strength, the stress in
that element is reduced to zero over a number of
timesteps, thus effectively removing it from the
calculation. It was necessary to make a
modification to DYNA3D to perform this correctly.
The threaded region of the bolt was represented by

weakened material properties.
Figure 4 shows the results of the calculations

to simulate the impact described above. In the
test, 19 of the 24 lid bolts failed; in the DYNA3D
simulation, 22 of the 24 bolts failed. The
calculations also show that the bolts fail under a
combination of shear and tensile loading, and that
the lid spigot in this generic design was not deep
enough. This information is being fed back to
flask designers.
RUGGEDISED ISO CONTAINER
Tests have been carried out on quarter scale models

of rectangular box- like containers. They
represent a ruggedised version of the standard ISO
container, such as might be used for transporting
contaminated waste. Three models were made of wall
sections thickened along grid lines to represent
reinforcing beams attached to the steel plate.
These were modelled in DYNA3D using a combination
of shell elements and beam elements. Impacts were
simulated against both rigid targets and concrete
targets.
A further two models of complete boxes were

made simply from steel plate welded along the edges
with a lid bolted to the edge of the container. One
of these boxes had an end opening, the other a side
opening. In both the tests, all lid bolts failed
and the lid became detached. Figure 5 shows the
second container (side opening) after the impact,
with the lid replaced. The corresponding DYNA3D
simulation is illustrated in Figure 6. The impact
was on a corner at 13.6 is' 1 .
The steel plate was modelled with shell

elements rather than solid elements, to avoid very
expensive calculations. The bolts were represented
by a feature in DYNA3D known as tie-breaking
slidelines, which operate between shell element
nodes. These nodes separate when the effective
plastic strain in adjacent elements exceeds a given
value (5 % was chosen in this case).
The calculations correctly predicted all the

lid bolts to fail. The deformation to the corner,
while being qualitatively similar, is overpredicted
by about 20 %. It is thought that this is due to
the high level of in-plane compression experienced

by the shell elements. To improve on this, it is
recommended that solid elements or thick shell
elements be used in the impacting region.
STEEL CLAD CONCRETE PACKAGE
Drop tests in three orientations were carried out

on full scale waste packages. These packages
consisted of concrete walls with an outer mild
steel cladding which was 12 mm thick. A flat base
drop, a corner drop, and a base edge drop were
made, all from 5 m. The results of the base edge
drop are shown in Figure 7. The cladding was split
along most of the impact edge and at the two
corners, with a significant crushing of the
concrete in this zone.
DYNA3D analyses were carried out for each

orientation. The results of the base edge drop
simulation are shown in Figure 8. The concrete was
represented by solid elements and the cladding by
shell elements. Along the welds, tie-breaking
slidelines were defined with a failure strain of
7%. The observed split in the cladding was very
well simulated. The concrete was modelled as a
crushable "foam", using a known compaction curve
and yield surface. Again, the calculated
deformation was very close to the observed.
The cladding and the concrete were kept

separate by a sliding interface. Different friction
coefficients were used in the interface
definition, but it was found that this had a
negligible effect on the results. Finally, a
sensitivity study was carried out to show that the
results were not dependent on the finite element
mesh used.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
By validation against test data, the code DYNA3D

has been found to give good simulations of the
impact performance of transport containers, and has
proved to be very versatile. However, with such
structures, special care must be taken in the
choice of features within the code, in the kind of
elements used, and in the design of the mesh.
Further code validation work is planned, including
a detailed study of shock absorbers.
REFERENCES
1. Hallquist, J.O. VEC/DYNA3D User's Manual, LSTC

Report 1018, March 1991.
2. I-DEAS User Manuals, SDRC, Gunnels Wood House,

Gunnels Wood Road, Stevenage, Herts, SGI 2NW.
3. PATRAN User Manuals, PDA Engineering, Rowan

House, Woodlands Business Village, Basingstoke,
RG21 2JX.
4. Hallquist, J.O. LS-TAURUS: An Interactive

Post-Processor for the Analysis Codes LS-NIKE3D,
LS-DYNA3D, and TOPAZ3D. LSTC Report 1001, April
1990.
5. Hibbit, Karlsson, and Sorensen, Inc. ABAQUS

User's Manual.
6. Key, S.W., Beisinger, Z.E., Krieg, R.D. HONDO-

II: A Finite Element Computer Program for the
Large Deformation Dynamic Response of Axisymmetric
Solids. Sandia Lab Report SAND78-0422, October
1978.
7. Attwood, G.J., Butler, N and Neilson, A.J.

Computer Modelling of the Impact Performance of
Containers for the Transport of Radioactive
Materials, RAMTRANS Vol 2 No 1/3 pp33-39 (1991).
8. Broadhouse, B.J., Progress in Modelling

Reinforced Concrete Structures in DYNA3D, AEEW-
M2591, Unclassified, July 1989.
9. Neilson, A.J., Broadhouse, B.J., Butler, N,

Attwood, G.J. Application of DYNA3D to Dynamic
Loading on Concrete and Steel Structures, AEEW-M
2589, Unclassified, 1989.
10. Butler, N, Neilson, A.J. Bolt Modelling in

DYNA3D, AEEW-M 2592, Unclassified, 1989.
Fig. 1 Drop test of full scale flask
Fig. 2
DYNA3D simulation of drop test (Replica Scaling)
Fig. 3 Damage to lid end of generic flask
Fig. 4 DYNA3D simulation of lid bolt failure

Fig. 5 ISO container after corner impact in the HIF
Fig. 6 DYNA3D simulation of ISO container impact

Fig. 7 Base edge drop of steel clad concrete box
i l .\\\\\\\\\\\\\V\\^\\-
.\\\\\\\\\\\\\W\\
';;i;:;s\\\\\\\\\
.Cladding
^ f ] split
/ ^ along
Ww _ j impact
^ - ^ edge
Fig. 8 DYNA3D simulation of steel/concrete box drop

A Contribution to the Formulation of
Realistic Design Rules for Equipment
Subject to Impact Loading
A. Barbagelata, C. Vardanega
D'Appolonia S.p.A., Via Siena 20, 16146 Genoa,
Italy
ABSTRACT
An analysis of the effects of ductility on the

dynamic response of support equipment subject to
vibrations due to missile impact is performed in this
paper. The results of non-linear analyses of a one-
degree-of-freedom system excited by a displacement
time-history which represents the base motion of a
structure subjected to missile impact load are
discussed in detail.
INTRODUCTION
The common approach to the design of support

equipment is based on the evaluation of stresses
induced by pseudo-static forces due to the missile
impact. This method does not allow exceedence of the
yield stress in the material. The purpose of this
paper is to show that such a limit can in most cases
be exceeded without significant hazard to the system
safety.
Parametric non-linear analyses of a one-degree-

of-freedom system subjected to the displacement time
history generated by a missile impact have been
performed.
Since the applied excitation is very fast (about

0.5 seconds) it is worth evaluating the behavior of
the system through the comparison of the
displacements induced by the dynamic excitation and
the allowable displacements. Within this approach,
even apparent forces quite larger than the yield
limit may result acceptable for the system.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM
Mathematical Formulation
The 1-DOF system used for parametric analyses is
shown in Figure 1. No external forces are applied to
the mass: the only source of excitation is
represented by the displacement time history u Q (t).
The system motion is governed by the following
equation:
Mu + k (u - uQ) = 0 (1)
Symbols are shown in Figure 1.
It should be noted that while u, u and u Q are

only functions of time, k can be a function of the
relative displacement u - u Q in case of non-linear
behavior of the spring. In such a case, Equation (1)
becomes non-linear and should normally be solved by
numerical techniques.
For analytical purpose it is sometimes con-

venient to rewrite Equation (1) in the following
form:
Mur(t) + k (ur) ur(t) = F(t) (2)
where: ur = u - uQ and f(t) = - Mu Q
It is therefore possible to study the relative

displacement of the mass' with respect to the base by
analyzing the fictitious system with fixed base and
external force F(t).
Force-Displacement Relation
An elastic-perfectly plastic behavior of the material
as shown in Figure 2 is considered. A characteristic
parameter which indicates the ability of the
structure to tolerate strains higher than the yield
strain, is the ductility ratio:
M = uu / us (3)
where u u is the displacement at failure and u s the

displacement at yield.
Forcing Function
Displacement and acceleration time histories
considered for the study are shown in Figure 3. The
maximum displacement is 7 millimeters and the maximum
acceleration is 300 meters per square second.
Such a time history is characterized by the

elastic response spectrum shown in Figure 4. As a
preliminary indication on the potential of non-linear
behavior of the system, the following ratio can be
considered:
R = F
el / F s = ku
el / F
s <4>
where, as shown in Figure 2:
F s = yield force;
k = stiffness;
u = max lnuin
el i displacement if only linear elastic
behavior is considered;
FeL = maximum force in case of linear elastic
behavior.
The parameter R will be used in the following.
RESULTS
Dynamic analyses have been performed using Program

NLSOIL (Barbagelata, [1]) which is based on an
implicit integration algorithm unconditionally

stable.
The analyses have been performed in the

frequency range between 1 and 100 Hertz.
The results of the analyses are summarized in

Figure 5 in terms of maximum relative displacement
and in Figures 6 and 7 in terms of ductility
required.
Figure 5 shows that maximum displacements are

exhibited by the system in the frequency range
between 10 and 50 Hertz.
For periods lower than 0.02 seconds the non-

linear system exhibits displacements larger than
those corresponding to the elastic system, and
increasing according to R.
For periods larger than 0.1 seconds such

displacements tend to values independent from R.
Figure 6 shows the trend of the ductility required by
the system as a function of the natural period of the
system and of R. Soft systems with respect to the
forcing function (i.e. with a natural period larger
than 0.04 seconds), the request for ductility is
small for all values of R.
On the other hand, the ductility required for the

rigid system is very sensitive to R and reaches high
values.
Finally, from the analyses performed, it results

that for a natural period of 0.01 seconds the
ductility required by the system for R = 5 is 45,
which is acceptable for many materials, such as
steel.
Figure 7 shows the variation of /i/R (i.e,

u
u/ u el) a s a f u n c t i n of the natural period of the
system and of R.
DISCUSSION
The main results arising from the study can be

summarized as follows:
to design a system or a component (i.e. a

support) placed on a structure subjected to an
impact, with an elastic limit equal to one half
of the apparent force applied (i.e. one half of
the design criterion commonly accepted), results
in maximum displacements still lower than the
elastic displacements in a specific range of
frequencies;
in the design of the same system with a

resistance equal to one fifth of that resulting
from current design, displacements are not
affected for natural frequencies up to 25 Hertz,
and the increment reaches a factor nine, with
respect to elastic displacements for frequencies
up to 100 Hertz.
LIST OF REFERENCES
[1] Barbagelata, A., 1986, "Investigation of Non-

Linear Wave Propagation Using a Strain-Space
Constitutive Model", Master Thesis, Carnegie
Mellon University, Pittsburgh (PA).
IL(t)
Itolt)
LEGEND
U o (f) APPLIED BftSE DiSPLftCEMENT
a (f) DiSPLftCEMENT OF THE MftSS M
t TIME
K STIFFNESS
M MASS
Figure 1. 1-DOF System

ELRSTIC-PERFECTLY PLPSTIC BEHQVIOR

OF THE MQTERIPL
Figure 2. Force-Displacement Relation

S
^ A A ^ A .
o e <M_
S-
Figure 3. Displacement and Acceleration Time

Histories
10. 100.
FREQUENCY (Hertz,
NOTE
THE SPECTRUM HAS BEEN OBTAINED
FOR A DAMPING COEFFICIENT OF 0.01
Figure 4. Acceleration Response Spectrum

PERIOD (Seconds)
LEGEND
- R = 1.5
--- R = 2.0
- - R = E.5
R = 3.0
R = M.0
R = 5.0
ELASTIC
Figure 5. Non-Linear Dynamic Analyses Results

x:
HI
a
UJ
o
^ - - T " ^-.r.:x:.-.:. -I ! \ - - - A - - - I - - 4 - 4 -I--
n ' i
PERIOD (Seconds)
LEGEND
R = 1.5
R = E.5
R = 3.0
R = M.0
R = S.0
Figure 6. Non-Linear Dynamic Analyses R e s u l t s

PERIOD (Seconds)
LEGEND
R = 1.5
-- R = 2.0
R = 2.5
R = 3.0
R = M.0
R = 5.0
Figure 7. Non-Linear Dynamic Analyses Results

Predicting the Onset of Necking and Hence
Rupture of Thin Plates Loaded Impulsively
- An Experimental View
G.N. Nurick, R.G. Teeling-Smith
University of Cape Town, South Africa
ABSTRACT
Hitherto a scaling number for thin plates loaded
impulsively has been used to compare similar
experiments using different specimen dimensions and
material properties. This scaling number has also been
used as a guideline to predict the maximum central
deflection of thin plates subjected to impulsive
loads. Further extensive tests show that the onset of
necking of the specimen can be predicted, hence giving
a guide to plate rupture.
INTRODUCTION
There have been many predictions of the deformation of

thin plates subjected to uniform loads, using
analytical and experimental techniques, (1,2). These
have mainly been concerned with the maximum permanent
central deflection, and the time to reach maximum
deflection. In almost all the cases limited
experiments have been performed to calibrate the
analytical predictions. Nurick (2,3) proposed a
dimensionless number which includes specimen
dimensions and material properties which allowed a
comparison of all the experiments. Most of the
experiments (Florence and Wierzbicki (4,5) Bodner and
Symonds (6), Duffey and Key (7,8) Jones et al (9,10)
are in the range 0-7 deflection-thickness, while
others (Nurick (11) are in the range 4-12
deflection-thickness. Although the dimensionless
number of Nurick gave a favourable comparison of the
experimental results, it failed to predict the onset
of material necking and hence plate rupture. The

prediction of material failure has become a major
concern to designers and researchers. This paper
attempts to address the prediction of material failure
of clamped circular plates subjected to a uniform
impulsive load.
EXPERIMENTATION
Plates of mild steel 100mm diameter, 1,6mm thick were

subjected to an uniform impulsive load. The load was
provided by plastic explosive as described by Nurick
(13). The plates were clamped with 8 equi-spaced bolts
between two thick (20mm) supporting rings. The rig was
attached to a ballistic pendulum. Two series of tests
were undertaken.
Series 1 was performed on a pendulum of mass 14,8kg,

while series 2 was performed on a pendulum of mass
21,8kg. Each series was sub-divided into sub-series of
different total masses, as shown in Table 1.
For each sub-series between 10 and 30 tests were

performed. Readings of pendulum movement provided
impulse data and the final mid-point deflection of the
plate was measured. In some cases the plate was
observed to tear on the boundary. The results are
shown in Table 2. Uni-axial tensile tests of the plate
material were performed to determine the static yield
stress, using the Cowper-Symonds relation, a value of
270 MPa was evaluated.
RESULTS
Figures 1 - 9 show the data for each sub-series

plotted as deflection-thickness ratio versus impulse.
Figures 10 - 12 show the data for series 1, series 2
and series 1 and 2 combined. Each graph shows the
experimental data, the best linear regression fit and
an upper and lower bound of 1 deflection-thickness,
(see Nurick (3)). Table 3 gives the statistical data,
i.e. best fit linear regression values for each of
Figures 1 - 12. Of interest in Figures 1 - 9 is that
in all cases a change of gradient is noted around the
deflection-thickness ratio of 8-10. Table 4 presents
the data of Table 3 divided at the
deflection-thickness ratio of 10. The gradient
increase ranges from 25% to 50% in all but two of the
test series, with an average increase of 24%. Also of
interest is the linear regression intercept - for the
deflection-thickness data range less than 10 the
intercept varies from almost zero to almost 2 with an
average of about 0,8. For the deflection thickness
data range greater than 10 the intercept is always

negative and varies from -0,4 to -0,40 with an average
of about -0,9. Inspection of deformed plates shows
quite clearly no "thinning" or necking at the boundary
for small (less than 8) deflection-thickness ratios,
while there is clear evidence of "thinning" at the
larger (greater than 12) deflection-thickness ratios.
In the range 9-10 deflection-thickness ratios evidence
of the beginning of thinning is observed. Measurements
of the thickness of the plate at the clamped boundary
after deformation were found to vary from 0,9 to
1,4mm.
DISCUSSION
Teeling-Smith and Nurick (14) in addressing the

problem of rupture in a circular plate showed the
occurrence of failure modes I, II and III. Of vital
importance in design consideration is the onset of
failure mode II when rupture first begins. Failure
Mode I defines large inelastic deformation during
which material necking takes place. Figures 1 - 12,
substantiated by observation, provide a guide to
predicting material necking. This is observed to occur
at 9 to 10 deflection-thickness ratios, in the impulse
range of 12 - 13 Ns. Symonds and Wierzbicki (15)
provide a membrane-mode solution incorporating
material strain-rate sensitivity which predicts the
permanent central deflection, the average radial
strain, average final strain and the average radial
strain rate, as
* - -212 T
...(1) Cav = 2 Cav ...(3)
R H y p a'o
0.01752 I 2 _ ( 2 ) 4.v _ _ 0 ^ 0 5 ^ 5 _ t l _ . .. ( 4 )
4 2 r
R' T H'
T
p a'o R 3 H* / .3
p cr'
The Cowper-Symonds strain rate constitutive equation

is
(IT--1}
CT N n
<5>
where cr is the permanent mid-point deflection, I the
total impulse, R the plate radius, H the plate
thickness, p the material density, cr the dynamic
o
yield stress, e the average radial strain, eav the

av
average final strain, av the average strain rate,

t (=40 s"1) and n(=5) are material properties and cr

o o
is the static yield stress determined from the Cowper-
Symonds equation.
Equating equations (4) and (5) requires an iterative
procedure to solve for cr for a given impulse. Table 5
gives some illustrative examples.
Nurick, Pearce and Martin (16) also used a

membrane-mode strain rate sensitive solution in which
both transverse and lateral displacements were
included in the analysis. Strains were also predicted
at various points along the radius of the plate
showing trends depending on the inclusion of lateral
displacements. Where the lateral displacements were
included in the model, the strain predictions were
similar to the measured strain. Of note is that the
average strain predicted by Symonds and Wierzbicki
(15) is similar to the average strain predicted by
Nurick et al (16), as shown in Table 5. Also shown in
Table 5 is the predicted mid-point deflections and the
experimental range.
CONCLUSIONS
Both Symonds and Wierzbicki (15) and Nurick et al (16)

have excluded bending effects in the analysis and yet
the predictions show close agreement with the
experimental results. In particular, Symonds and
Wierzbicki show good agreement for the lower
deflection-thickness range while Nurick et al show
good agreement with both the lower and higher
deflection-thickness ranges.
However, it is apparent from the experimental data,

that although the plate in general may be treated as a
membrane, the clamped boundary must be treated
otherwise. This is further validated by the strain in
the plate - Nurick et al (16) show that the average
strain at the centre of the plate is higher than the
average strain near the clamped boundary. This implies
that rupture should take place at the plate centre.
However, experimental evidence shows the opposite.
Hence rupture at the clamped boundary may be caused by
a combination of necking (due to bending) and membrane
action, (tensile tearing).
Failure mode I therefore has several parts -

i) For very small deflections (less than the plate
thickness, bending effects over the entire plate
are applicable).
ii) For deflections up to the onset of necking. In

this case the plate experiences localised
bending and global membrane effects.
iii) For deflections after the onset of necking.
Where necking occurs, localised thinning of the
plate takes place while the rest of the plate
continues to deform as a membrane.
It is during this last phase of mode I failure that

the plate will rupture. In the current experiments
rupture occurred at an impulse of 19,7 Ns. This value
is lower than many cases where rupture did not occur -
the highest impulse for no rupture is 22 Ns. Teeling-
Smith and Nurick (14) reported an impulse of 29 Ns for
no rupture but an impulse of 26 Ns for rupture. Nurick
et al (16) report that for no rupture an impulse of
14,7 Ns is required while for rupture an impulse of
15,6 Ns is required. Analysis of the the work of
Nurick et al (12) shows the trend currently observed -
an increase of the slope for the data points above 10
deflection-thickness. Of interest is that in all cases
the maximum mid-point deflection before rupture is in
the range 17 - 18 plate thickness.
Hence in conclusion, the onset of necking for a

circular plate of 100mm diameter and 1,6mm thick
occurs at an impulse of approximately 13 Ns resulting
in a deformation of 10 plate thicknesses. The
prediction of rupture is much more complicated and
depends on amongst other things the sharpness of the
clamping plates.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors acknowledge the assistance of Andrew
Milner, Martin Batho, Horst Emerich for their
contribution in the laboratory and workshop.
REFERENCES
1. Nurick G N, Martin J B. Deformation of thin
plates subjected to impulsive loading - A Review
Part 1 : Theoretical Considerations. Int. J
Impact Engng. Vol 8, No 2, pp 159-170, 1989.
2. Nurick G N, Martin J B. Deformation of thin
plates subjected to impulsive loading - A Review
Part II : Experimental Studies. Int. J Impact
Engng. Vol 8, No 2 pp 171-186, 1989.
3. Nurick G N. An Empirical solution for predicting
maximum central deflection of impulsively loaded
plates. Inst. Phys. Conf. Ser. No 102. Oxford,
1989.
4. A L Florence. Circular plates under a uniformly

distributed impulse. Int. J Solids Struct. 2,
37-37, 1966.
5. T Wierzbicki and A L Florence. A theoretical and
experimental investigation of impulsively loaded
clamped circular viscoplastic plates. Int. J
Solids Struct. 6, 555-568, 1970.
6. S R Bodner and P S Symonds. Experiments on
viscoplastic response of circular plates to
impulsive loading. J Mech. Phys. Solids 27,
91-113, 1979.
7. T A Duffey. The large deflection dynamic
response of clamped circular plates subject to
explosive loading. Sandia Laboratories Research
Report SC-RR-67-532, 1967.
8. T A Duffey and S W Key. Experimental-theoretical
correlation of impulsively loaded clamped
circular places. Sandia Laboratories Research
Report SC-RR-68-210, 1968.
9. N Jones, R N Griffin and R E van Duzer. An
experimental study into the dynamic plastic
behaviour of wide beams and rectangular plates.
Int. J Mech. Sci. 13, 721-735, 1971.
10. N Jones, T Uran and S A Tekin. The dynamic
plastic behaviour of fully clamped rectangular
plates. Int. J Solids Struct. 6, 1499-1512, 1970
11. N Jones and R A Baeder. An experimental study of
the dynamic plastic behaviour of rectangular
plates. Symp. Plastic Analysis of Structures.
Published by Ministry of Education, Polytechnic
Institute of Jassy, Civil Engineering Faculty,
Rumania, Vol. 1, pp 476-497, 1972.
12. G N Nurick, H T Pearce and J B Martin. The
deformation of thin plates subjected to
impulsive loading. In Inelastic Behaviour of
Plates and Shells (Edited by L Bevilacqua).
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1986.
13. G N Nurick. A new technique to measure the
deflection-time history of a material subjected
to high strain rates. Int. J Impact Engng 3,
17-26, 1985.
14. Teeling-Smith R G, Nurick G N. The Deformation
and tearing of thin circular plates subjected to
impulsive loads. Int. J Impact Engng. Vol 11. No
1. pp 77-91, 1991.
15. Symonds P S and Wierzbicki T. Membrane mode
solution for impulsively loaded circular plates.
J Appl. Mech. 46, 58-64, 1979.
16. Nurick G N, Pearce H T and Martin J B.
Predictions of transverse deflections and in-
plane strains in impulsively loaded thin plates.
Int. J Mech. Sci. 29, 435-442, 1987.
DEFLECTION THICKNESS RATIO DEFLECTION-THICKNESS RATIO
-* -* ro -^ -^ ro
o 4^ OD ro CD o o 4^ en ro CD o
O" ..._J 1 L-..-.L-J I I I J o- I L-i L-iiJ I
3
^Q \ \
Ol cn
c
M IS
O
ico
CO
ico
3?
or CO
or 1C3
m rn
ro
o 8-
ro ro
or cn C\
co j i _ i_i _ j : L_J_ =
O"
IWi l"Cl ION THICKNESS RATIO DEFLECTION-TI ilCKNESS RATIO

-* - r o -^ -* ro
o 4 co ro CD o o ^ oo ro CD o
o I . -Ji ...J L... I JL . - . 1 1|
o 4 \ 1.-1 -1 l.__L...L..-l
i i i ; i ra
i\ m rn
%
en
! " )
:
*
'^
i CO
c
en' \ L 3
CO
g m
m
ro
o"
i !ll k
o
ro V
l\3
or
en
j j
o o
Deflection-Thickness Ratio DEFLECTION-THICKNESS RATIO

-* -J. ro ro
o OD ro CD o o 4^ I co ro CD o
O i _ I i 1 \ 4
:
rn
lo
or cn ^ !
1 o
\
i
o ico
iCO
E. Ol or 1
m
ro ro
o
Vv.
ro ro
on or
co co
o
o
Deflection-Thickness Ratio Deflection-Thickness Ratio
^ -* ro
o * co ro CD o o
o 4-1 .1 _l~. 1..._i.. .-1-1 4 O
oo ai Cn
O
1 O
a
3
E.
E OV E.
CD
ro
o
ro TO.
cn
o
0 10 15 20 25 30
Impulse
Fig. 9
20 n
O
F 18-|
16-
CO
CO 14-
UJ
12-
O
31 10-
8-
o
8-
UJ 4-
LU 2-
Q
10 15 20
IMPULSE
Fig, 10
20-
(2
1 18-
<
DC 18-
CO
CO 14-
LLJ
~Z. 12-
o 10-
X
8-
o 6-
yy&
4-
UJ 2-
Q
10 15 20 25
IMPULSE
Fig. 11
20-r
O all data points
18-
DC 16-
CO
CO
ULJ
12-
o 10-
X
8
o
8-
b 4-
LU
LU 2-
Q
0
0 10 15 25
IMPULSE
Fig. 12
Table 1. - Pendulum Data

Series 1 Series 2 2.1 2.2 2.3
Pendulum Mass 14,8kg 21,8kg 21,8kg 21,8kg
Rig Moss 11,2kg 25,0kg 30,0kg 34,4kg
Balancing Mass 8,2kg 21,9kg 35,6kg 40,6kg
Total Mass 34,2kg 68,7kg 88,3kg 96,8kg
Test Series 1.1 Total Mass 34,2kg. For

Test Series 1.2 through 1.6, masses were
added to the centre of the pendulum. Hence
Test Series 1.2 34,2 + 10,8 -- 45,0kg

1.3 34,2 + 21,0 - 55,2kg
1.4 34,2 + 31,2 65,4kg
1.5 34,2 + 41,4 - 75,6kg
1.6 34,2 + 53,1 - 87,3kg
Table. 3 Statistical Data For Figures 1-12
Mass of Number of Regression Values

Pendulum data points
Test No. Kg. Gradient Intercept R
1.1 34 19 0,763 -0,263 0,991
1.2 45 12 0,792 -0,330 0,991
1.3 55 22 0,770 -0,770 0,977
1.4 65 19 0,690 1,089 0,990
1.5 75 13 0,789 -0,197 0,992
1.6 87 28 0,835 -0,638 0,987
Series 1 113 0,775 -0,046 0,985
2.1 69 14 0,757 -0,063 0,992
2,2 88 10 0,883 -1,080 0,995
2.3 97 11 0,849 -0,869 0,995
Series 2 35 0,823 -0,618 0,988
Series 1 & 2 148 0,785 -0,163 0,986
Table 2. Teat Result*

( - deootes partial tearing of the plate)
Series 1.1 Total Mass 34,2 kg. Series 1.2 Total Mass 45,0kg-
Deflectlon- Deflection-
Test No. Impulse Thickness Test No. Impulse ThicXness
Ratio Ratio
03129104 12,67 9.51 06129103 19,92 15,18
5 9,69 7.19 5 20,19 15,20
6 9,62 7.23 09129101 18,38 14.68
04129101 5,64 3.89 2 18,65 14,11
2 9,28 6,76 3 17,20 13,84
3 5,50 4,08 4 13,87 10,79
4 13,72 9.96 5 14,32 10.58
5 13,86 9.31 6 5,61 4,63
6 15,33 10,97 7 11,37 7,59
7 9,35 7,19 8 5,26 4,00
8 8,52 6,28 9 10,84 8,19
Q
14,07 9.94 10 15.10 12,34
10 9,83 7,99
11 20,67 14,16 06129104 20,83* -
05129101 18,52 14,20
2 18,95 14,49
3 17,95 13.49
19,16 14,93
05129101 22,04 17.45
06129101 22,33* 17.35
06129106 21,89* -
Series 1.3 Total Mass 55,2 kg. Series 1.4 Total Mass 65,4kg.
Deflectlon- Deflectlon-
Test No. Impulse Tnlckness Test No, Impulse Thlc>:ness
Ratio Ratio
251 19101 13,85 9,61 11129106 5,73 .<J9
26119101 14,62 10,99 7 12,78 9.58
2 14,40 10,14 6 14.84 11,18
Q
27119101 12,63 6,81 12,52 9,19
2 11,53 7.75 10 16,14 12,9G
3 7,48 5.88 11 18,88 15,20
9,12 6,31 12 19,25 14,03
02129101 12,40 9,80 17129101 5,47 4,98
2 15,81 11.89 2 5,60 5,61
10129101 5,26 4.16 3 8,03 6.4-1
2 5,4S 4.94 ~t G,G2 5.G1
3 7,10 5,53 5 5,73 5,1 1
4 15,70 11,53 6 5,73 5,58
10129105 15,75 11,54 7 14,07 10,53
6 17,66 15.19 6 18,86 14,44
8 19,22 15.46 Q
17,56 13,47
Q
9,16 6,95 03129101 12,99 9,31
11129101 19,00 14.40 2 14,60 !0,68
2 15,81 13,15 3 16,63 12,15
4 8,72 6.26
5 11,44 %91
10129107 19.77* 16.16

Series 1.5 Total Mass 75,6 kg. Series 1.6 Total Mass 87,3kg.
Deflectlort- Deflection-
Test No. Impulse Thlckness Test No, Impulse Thickness
Ratio Ratio
17129110 17,76 13,69 18129101 5,60 4,65

11 20,30 15,75 2 9,01 6,33
12 18,80 14,94 3 15,00 11,20
14 15,96 12,15 17,75 13,66
15 12,69 9,75 5 17,40 14,14
16 13,73 10,97 6 18,95 14,95
17 7,36 4,91 7 16,37 13,26
18 13,43 9,96 8 14.83 11,56
19 12,54 9,41 9 11,06 8,18
20 11,80 9,11 10 6,45 5,17
21 9,43 8,44 11 19,99 14,96
22 4,55 2,89 12 7.81 6,10
23 5,73 4,83 20129101 16,20 12,28
2 18,44 14,71
17129113 20,00* 16,21 3 16,20 12,68
4 19,47 16.11
5 13,63 9,60
Series 2.1 Total Mass 68,7 kg. 6 18,59 15.45
18,52 14,91
Dcflectlon- 17,14 14,29
Test No, Impulse TTdckness 15,07 11,88
Ratio 10 14.38 11,50
11 18,24 15.38
08019202 17,85 13,43 12 19,62 16,68
3 16,64 12,74 13 14,47 11,99
4 15,42 12,06 U 13,78 10,76
5 13,67 10,33 15 12,41 10,12
6 12,05 8,94 16 11,56 8,71
7 10,70 7,59
8 8,15 6,16
9 10,03 7,00 Series 2.3, Total Mass 96,8kg.
10 9,56 6,24
11 19,89 15,56 Deflectlort-
Test No,
o. Impulse Thlckness
Series 2.2 Total Mass 88,3kg. Ratio
Def lectlon- 090191 21,35 16,89
Test No, Impulse TTucXness 2 18,88 15,44
Ratio 3 17,74 14,75
17,36 14,08
OSO19213 19,82 17,01 5 16,03 12,85
14 18,25 15,59 6 14,14 10,69
15 17.74 14.31 13,38 10,40
16 16.87 13.41 6 10,17 7,65
17 15,19 12.30 Q 8.56 6,36
18 14.45 1 1.39 10 7,15 5,69
19 12.72 9,65 11 12,43 9,26
20 6 69 4,95
21 6,69 5,17
22 11.85 9.51
Table 4
Statistical Table : About Necking
Number of Regression Values
Mass of Re* Number of 6 / t > 10
Pendulum data points 5 / t < 10 Intercept R
R Data points Gradient
Kg. Gradient Intercept -1,985 0,946
0,689 0,456 0,983 7 0,859
34 12 -0,705 0,978
0,626 0,929 0,979 8 0,817
45 4 -2,959 0,903
0,630 1,108 0,969 10 0,948
55 12 -1,117 0,954
0,585 1,868 0,990 9 0,826
65 10 -0,415 0,987
0,777 -0,110 0,974 6 0,809
75 8 -0,799 0,963
0,639 1,016 0,992 21 0,848
87 7 -0,604 0,973
o 0,704 0,221 0,980 5 0,804
69 5 -4,192 0,990
0,996 6 1,064
aai 88 4 0,800 -0,269
0,995 7 0,869 -1,177 0,989
4 0,694 0,568
s
TD
M
97
G
Number of
o Data Points 6/t< 10 6 / t > 10
Number of Gradient Intercept R
Q Gradient Intercept R
Set 1. Data Points
60 0,813 -0,586 0,941
<D 53 0,651 0,989 0,971
w
Set 2. 0,905 -1,8278 0,973
a 0,747 0,010 0,984 18
13
uctur
All 0,835 -0,875 0,947

66 0,661 0,886 0,972
u^
5 Table 5
Prediction (Ref (15)) Prediction (Ref (16))
Impulse Cl C 5 B 6 C C C a C bave
(-H
Ns U
rj
,ave
% s"*1 mm mm
a
mm
b
/o
ai
% bi %
ao
%b %
ave
%
a 0,15 1,88 1,57
5,7 610 1,48 130 6,9 8,1 8,7 0,23 1,10 1.04
o 9,0 675 3,34 305 10,4 12,2 13,0 0,38 7,10 5,50 1,27 3,68 4.32
12,3 725 5,82 540 13,7 16,2 17,3 0,61 12,33 9,43 2,32 6,25 7.60
00 13,0 735 6,42 605 14,3 17,1 18,2 0,65 13,44 10,26 2,54 6,80 8.30
17,0 785 10,28 995 18,1 22,0 23,4 0,93 19,77 15,02 3,81 9?92 12,27
21,0 825 14,92 1470 21,9 26,9 28,7 1,21 26,10 19,78 5,08 13,04 16,25
Notes: Subscript a- Ref (16) lateral deflections excluded
Subscript b- Ref (16) lateral deflections included
o Subscript 1- Ref (16) centre of plate
Subscript o- Ref (16) outer boundary of plate
Subscript 1- data data using 5 /t < 10
Subscript u- data using 5 / t > 10
Experimental
Measured
Impulse C 1 Co ave 8 G
% mm i u
Ns % mm
mm
5,7 5,3- 8,5 5,9- 9,1 4,6- 7,8
9,0 9,4-12,6 9,3-12,5 9,0-12,2
12,3 8,7 1.6 13,6-16,8 12,8-16,0 13,4-16,6
13,0 14,4-17,6 13,6-16,8 14,4-17,6
17,0 19,5-22,7 17,8-21,0 19,7-22,9
21,0 24,5-27,7 22,0-25,2 25,0-28,2
Experimental Damage Diagnosis of Steel
Frames Using Strain Mode Shape
G.C. Yao (*), K.C. Chang (**)
(*) Dept of Architecture, National Cheng Kung
University, Tainan, Taiwan, Republic of China
(**) Dept of Civil Engineering, National Taiwan
University, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China
ABSTRACT
This paper presents a structural damage diagnosis

technique by means of vibration signature analysis.
Because Strain Mode Shape (SMS) will reflect the
internal force distribution in a structure, any damage
that resulted in the change of the latter will be shown
in the former. The magnitude of the changes is related
to the severity of the internal force redistribution.
In most structures force redistribution is the greatest
around the damaged zone, therefore the location of
damage is implicitly identified by the severity of the
SMS change. Two steel model frames were tested in
laboratory to verify the sensitivity of this technique
when subjected to different types of damage. Test
results show that location of damage in a structure can
be found by using this approach.
INTRODUCTION
In current civil engineering practice, most structures

are left alone after the construction work is
completed. But the loss of a major structure in the
highly integrated society today is not just the cost of
the structure itself, the total damage may be multifold
of the original construction expense. As a result,
demands for constantly monitoring the state-of-health
of the infrastructures has been growing rapidly in the

past 20 years. However, the state-of-practice is mostly
left to the discretion of the field inspectors who
could be a well trained engineer or foreman with very
limited engineering knowledge. Therefore the quality
and dependability of the human inspection has always
been questioned.
Among many ingenious ideas for a reliable diagnostic

technique, vibration signature analysis is a promising
candidate to serve this goal, because it is an
acceptable approach (non-destructive) to engineers and
it has been extensively studied in mechanical and
aerospace engineering communities with successful
results applicable to their product environment.
In this paper the idea of using Strain Mode Shape(SMS)

to detect local structural damage under laboratory
conditions is examined. Two steel model frames were
tested to verify this diagnostic technique.
Experimental test results showed that SMS demonstrated
excellent sensitivity in locating local damages.
STRAIN MODE SHAPE
The concept of Strain Frequency Response Function (SFRF)

has been widely discussed recently. Its theoretical
basis [1] and application in system identification[2]
have been developed by many researchers. The following
is a summary of SFRF.
Let {e} and {x} represent the strain and
displacement vectors, respectively, at certain

locations of a structure,
{e} - [6] {x} (1)
defines a relationship between the strain and the

displacement vectors. {6} is the function of
structural geometry, shape functions, and boundary

conditions. This equation is applicable to both
geometric and modal coordinates.
For a MDOF system, the equation of motion can be

written as
[m] {x} + [c] {x} + [Jc] {x} - [f] (2)
where [m] , [c] , [k] are the mass, damping, and
stiffness matrices, and {f} is the forcing function.
Solving the above equation by Fourier Transform [3] and
using j-yf-T we obtain
CO (3)
diag
where [M] , [C] , [K] are the corresponding modal
matrices for [m] , [c] , [k] .
{X} is the Fourier transform of [x] and is the
damping ratio of the ith mode.

Let
diag
then
- [HD] {F((o) } (4)
where [HD] is known as Displacement Frequency
Response Function(DFRF).
From (1) and (4) we can obtain
{()} - [6] [*] [ej [*]T{F(o>)} - [ifs(co)] {F(o))}

(5)
where is the Fourier transform of e . Also in
equation (5) [H3] is the Strain Frequency Response
Function(SFRF).
It has been demonstrated that natural frequencies and

mode shapes can be extracted from SFRF as well as from
DFRF[4,5]. The mode shape extracted from SFRF, called
the Strain Mode Shape(SMS), represents the relative
strain amplitude at the point measurement. In the
physical sense, SMS for a certain mode can be realized
as the strain state of the corresponding Displacement
Mode Shape (DMS).
For most civil engineering structures, the stress

(strain) state is very simple because they are
consisted of mainly slender members with major stress
direction clearly defined along the members. Fig. 1 is
a schematic drawing of an X braced steel frame used in
the experiment. Both the beams and columns are made up
of I-shaped steel. If we neglect axial force, the
bending moment on each cross section is proportional to
the induced axial stress at top and bottom flanges of
the I-beam. Therefore, flange stress has the same
distribution pattern as the bending moment along a
member. Fig. 2 shows a qualitative moment distribution
corresponding to the first bending mode of the

building. It can also be regarded as the moment-induced
flange stress distribution of the first mode.
If moment redistribution takes place when structural

damage is introduced, it will be reflected in the
first-mode strain mode shape. Fig. 3 shows the moment
distribution with a hinge formed at one end of the
first story beam. It is clearly shown that local damage
will cause larger bending moment variation around the
damage zone than areas farther away. Therefore, from
the magnitude of the change of SMS, local damages can
be distinguished. The SMS change can also be related to
the moment change on the member. Having this
information in hand and by using engineering judgement,
a conclusion on the damage location can be made.
Two tests were carried out based on this principle to

experimentally verify the sensitivity of SMS to damage.
The first test was performed on a five-story steel
frame using white noise excitation from a shaking table
at the base as the input. The second test was performed
on a tapered gable frame excited by different magnitude
of earthquake motions.
FIVE-STORY MODEL FRAME
The one bay five-story X-braced steel frame tested has

its beams and columns made of I-shaped steel [6]. All
the beam-to-column joints were designed as full moment
connections. The bracing members were consisted of two
equal L angles bolted together at intermediate
locations and tied at each end to a gusset plate by two
bolts.
The layout of the strain gauge on the structure for

bending strains is illustrated in Fig. 4. There were 14
measurement stations, 10 of them on the columns and 4
on the beams. Those mounted on the columns were placed
on both edges of the flange with two gauges per station
to compensate for the effect of axial strain. Those
mounted on the beam were placed on the center of the
top flange with one gauge per station. The station

designations are shown in the strain gauge layout of
Fig. 4.
In order to verify the proposed methodology in dynamic

diagnosis of structures, four different damage
configurations were created intentionally on the model
structure. These four cases represent localized damage.
They are listed below as cases A to D. Corresponding
damage cases are shown in Fig. 5 with dotted lines to
represent damaged length in a bracing member. Cases A
to D are described below:
A) Both bracing connection bolts on

the first floor were loosened.
B) 50% cross-section reduction of
half a bracing length on the first
floor.
C) 50% cross-section reduction of
half a bracing length on the
second floor.
D) 50% cross-section reduction of a
full bracing length on the second
floor.
Table 1 lists the first mode natural frequency of

different damage case. Fig. 6 shows the test result of
the damaged SMS compared to the undamaged SMS, the
baseline. We can also take the difference of new SMS to
the baseline and divide it by the baseline value as a
measurement of SMS change. Plotting these changes on
the structure according to the location of every
measurement stations, we could have Fig. 7 to 10.
Analyzing Fig. 7 to 10 we can see that whatever

measurement station closest to the damage zone always
has the greatest SMS change. This is in agreement with
what we have expected. Because the largest moment
redistribution took place nearest to the damaged area,
it is natural that the measured SMS would reflect this
fact. Therefore the measured SMS can be used as an
indicator of the damaged area.
TAPERED GABLE FRAME
The gable frame under study is a 1/5 scale model [7].

Columns and rafters were designed as tapered members.
While the columns were of one size, the rafters were of
another size. The base of the columns were pin
connected to the foundation.
Strain gauges were placed on the gable frame at various

locations as shown in Fig. 11. For every measurement
station, two strain gauges were placed on flanges at
the opposite sides of the web to compensate for axial
strain, therefore only the bending strain was recorded.
Test program for the gable frame consisted of a

sequence horizontal earthquakes with increasing
magnitude applied to the frame from a shaking table.
Table 2 describes the seven earthquake records and
their abbreviations, A to G, by the increasing
magnitude. At the last test, the structure failed with
lateral buckling at the lower flange of the rafter
between measurement station SE08 to SE15.
Table 3 shows the first mode frequency change. It can

be seen that natural frequency gradually decreased from
the elastic range, from 3.29Hz to 2.94Hz, as the
earthquake magnitude increased.
The baseline value was built up from the first three

small earthquake response. Because the first mode
natural frequency did not change, we assumed the
structure was in the elastic range. As shown in Fig.
12, the average of SMS from test A to C is used as
baseline and it is to be compared with the rest of the
tests. Test D to G showed a reduction of its first mode
natural frequency therefore it is referred to as
inelastic tests and their SMS value are shown in Fig.
13. From this figure there is a lot of SMS deviation
from the baseline as observed.
If we overlaid the SMS on the structure, the results

are shown in Fig.14 to 16 for example. It can be seen

from these figures that the pattern of SMS resembles
the moment distribution diagram when the frame is bent
toward one side corresponding to the first mode DMS.
But if we look closely, we can find that there are
slight variation of SMS magnitude in each case. Taking
the difference between each case and baseline and
divide it by the baseline is called the SMS change of
each case with respect to the baseline. If we plot this
change on the structure, the results are Fig. 17 to 20.
From Fig. 17 to Fig. 19, we can draw a general

conclusion that as the structure deteriorated, the
change of SMS increased. This can also be interpreted
as more moment redistribution took place as yielding
started to soften the structure at the rafter-column
connection which was observed from the strain time
history record. Two stations near the crown has
unusually high values of SMS change. This is attributed
to the very small SMS value in baseline at these two
stations, therefore even small experimental error will
create large SMS change. It is considered not of
importance here when we interpret the test result.
Fig. 20 is the failing test SMS change of the gable

frame. Same pattern of SMS change as the other cases
can be found. But comparing the right rafter-column
connection to that of left where lateral buckling took
place, it is interesting to note the irregularity of
SMS change at the left corner. This irregularity served
as a good indicator for where damage took place. It
helps engineers to notice the particular moment
distribution around this area and consequently tc
locate the damage zone easily.
CONCLUSION
In this paper, a diagnostic technique for locatin(

damages in steel structures is presented. Structura
vibration signals are analyzed to obtain the first mod
SMS. By comparing the undamaged SMS value (baseline
and the damaged ones, the magnitude of variation woul
indicate the location of inflicted zone. Two

experiments were carried out to test the sensitivity of
this theory.
In the first test, SMS was identified by white noise

excitation. Test results showed that damage diagnosis
can be done by comparing relative magnitude of SMS
change. In the second test, SMS was identified by
earthquake excitation. Test results showed that the
final failure location exhibited irregular SMS change
pattern compared to the non-failure location. It can
be concluded that by analyzing the SMS change, damage
zone in a structure can be easily identified.
Damage Baseline A B C D
Freq.(Hz) 9.5 9.125 9.375 9.25 9.25
Table 1 First Mode Natural Frequency
Test Name Peak Ace.(G) Description
A 0.10 El Centro
B 0.16 El Centro
C 0.17 Olympia
D 0.25 El Centro
E 0.43 El Centro
F 0.70 El Centro
G 1.11 El Centro
Table 2 Test Programs For Gable Frame

Test A,B,C D E F G
Freq.(Hz) 3.29 3.22 3.08 3.08 2.94
Table 3 First Mode Natural Frequency
REFERENCES
Li, D., Zhuge, H. , and Wang, B., "The Principle

and Technique of Experimental Strain Modal
Analysis," Proc. of the 7th IMAC, Las Vegas,
Nevada, 1989.
Bernasconi,0.,and Ewins, D.J., "Application of

Strain Modal Testing to Real Structures," P r o c ,
the 7th IMAC, Las Vegas, Nevada, 1989.
Beedle, L.C., Tall, L.,"Basic Column Strength,"

ASCE Proc. Paper 2555, Vol. 86, ST 7, July 1960.
Hillary, B., and Ewins, D. , "The Use of Strain

Gauges in Force Determination and Frequency
Response Function Measurements," P r o c , the 2nd
IMAC, Orlando, Florida, 1984.
Kong, F., Zhu, S., and Yi, L. , "Identification of

The Modal Parameters of A Vibration System by
Means of Impulse Excitation and Strain Gauges
Measurement and Nonlinear Programming," Chinese
Journal of Mechanical Engineering, March, 1985.
Yao, G.C., Diagnostic Studies of Steel Structures

Through Vibrational Signature Analysis, Ph.D.
dissertation, State University of New York at
Buffalo, USA, 1991
Chang, K.C., J.S. Hwang, and G.C. Lee, Shaking

Table Study of A 1/5 Scale Steel Frame Composed
of Tapered Members, SUNY at Buffalo, Technical
Report NCEER-89-0024, Sept., 1989.
2?
o
CZ3
I
M
Figure 2 Moment Distribution of Figure 1 Plane Frame Schematic g

The First Bending Mode Drawing of Model Structure
5CT
n
5C3
4CT c
a
C3 GO
O
'3CT o
5C3
2CT
2CB
/IBS '3TvK
1CT
ICE
Figure 4 Strain Gauge Station Layout Figure 3 Moment Distribution

With A Hinge At First Floor
Figure 5 Structure Damage Patterns
150
100-
50-
(0
-50-
-10O
1CB 1CT 2CB 2CT 3CB 3CT 4CB 4CT 5CB 5CT 1BN 13S 2BN 2BS
STATIONS
Figure 6 First-Mode SMS Comparison

100% Change
Figure 7 SMS f s Change Damage Type A
100% Change
Figure 8 SMS f s Change - Damage Type B

100% Change
Figure 9 SMS's Change Damage Type C
100% Change ^ '
y
y
y
y
s
y
y
Figure 10 SMSfs Change Damage Type D

o
SE14 G
5E12-
o.
SE10
SE08 SE29
SE #X : STRAIN GAGE
Figure 11 Instrumentation On The Gable Frame

(I 03 04 05 Ofi (h oh 0*9 l'o l't 12 ill \\ lh l'fi iV l'll l\) 21) 2*1 2I> 2l.i 24 & 2*G 2^ ' 2*9 3*0 3*1 31^ 3^ 34
STATIONS (SB)
Figure 12 SMS Of Elastic Tests
1.6
SMS from Inelastic Tests

BASELINE
1.4
1.2-
O on
O.fi
0.4
oV Oh ()'j l'() l T f t lh 1*4 lii I'lTl1/ l'll i W l ) 'J\ aV* 2lJ 2!4 2V ' 2llKi'o ! 33 34
S T A T I O N S (Sli)
Figure 13 SMS Of Inelastic Tests
SMS of Baseline
Figure 14 SMS Of Baseline
Figure 15 SMS Of Test E

Figure 16 SMS Of Test G
Figure 17 SMS Change of Test D

SMS change of Test "E
Figure 18 SMS Change of Test E
Figure 19 SMS Change of Test F

SMS change of Test "G(
Figure 20 SMS Change of Test G

Behavior of Four Legged Platforms
Subjected to Storm Waves
H.B. Poorooshasb, M.M. Douglass
Faculty of Engineering and Computer Science,
Concordia University, Montreal, Quebec,
H3G 1M8, Canada
ABSTRACT
Waves created during a heavy storm may cause instability of a near shore
platform where the water depths are not too large, in two significant ways.
First they exert loads on that part of the platform that is below the sea level.
The nature of these forces is fairly well understood and belongs to the realm of
hydrodynamics. The waves also change the integrity of the seabed soils by a
process of transient flow through the pores of the seafloor. This change of
regime does, in turn, create a "softening" of the subgrade which may lead to
excessive deformations of the platform thus causing instability or
unserviceability. This paper describes a procedure for the analysis of such
platforms consisting of a rigid deck and supported by four vertical legs. For
the investigation of the changes produced in the state of the seabed soil the
constitutive model CANAsand is used in conjunction with the so called
"mixture theory" approach, Yang (1990.) The performance of the structure is
examined using a modulus of subgrade reaction which varies with the history
of loading. A numerical (finite difference) technique is used for the buried part
of the support legs while that part of the leg which is above the bottom of the
seabed is treated analytically, i.e. closed form solution. This procedure was
adopted in the interest of efficiency in the execution phase. The extension of
the analysis to more complicated cases involving a larger number and/or batter
legs is simple and a matter of including a subroutine in the main program.
RESPONSE OF SEABED SANDS TO STORM WAVES
The seawater penetrates the pore of the seabed sands due to a hydraulic
gradient imposed on the surface of the seafloor by the generated waves. This
penetration causes a "drag force" on the soil grains which, in turn, deforms the
soil skeleton. This deformation which is distortional as well as dilatational,
changes the "state" of a soil element and thus its mechanical properties such as
compressibility, permeability and shear modulus. Thus at least two sets of
constitutive laws are required to investigate the response of the seabed sands.
The first one is to account for the drag forces which are created by the
interaction of the two phases of the system: the soil skeleton and the pore
water. The second is a constitutive law to account for the deformation
properties of the soil skeleton. The pore water is assumed to be
incompressible and, in itself, without viscosity.
Let nf and n s be the porosity of the fluid and the solid phase respectively.
By the use of Gauss's Theorem it is evident that
n s +n f = l (1)
s s s
3n /3t+(n v i ), i =0 (2)
3n f /3t+ (11^)^=0 (3)
where vsj and vfj are the actual velocity of the soil and fluid phases. The
equilibrium and the interaction between the solid phase and the fluid phase may
be expressed by the following set of equations.
Equilibrium of the solid phase requires that
(nsasij) ûn^+DijO^ - vfj )+psDs(nsvsi)/Dt= p*nsXsi (4)
Similarly for the fluid phase one may write;
(nfu),i-unf,i+Dij(vfj - v* )+pW(nVi)/Dt= pWX'j (5)
where D^ is the drag tensor, u is the pore fluid pressure and p5* and pf are the
solid and fluid densities. The operators D s /Dt and D f /Dt stand for (9 /3t+ vsj3
/3XJ) and (9 /9t+ vfj3 /Sjq) respectively and X s j and Xfj are the solid and fluid
body forces. Note that the first constitutive law (Darcy Law) is already
incorporated in Equations (4) and (5).
The constitutive law used to describe the flow of the soil skeleton was
developed by the first author and his colleagues and is christened the
CANAsand model. It is an elasto-plastic model with a non-associated flow
rule that takes into account the change of state of the sample as it deforms. For
a detailed account see Poorooshasb (1989) or Consoli (1991).
The set of equations (1) to (5), in conjunction with the constitutive law
just mentioned, is sufficient for the evaluation of the stress tensor o^-, and the
pore water pressure u during the loading by the sea waves. The magnitude of
the first invariant of the stress tensor plays a paramount role in the analysis
presented here as it modifies the modulus of lateral reaction of the soil. In the
next section the results of the numerical analysis performed by Q.S. Yang are
presented.
Stress Paths Followed During Passage of Sea Waves
Shown in Figs. (1) to (4) are the stress paths followed at a typical point near
the surface of the sea floor. The relevant wave characteristics are: wave length=
73 meters, wave height=9 meters, average depth of water= 12 meters and
wave period=7 seconds. Figure (1) shows the variation of the vertical
effective stress versus mean effective stress assuming the seabed deposit to be
"loose". The variation of vertical effective stress with the pore water stress for
the same type of soil formation is shown in Fig.(2.)
For medium dense sands the corresponding stress paths are shown in
Figs.(3) and (4.) From these figures it is quite obvious that as the storm
continues the pore water pressure undergoes a cyclic type of variation with an
increasing amplitude as the mean effective stress tends towards zero, i.e. the
sand tends to "liquefy." At this state the inter gain stresses tend to zero and the
material flows as if it were a liquid.
Not all elements of the subgrade experience liquefaction; such occurrence is
likely to be confined to near surface elements. All elements, however, do
experience a reduction in their mean normal effective stress component which
causes a softening effect. In particular it reduces the magnitude of the
"modulus of lateral reaction" which is the main resisting agent to the bending
of that part of the platform legs which is buried in the seabed. It is worth
noting that for the liquefied section of the seabed the modulus of lateral
reaction would be zero, i.e. the platform legs would deform as if no soil
surrounded them.
1
4 6 8 10 12
mean effective stress (kPa)
Figure 1. V. E. Stress vs M. E. Stress loose sand

k-10-2 cm/sec, after Yang, 1990.
I
I
116 139 150 166 183 200
pore water pressure (kPa)
Figure 2. V. E. Stress vs P. W. Pressure for loose sand

k-10*2 cm/sec, after Yang, 1990.
In the analysis which follows, this softening effect was considered using the
results provided by Yang (1990) and by plotting the average effective stress at
any particular time after the commencement of the storm. The modulus of
lateral reaction was then related to the mean effective stress and entered in the
program as a soil-structure material parameter.
10 12
mean effective stress (kPa)

Figure 3. V. E. Stress vs M. . stress, medium dense sand
k-lO-* cm/sec, after Yang, 1990.
I
116 133 150 166 183 200
pore water pressure (kPa)
Figure 4. V. E. Stress vs P. W. Pressure for medium dense sand

k-10-3 cm/sec, after Yang, 1990.
THE ANALYTICAL PROCEDURE
The platform is assumed to be rigid in comparison with the other

components of the system. Thus the six degrees of freedom of the centroid of
the platform (the three rotation components fy and the three displacement
components di) produce a displacement of magnitude AA and a rotation of
magnitude 0j at the junction of legs with the platform. These components are
given by the equations:
6! = % (7)
where x k represents the position vector of the pile heads (junction of platform
with its legs) and small strain theory is assumed throughout.
For that portion of the legs that is buried below the seafloor the governing
equation of the problem is
d 4 w i /dz 4 +4p 4 w i =0; i=l,2 (8)
where w is the lateral deformation of the leg and p=(bkh./EI)1/4 is the "length
characteristic" which varies during the analysis as k^, the modulus of lateral
reaction, changes continuously during the storm.
Above the seafloor level the equation governing the lateral deformation of
the leg is
d4Wi/dz4+pwi=0; i=l,2 (9)
where p w is the differential pressure exerted on the legs by the sea waves. To
account for the axial deformation of the legs simple reasoning shows an
equation of the form
d2Wi/dz2 + a w f 0 ; i=3 (8,a)
where a = Pk sr /AE. Here P and A represent the perimeter and the area of the
leg respectively and E stands for its Young modulus. The modulus k s r is
similar to the modulus of lateral reaction except that here it represents the
shearing traction required to displace the soil by one unit length.
Finally as the whole system must be in equilibrium one may add the set of
equations
XFrO (10)
and
XM i= 0 (11)
where ZFpO and ZMpO include all the external forces and moments acting on
the system which contain inertial as well as static forces.
The above set of equations in conjunction with the boundary conditions
M - 0 and F i = 0 @ z=0 (12)
are sufficient to perform a numerical evaluation of the problem. In the set of

conditions (12) Mj represents the components of the bending moment vector
and Fi two components of the shear force and the component axial force acting
at the free end of the leg at which point z=0.
THE NUMERICAL SCHEME
The numerical scheme originally adopted in this investigation employed a finite

difference method to solve for the deformations w; Eqs.(8) and(9). It was
noted however that this scheme required a great deal of computer time for
execution and hence it was decided to replace equation (9) by its equivalent viz
dAvi/dz^Mi/EI; i=l,2 (13)
It is obvious that for i=3 the axial force remains constant and hence the
variation of w 3 with z is linear.
This scheme has the advantage that the moment area method can be called into
action to relate the the deflection and the slope of the legs at the seabed level to
the components Aj and j which are the corresponding values at the platform
level.
The advantage of the new scheme over the original scheme is obvious. In
the original scheme nodes had to be distributed over the entire length of each
leg. Let the number of nodes in this case be denoted by n. Thus the number
of equations to be solved would be 4x3n+6 for the 3n unknowns of Wj and
the six unknowns 6^ and 6^ Thus the matrix of the coefficients would have a
size (4x3n+6)x(4x3n+6). When the second scheme is adopted the number of
nodal points reduces to n' where n' is a considerably smaller integer than n.
Under these circumstances the matrix of the coefficients would be only of a
size (4x3n'+6)x(4x3n'+6) which is by far a smaller matrix. Thus the saving in
the execution time is enormous. This saving would be even more pronounced
when platforms with a higher number of legs are to be analyzed. Admittedly a
little time would be taken by the computer to evaluate the integrals involved in
the moment-area scheme; such execution times are however very small
compared to the times required for inversion of large matrices.
TYPICAL RESULTS
The results of some preliminary analyses are shown in Figs. (5), (6) and (7).
In all the examples given here the sand is assumed to be loose and thus the
stress regimes shown in Figs.(l) and (2) are considered to be the appropriate
fields during the progress of the analysis. The platform is assumed to be
square in plan view and the legs spaced at a distance of 10 meters form one
another and in the corners of the platform.
In the example shown in Fig.(5) the direction of the current is assumed to

be parallel to the sides of the platform (i.e. the wave front is assumed to hit the
platform along one of its frontal sides.) The diagrams show the mode of
deformation of the platform with the passage of the waves. Of particular
interest is the deformation of the platform at t=1.75 sec. Here the platform
appears to be "swinging back." This is hardly surprising, however, as now
the trough of the wave is at the front side of the platform and the direction of
the wave forces is reversed. The platform appears to regain its original shape
(i.e. the deformed mode corresponding to T=0 seconds) at T=7 seconds when
the second wave is arriving at the platform edge. Actually there has been a
residual deformation during this passage of the first wave but the magnitude of
this residual (permanent) deformation is too small to be depicted in Fig.(5).
This point is further demonstrated in Fig. (6) where the position of the
platform at the time T=0 (commencement of the first cycle) and T=28 seconds
(commencement of the forth cycle) are superimposed on one another. In this
example the wave front is assumed to hit the platform at angle of 45 degrees.
Note that the deformation of the platform at T=28 seconds is considerably
larger than the corresponding value at T=0. The extent of the difference in the
two deformations is an indication of the permanent distortion of the platform
which may render it unserviceable.
Finally the platform shown in Fig.(7) is assumed to experience, in

addition to wave forces, etc., a twist of magnitude 1000 Tm due to wind forces
say. The position of the platform with regard to wave travel is the same as the
situation shown in Fig. (6).
T=.875 T=1.75
= 6 cm; Deformation Scale.
Figure 5- Deformation of the Platform in the First Cycle of Wave Travel

is the same as the situation shown in Fig.(6).
MSL
View parallel to the View facing the

direction of wave travel direction of wave
at T=0 (1st. cycle) and at travel at T=28 sec.
T=28 (4th. cycle)
Fig.(6)- Comparison of Platform Deformation at the Commencement

of First Cycle (T=0) and Fourth Cycle (T=28)
View parallel to View facing the

the direction of direction of
wave travel wave travel
Figure 7. Influence of Twisting Moments on the Mode of Deformation of the

Platform
REFERENCES
Consoli, N.C., (1991), "Numerical Modelling of the Sedimentation and

Consolidation of Tailings", Ph.D. Thesis Concordia University, Montreal
Canada.
Poorooshasb, H.B., (1989), "Description of Flow of Sand Using State

Parameters," Comp. &Geotech.x & (3), 195-218.
Yang, Q.S., (1990), "Wave Induced Response of Sea Floor Deposits: A

Simple Model for Sands and Nonlinear Analysis by FEM" Ph.D. Thesis,
Concordia University, Montreal, Canada.
SECTION 7: BLAST LOADING OF SURFACE
STRUCTURES
Response of Real Structures to Blast
Loadings - the Israeli Experience
R. Eytan
Eytan Building Design (EBD) Ltd, Tel Aviv, Israel
PBSTROCT
The Israeli experience on the response of real

structures to blast loadings generated by
conventional weapons and terrorist explosive
devices is suiiarized. Our conclusions froi the
observation of the structural response Modes
s^re presented. EBD9 s inhouse damage analysis
for structures and the related assessment of
injuries to people are described. P numerical
example is also included.
INTRODUCTION
During the period 1966-1991 numerous Israeli

structures of all types: residential,
conercial, industrial and public, were
damaged to different degrees by various blast
loadings, due to car bombs, terrorist explosive
charges, artillery shells, air bombs as well
as long range groundto-ground Missiles
(January-February 1991). We have observed
the structural damages and recorded the site
findings in a comprehensive data base -ODS-
Observed Damages to Structures presently
including about 20,340 events C13- These events
refer to real structures damaged by terrorist
attacks or subjected to conventional warfare as
well as full-scale structures damaged in
controlled test programs.
OBSERVED STRUCTURAL DAMAGES TO REAL STRUCTURES
The structural daiages observed in real

structures depend on the following lain
parameters:
a. The blast loadings induced by the explosion,
as a function of the explosive charge weight
and location.
b. The structural characteristics of the
building, subjected to the blast loadings,
especially the external walls and the roof.
c. The construction Materials and execution
details.
The "worst case" blast environment is

induced by an explosion occurring inside a
structure and close to a major supporting
structural element. In many cases, due to the
complete destruction of this element,
progresive collapse occured and the whole
building or a substantial part of the building
failed completely. In a terrorist car bomb
attack several years ago, tens of Israeli
casualties were caused by such a building
progressive collapse.
Extensive damage is also caused by internal

explosions of small terrorist bombs, up to
1O-2O Kg. TNT, due to the blast enhancement in
a confined space. The quasistatic, long
duration, blast loadings in this case are
applied on structural elements in the
"non-designed" direction (for example upwards
on intermediate slabs) and structural failure
can easily occur. Many failures of supports,
connections, etc. were also observed in cases
of internal explosions, again due to the
"reverse" loadings.
Close-by explosions occurring at siall

distances from the building's external walls
(up to 1 seter) induce severe local damages
including failure of structural elements such
as coluans, beans, etc. Localized progressive
collapse is also possible in such cases if the
daiaged elements are Main supports of the
structure.
When the explosion occurs at icdiui

distances froi the structures (several Meters
for siall explosive charges and tens of Meters
for large car bombs/explosive charges), blast
daiages at various degrees &re observed, Mostly
in the Modes of flexural bending and shear. The
Most affected structural eleients are those
located in the external walls.
Ot large distances, the explosion Mainly

induces failure of secondary building eleients
such as infill light walls, windows, light
roofs, etc.
CONCLUSIONS FROM OBSERVING BLOST INDUCED

STRUCTURAL DPMOGES
The first conclusion reached after comparing

the real structural daiages to calculated
daiage assessments, based on literature
references, was that the observed daiages ^re
substantially different than the estimated
ones. Basically, Main structural eleients with
adequate connections and supports showed daiage
levels Much lower than calculated. However,
connections and support failures were
extensively observed, even when not expected.
The second conclusion was that in Most cases

the conventional weapons and terrorist
explosive devices induced Mainly localized
blast loadings and structures less sensitive
to local failure exhibited lower daiages.
The third conclusion was that the structural

daiage levels decrease substantially with
increasing the distance fro the explosion; the
rate of "lowering" the damages being especially
high at short ranges.
The Main conclusion froi real attacks daiage

observations was that the nuiber of injured
people inside structures is not dependent only,
or not even vainly, on the level of daiage to
the structural eleients. We found that so
called "secondary effects1* such as spelling,
flying objects, shock-induced displacements and
especially glass fragments were Mostly
"responsible" for people9s injuries.
The final conclusion was that we have to

develop reliable analytical tools to analyse
the blast effects on structures not only in
t e n s of structural daiages but with the lain
goal of enabling the assessment of injuries to
people and the damage to internal sensitive
equipment. EBD has therefore developed in-house
the specialised analysis SEPHRA (Security,
Protection and Hardening Risk Analysis),
described in reference L2D. The main stage of
SEPHRA - the damage analysis - is discussed
here.
BLAST EFFECTS DAMAGE ANALYSIS
The EBD in-house damage analysis for blast

effects has the following four stages:
a. Calculation of the blast loadings on the
structure.
b. Assessment of the damage to the structural
elements.
c. Assessment of the internal damaging effects.
d. Assessment of injuries to people and/or
damage to internal equipments.
The input parameters and the outputs of the damage
analysis &re presented in figure 1.
The calculation of the blast loadings on the

structure is performed by the EBD developed
program: CPR BOMB, having the flowchart as
shown in figure 2. The CRR BOMB program
calculates the reflected blast pressures, blast
durations and impulses applied on the building
in various locations from an explosive charge
at a given position near the building. The
various parameters are explained in the
numerical example.
The assessment of damage to the structural

elements from the defined blast loadings is then
performed by using SDOF (single-degree-of-freedom)
models for the structural elements, as
described in different literature references.
Our contribution is in using different
coefficients in the models, based on our
practical experience, allowing us to receive
close-to-reality values for the various
structural response parameters. The damage to
the structural elements is characterized by the
ratio between the maximal structural
displacement and the structural element's span.
All the levels of structural damage: from
plastic deformations through large deformations
including membrane action and up to breaching
of the element are related to the above
described ratio and "cross-checked" with the
observed real damages from our database.
The next step of the analysis includes the

calculation of the shock effects: velocities,
accelerations, of the various structural
elements affected by the blast, by using siaple
analytical Models and then the calculation of
several daiage coefficients, based aainly on
our practical experience:
Ks - daaage coefficient for spall ing effects,
including glass fragments fro windows.
Ko damage coefficient for flying objects,
debris, etc.
Ka - damage coefficient for shock effects.
The SUM of the above daaage coefficients is
always equal to 1.0; obviously the values of
the damage coefficients relate to the analysed
building characteristics.
The final step of the analysis is the

assessment of the nuiber of people injured in
the blast affected area, as shown in the
numerical exaaple. The assessed daiages to
internal equipment are calculated based on the
shock effects estimated in the previous stage
and on the equipment shock tolerance as well as
the shock-absorbing effects provided by the
structure and/or Mounting devices 33.
NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
Let us consider the explosion of a 5OO Kg. TNT

charge (car boab or conventional air
boab/aissile) located at a distance of 15
eters froa a structure, as shown in figure 3.
Our task is to estiaate the percentage of
injured people in the rooas opposite the
explosion (6.0/3.0 aeters rooas in a
four-stories building) for two types of
construct ion:
a. Noraal brick walls and windows.
b. Reinforced concrete walls and security
windows.
Using the CPR BOMB prograi, the lain shock

parameters are calculated (see table 1 ) :
Pso - the peak Free-field blast overpressure.
pr the peak reflected blast overpressure.
a the angle of incidence.
pro the peak blast overpressure acting
perpendicularly on the structure
(see figure 4 ) .
Tr the blast duration.
Ir - the blast impulse.
Rs we can see, the peak overpressures acting on
the building as blast loadings are between 7
and 12 bars with durations of 8 to 5
miliseconds, respectively.
N o n a l cavity brick walls are expected to be
severely damaged by 7 bars overpressure and to
collapse at 12 bars; these values have been
validated by our field observations.
Reinforced concrete walls, 25 cm. thick, with
adequate reinforcement, will withstand the 12
bars overpressure with light cracking only (no
injuries to people are expected as no spalling
will occur).
The assessment of the number of people who
might be injuried inside the rooms is performed
by using the following simplified formula (1).
Ni= ni/N = Ks+Ko+Ka <1>

where:
Ni = percentage of injuried people in the room,

ni = number of injuried people in the room.
N = number of people in the room.
Ks,Ko,Ka - damage coefficients, established by
using simple analythical models,
data from our database and
engineering Judgement.
The values of the above coefficients and

parameters for our numerical example are shown
in table 2.
For the case in which 20,15,1O and 5 people are

in the roois on the ground, first, second and
third floor, respectively (total nuiber of
people - 5O), we find that for the
configuration of roois with brick walls and
n o n a l glass windows 45 people are estimated to
be injured (90% of the total nuiber) and for
the configuration of roois with reinforced
concrete walls and security windows 20 people
sight be injuried (40% of total nuiber).
SUMMARY
The extensive Israeli experience froi observing

the response of real structures to blast
loadings has been sunarized in a comprehensive
database, used also in newly developed analysis
procedures, enabling the assessment of property
daiage and injuries to people in structures
subjected to the effects of conventional
weapons and explosive devices.
REFERENCES
1. Eytan, R. , pp. 33 to 46, Proceedings of the

Specialty Conference on Structures for
Enhanced Safety and Physical Security,
Arlington, Virginia, U.S.A., March 1989.
2. Eytan, R., pp. 34 to 42, Proceedings of the
5th International Syaposiua on the
Interaction of Conventional Munitions with
Structures, Mannheia, Gersany, April 1991.
3. Eytan, R., pp. 89 to 97, Proceedings of the
60th Shock and Vibration Syaposiua, Vol.4,
Virginia Beach, Virginia, U.S.A., November
1989.
INPUTS OUTPUTS
DAMAGE ANALYSIS
(BLAST EFFECTS)
Explosive charge
type, size and Blast loadings
location BLAST INTERACTION on the structure
Structure WITH THE STRUCTURE
geometry
Structural ^.^[Displacements |
ASSESSMENT OF DAMAGE
elements -|
characteristics Accelerations,
TO THE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS Velocities
ASSESSMENT OF INTERNAL
DAMAGING EFFECTS
deorFs
iShock effects!
Equipment tqulpment
characteristics ASSESSMENT OF DAMAGE survivabillty
TO INTERNAL
Density of EQUIPMENT/PEOPLE Number of
people expected Injuries
Figure 1. Flowchart of the blast effects damage analysis
PROGRAM CAR BOMB - EBD/5750/14
THE SUBROUTINE 'ALFA* CALCULATES T T AND V
THE SUBROUTINE "LOADS' CALCULATES Ps. Ts. Is. Pr, Tr, Ir
THE SUBROUTINE "GRAFTI" CALCULATES PRalfa USING Pso, ALFA
Figure 2. Flowchart of EBD's program - CAR BOMB

6.0 m
Elevation 2
Plan I levation 1
-j- W=500 Kg. TNT
Ry
1^
I
CN +- +
I
I
oo --4 X - -
CN
!
i Ry
I
CO I
CN T"
I I
CO
CN Rx
1r
B.Dm
Elevation 1
Elevation 2
W-500 Kg
-+- Rz=15.0 m
Figure 3. Building and charge configuration

numerical example
Figure 4. Incident reflected blast pressure on the building
W-5OO k g . t I S .
LOCATION PSO Pr Pr Tr Ir
kg/c*2 kg>ca*2 ' dmg.' kg/c*2 kg <:/cA 2
A 0 3.1 12.2 4 11.8 3.0 30.0
A 1 3.1 12.1 7 11.7 3.0 30.0
A 2 3.0 11.3 12 10.9 3.2 29.0
B 0 3.1 12.4 0 12.1 4.9 30.0
B 1 | 3.1 12.2 3 12.0 3.0 30.0
B 2 1 3.0 11.7 11 11.0 3.1 30.0
CO || 3.1 12.2 3 12.0 3.0 30.0
C 1 || 3.1 12.0 a 11.6 3.0 30.0
C 2 1 3.0 11. 3 12 10.9 3.2 29.0
DO | 3.0 11.7 10 11.1 3.1 30.0
D 1 || 3.0 11.3 12 10.9 3.2 29.0
D 2 || 2.9 11.0 13 10.4 3.3 29.0
E 0 || 2.9 11.0 13 10.4 3.4 29.0
E 1 | 2.9 io. a 16 10.2 3.4 29.0
E 2 || 2.8 10.3 19 9.7 3.6 28.0
F 0 ( 2 . 7 10.0 20 9.4 3.7 28.0
F 1 1 2.7 9. a 21 9.3 3.8 28.0
F 2 || 2.7 9.4 23 8.9 3.9 27.0
GO II 2.6 8.9 23 8.6 6.1 27.0
G 1 2.6 8.8 23 8.3 6.2 27.0
G 2 1 2.3 8.4 27 8.3 6.4 26.0
H 0 2.4 7.8 29 7.8 6.7 26.0
HI | 2.4 7.7 29 7.8 6.8 25.0
H 2 2.4 7.4 31 7.6 6.9 23.0
I 0 2.3 6.8 33 7.2 7.3 24.0
I 1 2.3 6.7 33 7.2 7.4 24.0
I 2 2.2 6.4 34 7.1 7.6 24.0
Table 1. Results of t h e CAR BOMB program calculations

Ks Ko Ka Ni
Floor
Brick R.C Brick R.C. Brick R.C Brick R.C
walls walls walls walls walls walls walls walls
Ground 0.75 0.30 0.15 0.10 0.10 0.10 1.00 0.50
First 0.70 0.25 0.13 0.08 0.09 0.08 0.92 0.41
Second 0.63 0.18 0.10 0.06 0.07 0.06 0.80 0.30
Third 0.54 0.10 0.06 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.64 0.17
Table 2. Assessment of Injuries to people

A Non-Linear Finite Element Approach to
the Assessment of Global Stability of a
Military Vehicle Under Shock Wave
Impulse
A. Barbagelata, M. Perrone
D'Appolonia S.p.A., Via Siena 20, 16146 Genoa,
Italy
ABSTRACT
A non-linear analysis has been performed to

evaluate the global response of a vehicle subjected
to a pressure wave generated by a nuclear explosion.
It has been found that the force-deflection law of
the suspensions plays a crucial role in the stability
of the vehicle. The results of the analysis in terms
of maximum rotation about the center of mass have
been successfully compared with the results obtained
by a simple analytical approach.
INTRODUCTION
A nuclear explosion results in the very rapid release

of a tremendous amount of energy within a very
limited space. This sudden release of energy causes
a very large increase in the pressure and temperature
and converts the close-in materials to extremely hot
gases. These gases expand rapidly and initiate a
shock wave in the surrounding medium.
Pressure propagation in air may be divided in:
a) static overpressure, istantaneous increase of

the atmospheric pressure due to a shock wave;
b) dynamic pressure, due to the rapid movement of
the air flow behind the shock front.
Static overpressure and dynamic pressure time

histories may be obtained from charts available in
the literature (AFWL, [1]), by means of the effective
value of the peak static overpressure.
The aim of the study was to evaluate the

overturning stability of a military vehicle laterally
subjected to a shock wave impulse as shown in Figure
1. The way the pressure wave acts on a military
vehicle depends on various parameters such as size,
shape and orientation of the vehicle and peak
overpressure. The calculations performed by means of
a non-linear finite element approach were compared
with the results of a simplified analytical approach.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM
The vehicle, whose key parameters are summarized in

Table 1, was situated on a plane with a lateral slope
of 3 0 percent. The pressure wave was propagating
parallel to the ground (see Figure 1 ) .
Table 1
Vehicle Parameters
- Mass (kg) 25000

2
- Mass Moment of Inertia (kg m ) 20000
- Elevation of Center of Mass (m) 1.2
- Width of the Vehicle (m) 3.0
- Elevation of Centroid of Lateral Surface (m) 1.2
- Lateral Surface (m2) 14
The time history of the global force applied to the

vehicle is shown in Figure 2. Pressures acting on
front, rear, top and bottom faces of the vehicle have
been computed by taking into account wave reflection
effects, the exposure and the interaction of the
vehicle surfaces with the pressure wave. A reduction
of the pressure on the bottom face due to the
shielding effect of the exposed tyres has been
considered.
The purpose of the study was to evaluate the

vehicle stability against overturning, and to
determine the maximum acceleration applied to the
crew. The applicability of a theoretical model based
on rigid body theory was verified for the purpose of
overturning stability.
FINITE ELEMENT APPROACH
A non-linear finite element analysis by means of the

Program ANSYS (Swanson, [2]) has been performed in
order to evaluate the global response of the vehicle.
The non-linear model was able to represent:
- transient pressure loads;

- unilateral contact and friction factor between
tyres and ground;
non-linear elastic behavior of suspensions;
- dampers;
large displacements and rotations.
The finite element model, shown in Figure 3,

includes:
one mass element with rotational inertia, placed

in the center of mass of the vehicle;
two non-linear spring elements representing the
non-linear load-displacement characteristic of
the suspensions of the vehicle;
- two damper elements modeling, with an
appropriate load-speed law, the energy
dissipation of the vehicle shock-absorbers;
- two gap elements with friction factor;
beam elements.
A friction factor to the ground of 0.8 was

considered to provide a realistic information of
vehicle sliding and rotation.
The large displacements option allows to take

into account the increase of the overturning force
lever arm, increase due to the vehicle rotation, and

to consider the displacement of the rotation pole in
case of sliding.
ANALYTICAL APPROACH
Assuming that the vehicle subjected to the pressure

wave can be considered as a rigid body, and assuming
also that the stabilizing moment can be expressed as
linear function of the rotation angle a, it is
possible to write the equation of motion of the body
subjected to the pressure wave:
Pb M (t) Pb
a (1)
a -
IQ I I
where:
a = second derivative of a respect to the time;

P = body weight;
I = body rotational inertia;
M(t) = applied moment;
b ed a = geometrical quantities shown in Figure 4,
with the further assumption that the overturning

moment may be expressed as:
M(t) = M Q e"? t (2)
Equation (1) may be integrated and gives the

subsequent result, expressed by means of the non-
dimensional parameters r?^, and rj2:
a rj1 rj1 + ri2 - 1 rj1 - r)2 - 1

= - ~ - X^ + X + X" + 1 (3)
a T7/-1 2(1-1^)
where:
Pb
A2 = -; x = e" A t (4a; 4b)
I a
o
rj1 = ; r,2 = (5a, 5b)
bP A
By deriving Equation (3) with respect to the
time and finding the time where rotation speed is
equal to zero, the following relation is obtained:
D {til - 1 )
nx = (6)
2 - 1 ) - 2rj2
where:
x2 - 1
D = (7)
x2 - x^2+1
By substituting the values of rj-^, r/2 and x in

Equation (3) it is possible to produce a chart for
the maximum relative rotation versus the parameters
rj-^ and T?2 This diagram is shown in Figure 5.
RESULTS
The time histories of displacement and acceleration

in the horizontal and vertical direction of three
nodes of the model are shown in Figures 6 and 7.
The lateral displacement of the vehicle was 59

centimeters while the maximum rotation was about 0.06
rads.
The maximum acceleration in vertical direction

was 24 m/s 2 . It should be noted that the bouncing of
the vehicle damps out quite quickly due to the effect
of viscous damping on suspensions. Calculations
performed with the analytical approach indicated a
value of tf^, and r\2 of 18 and 42 which implicitly
account for the inclination of the vehicle.
Entering the diagram of Figure 5 with this

couple of values, we get a relative rotation of 0.06,
which correspond to an absolute rotation of the rigid
body of 0.05 rads. The comparison in this case is

surprisingly good because several effects which have
been considered in the finite element analysis
(sliding, elastic supports, damping, etc.) were not
included in the analytical model.
It can be observed that the wheels never detach

from the floor in the finite element model.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The results of the finite element analysis have shown

high sensitivity to the force-deflection law of the
suspensions of the vehicle. A crucial role was also
played by the dampers which automatically exclude
from the system unwanted high frequency vibrations.
The initial time step was set to 0.1 milli-

seconds at the beginning with automatic time-step
optimization option. Relatively high values of the
acceleration have been observed at the beginning of
the transient. However, these values have a very
short duration and do not affect the safety of the
crew.
The comparison of the rotation of the vehicle

obtained by finite element analysis with the
corresponding value obtained analytically was
satisfactory: however some further investigation is
needed to assess the effect of suspension on global
stability of the vehicle.
LIST OF REFERENCES
1 Air Force Weapons Laboratory (AFWL), 1974, The

Air Force Manual for Design and Analysis of
Hardened Structures, Report No. AFWL-TR-74-102.
2 Swanson Analysis System, 1987, ANSYS Engineering

Analysis System, User's Manuals, Vol. I e II,
Houston, PA.
30%
Figure 1. Problem Scenario - Front View
MN -
4-.5
30 625 1250 2500
Figure 2. Global Force on the Vehicle - Time History

LEGEND
# ELEMENT
SPRING ELEMENT
dj DAMPER ELEMENT
CENTER OF MASS
_JL_ GAP ELEMENT WITH FRICTION
~T~ FACTOR
NODE NUMBER
NOTE
DIMENSIONS IN MILLIMETERS
Fiqure 3. Finite Element Model
LEGEND
O ROTATION POLE
G CENTER OF MASS
Figure 4. Analytical Model

LEGEND
a/n = 6.6i a/U = e.i
--- a/H = 6.62 a/~G = e.z
a/TZ = 6.63 a/"er = e.3
a/TX = 6.6H a/cf = CM
a/H - e.es a/a" = e.s
* 6.66 a/^ct = -6
= 6.67 a / " a = e.7
* 6.68 a / z r = e.8
a/"Zf = 6.69 a/"a = e.s
Figure 5. Analytical Model - Charts for Relative

Rotation
z
UJ
2:
UJ
o
a
_i
CL
(/>
DISPLPCEMENT IN X DIRECTION
("0
/\
UJ
O
a \ -
a. /
in
J LEGEND
/ .
yV / r
( g ) NODE NUMBER
y
DISPLPCEMENT IN Y DIRECTION
Figure 6. Displacement Time Histories

1
IXINUf1 VALl)E 14 1 m/9 i
(A 140
/
\

130
2
O
- 100
a
oc
UJ
_i 80
UJ
o
o
a 60
_i
a
t- 40
o
20
on
s
r
!
PCCELERPTION IN X DIRECTION
(/*)
1
z
o
aa:
1
It L
UJ
_i
UJ
o
o
a
<* -3
O
IF
1 TIME (sc>
PCCELERPTION IN Y DIRECTION
Figure 7. Acceleration Time Histories

Damage to Reinforced Concrete Slabs due
to the Combination of Blast and Fragment
Loading
R. Forsen, M. Nordstrom
National Defence Research Establishment (FOA),
Tumba, Sweden
ABSTRACT
Dealing with the effects from most conventional weapons to
buildings it is not sufficient just to look at the blast ef-
fects but also to the effects from steel fragments from the
weapons.
Recently a test series has been started in order to systemati-
cally determine the decrease of lateral load bearing capacity
of reinforced concrete slabs due to fragment loading with dif-
ferent areal densities, velocities, weight and shape. The first
experiments in this series with different fragment areal densi-
ties (kg/m ) will here be presented.
Calculations of deflection due to the combination of blast and
fragment loading, with input from the test results, show that
for most conventional weapons and load bearing walls of rein-
forced concrete, in ordinary buildings, it doesn't matter if the
blast or the fragments reaches the wall first.
INTRODUCTION
When calculating the damage from conventional weapons to rein-
forced concrete or other structures there are two weapon ef-
fects of main importance namely fragments and the blast wave
(with contact detonations also the direct shock wave). A lot of
work has been done to determine the characteristics of blast
load and the damage to reinforced concrete structures. The eff-
ects of combined blast and fragment loading have been investi-
gated to some degree (for instance by Hader [1], Koos [2],
Kropatschek [3], Marchand & Cox [4] and Gruppe Fur Riistungs-
dienste [51) but the effects of different fragment areal densi-
ties (kg/m ), fragment velocities, fragment weight and fragment
shape are not so well understood.
Recently FOA, sponsored by SRV (Swedish National Rescue
Services Board), has started a test series in order to systema-
tically study the damage to reinforced concrete slabs from
steel fragments with different characteristics. The first expe-
riments now accomplished were made with 1/4 scale reinforced
concrete slabs that were first laterally loaded with steel
spheres with different areal densities (kg/m ) and at an avera-
ge velocity of 1450 m/s. After the fragment loading the lateral
load bearing capacity was recorded.
The results from these experiments will be presented first and
then used as input in calculations of deflection of reinforced
concrete slabs due to the combination of blast and fragment
loading. Different mass and strength properties of the slab
will be combined with different blast and fragment properties
and the effects of different arrival times of blast and frag-
ment loading will be examined.
EXPERIMENTS WITH FRAGMENT LOADING OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS
Experiments have been made by Nordstrom [6,7] in order to exa-
mine the damage to concrete slabs loaded with different frag-
ment areal densities. The objective was to determine a function
between fragment areal density and the energy absorption capa-
city in a concrete slab subjected to deflection. To facilitate
the experiments they were made in 1/4 scale.
The concrete slabs 3
The concrete slabs (1000*500*40 mm ) were reinforced with 2.5
mm 0 bars at 75 mm cc's two ways at bottom with 5 mm concrete
cover. As reinforcement we used smooth normalized phosphated
rope wire, annealed at 860 C for 4 minutes with cooling down
in air. The yield point (0.2 %) was 450 MPa, the ultimate
strength 790 MPa and the tensile extension 2 3 % (25 mm measured
length). The concrete had a maximum aggregate size of 6 mm. The
cube, compression strength was 49 MPa and the density 2150
kg/mJ.
The fragment explosive charge
The fragment explosive charge had a directional fragment ejec-
tion (Figure 1) and at the production the desire was to get as
high initial fragment velocity as from a 250 kg GP bomb, about
2000 m/s, and as uniform fragment distribution as possible.
Experiments in our X-ray photography set up showed that the
fragments had an average initial velocity of 1450 m/s (lowest
velocity about 1100 and highest about 1900 m/s). Experiments
also showed that approximately 75 % of the fragments hit within
25 from the longitudinal axis of the charge.
The fragments were steel spheres with 4 mm diameter and weight
0.263 g. The total fragment weight was 3 00 g and the fragment
areal density on the slab was varied by varying the distance
between the charge and the slab.
The experimental set up
The fragment explosive charge was placed above the centre of
the slab, which was laid on a solid foundation with a gap (150
mm) perpendicular to the direction of the main reinforcement
(Figure 2). As we only were interested in the damage from frag-
ments we used a solid foundation in order to protect the slab
from the effects of the blast. The gap was in order to see if
there would be any spalling. The charge was initiated and the
slab was loaded by fragments.
Lateral load bearing capacity versus deflection was recorded
for undamaged and damaged slabs with a load cell and a slide
resistance. The load came from a hydraulic jack and was trans-
mitted to a transverse load by a steel beam (Figure 3).
Experimental results and comparison to calculations
By integration of the load-deflection curve the energy versus
the deflection was obtained (Figure 4 ) . The presented curves
are the average from three experiments with undamaged slabs and
three experiments with slabs loaded with each fragment areal

density (only one with 0.15 kg/m2).
The result that the slabs loaded with 0.10 kg/m have higher
energy absorption capacity than the undamaged slabs is surpri-
sing. It may depend on the fact that the damage from the frag-
ments were inconsiderable but caused small cracks in the slab.
These cracks probably made that the reinforcing bars strained
at more locations and thus caused a more ductile behaviour than
the undamaged slab where the reinforcing bars only strained
under the load and thus reached its ultimate strength earlier.
The experimental results of deflection of undamaged slabs have
been compared to calculations. A number of models were tested
[6] and the one that corresponds best to the experiments calcu-
lates the deflection with the assumption of a curved shape of
the slab (no yield line) and the measured stress-strain curve
of the reinforcement. Another assumption in the model is that
the slab loses its total load bearing capacity when the rein-
forcement reaches its ultimate strength.
When applying the calculation model to the damaged slabs we
assumed that the fragments cause an uniform decrease of thick-
ness of the slabs and thus an other energy absorption capacity.
By testing different thicknesses of the slab it's possible to
compare the calculated energy-deflection curve with the results
from the experiments (Figure 4), and by that get a connection
between fragment areal density, decrease of thickness and ener-
gy absorption capacity. 0.2 0 kg/m fragment areal density for
example will decrease the energy absorption capacity of the
slab so it appears to be 2 0 mm thick instead of 4 0 mm.
CALCULATION OF DEFLECTION DUE TO THE COMBINATION OF BLAST AND
FRAGMENT LOADING
A reinforced concrete slab close to the detonation of a GP-bomb
or an artillery shell will deform, how much depends on the
strength of the slab but also on three things concerning the
load, the blast wave with its impulse density, the impulse den-
sity from the fragments and finally the damage from the frag-
ments .
The calculations will be limited to simply supported slabs and
the following combinations will be considered: 250 kg GP bomb
against 0.16 m slab at 10 m standoff, 250 kg GP bomb against
0.35 m slab at 4 m standoff and 15.5 cm artillery shell against
0.16 m slab at 4 m standoff.
250 kg GP bomb against 0.16 m slab at 10 m standoff
First we consider a 0.16 m thick slab reinforced with 10 mm
bars at 300 mm cc's in the not loaded side. The span is 2.4 m
and it is simply supported at both ends. The resistance-deflec-
tion function (Figure 5) is calculated with the previous de-
scribed method. The dynamic resistance is assumed to be 1.3
times the static (Forsen [8]).
The load comes from a detonating 250 kg GP bomb (Andersson,
Axelsson & Holmstrom [9]) on the ground with 10 m standoff. The
equivalent uncased charge weight is first calculated as
Q e = Q(0.47+0.53/(l+M/C))
Q = equivalent uncased charge weight (kg)
Q e = actual charge weight (kg)
M/C = case weight/charge weight (for a cylindrical charge)

in our case we use M/C = 0.5(total weapon weight-Q)/Q
For the 250 kg GB bomb this gives a equivalent charge weight of
70 kg. The blast load is calculated using the formulas by
Kingery & Bulmash [10].
The fragment loading is2calculated considering a fragment areal
density of 0.15 kg/m at 10 m standoff in a direction of 90
from the length axis of the bomb. The main part of the frag-
ments will be in the mass range of 5-50 g. 5 g fragments will
arrive at approximately 1550 m/s and 50 g at approximately 1750
m/s with 2000 m/s initial velocity considered (Figure 6). The
fragment impulse density is calculated as m*v=0.15*1650=240 Pas.
It is assumed -that such a low fragment areal density as 0.15

kg/m (0.04 kg/m in 1/4 scale) not will decrease the resistan-
ce of the slab.
The arrival time of the fragment impulse density is taken to be
the same as the 50 g fragments namely 5.3 ms. The duration of
the fragment "pressure" is calculated as the arrival time of
the 5 g fragments (5.6 ms) plus the time it takes to penetrate
into the concrete (0.1 ms) minus the arrival time of the 50 g
fragments (5.3 ms) which gives 0.4 ms duration.
The maximum fragment "pressure" is calculated to 1200 kPa as
fragment impulse density multiplied by two and divided by the
duration (considering a triangular shape).
The arrival time of the blast pressure is 10 ms (Figure 6).
The slab and its load is transformed to an equivalent single
degree of freedom system (Johansson [11]) considering a yield
line in the centre of the slab and the deflection is calculated
(Figure 7). A maximum deflection of 0.110 m is reached after 37
ms.
The "real" load, as calculated above, is rather complicated and
a calculation has also been made with a simplified load (Figure
7). The simplified load starts with the sum of fragment impulse
density and positive blast impulse density with arrival time
and maximum pressure same as the blast. A triangular shape is
considered which gives the duration of the positive phase. The
negative phase is considered the same as before. This simpli-
fied load where no attention is taken to the arrival time of
the fragments gives almost exactly the same deflection as the
"real" load namely 0.109 m after 38 ms.
250 kg GP bomb against 0.35 m slab at 4 m standoff

Next we consider a 0.35 m thick slab reinforced with 16 mm bars
at 200 mm cc's in the not loaded side. The span is 2.4 m here
also and it is simply supported at both ends. The resistance-
deflection function is calculated with the previous described
method (Figure 8).
Once again the load comes from a detonating 250 kg GP bomb on
the ground now with 4 m standoff. The blast and fragment load
is calculated in the same2way as before only now is the frag-
ment areal density 0.8 kg/m and fragment impulse density 1.48
kPas which gives a much higher maximum fragment "pressure" (Fi-
gure 9). In this case the fragments will arrive after the blast
(Figure 6).
The high fragment areal density of 0.80 kg/m (0.2 kg/m in 1/4
scale) is assumed to decrease the effective thickness of the
slab with 0.08 m (0.02 in 1/4 scale) and thus the resistance
(Figure 8). The time for the resistance to be decreased is as-
sumed to be at the end of the fragment load that is 2.2 ms af-
ter detonation (Figure 9).
With the "real" load a maximum deflection of 0.119 m is reached
after 20 ms and with the simplified load where no attention is
taken to the arrival time of the fragments the maximum deflec-
tion is 0.115 m after 20 ms (Figure 9 ) . For the simplified load
the decreasing of the resistance is considered to be from the
very beginning of the load.
15.5 cm artillery shell against 0.16 m slab at 4 m standoff
Finally we once again consider the 0.16 m thick slab but this
time the load comes from a detonating 15.5 cm artillery shell
(Andersson [12]) on the ground and at 4 m standoff. The equiva-
lent charge weight is calculated in the same manner as before
to 5.6 kg. The main part of the fragments will be in the range
of 1-10 g.
The average fragment areal density over the slab is assumed to
be 0.4 kg/m but locally (here considered in mid span) as high
as 0.6 kg/m which is assumed to decrease the effective thick-
ness of the slab with 0.06 m (0.015 in 1/4 scale) and thus the
resistance (Figure 5).
With the "real" load a maximum deflection of 0.108 m is reached
after 49 ms and with the simplified load where no attention is
taken to the arrival time of the fragments the maximum deflec-
tion is 0.106 m after 50 ms (Figure 10).
CONCLUSIONS AND FURTHER RESEARCH
Experiments have been made with loading of 1/4 scale reinforced
concrete slabs with different fragment areal densities and then
recording the lateral load bearing capacity. In no case the
fragments perforated the slabs or damaged the reinforcing bars.
Some, minor spalling occured for the slabs loaded with 0.30
kg/m fragment areal density. The spalling was not as deep as
the concrete cover.
The calculations of deflection due to the combination of blast
and fragment loading show that for ordinary RC structures in
buildings loaded by the detonation of conventional weapons in
the range of tens or hundreds of kg the difference in arrival
time between blast and fragments doesn't need to be considered.
This is founded on the fact that the response time of the wall
usually is very long compared to the difference between arrival
time of blast and fragments and thus the wall will be damaged
by the fragments before it has started moving.
A very good estimation of the deflection can be made by simply

adding the fragment impulse density to the positive impulse
density of the blast wave, with the maximum blast pressure and
rearranging it to a triangular shape and considering the resis-
tance to be decreased by the fragments from the very beginning
of the load.
The main task was to study the damage to rather weak reinforced
concrete slabs (and walls) in ordinary RC buildings such as
dwelling houses. The most interesting mechanism of failure for
these types of structures is bending. For stronger protective
structures the interesting standoffs may be considerably shor-

ter and thus other failure mechanisms may be important such as
shearing and also the spalling mechanism.
Further 1/4 scale experiments will be made with different frag-
ment velocities, weight and shape, and also supplemented with
full scale experiments.
REFERENCES
1. Hader. "Effects of Bare and Cased Explosives Charges on Re-
inforced Concrete Walls", pp. 221 to 226, in Proceedings of The
Interaction of Non-Nuclear Munitions with Structures, Colorado,
USA, May 1983
2. Koos. "Die kombinierte Luftstoss-Splitter-Last, eine quanti-
tativ bestimmbare Grdsse fur die Schutzbaubemessung?", pp. 348
to 366, in Proceedings of Internationales Symposium Interaktion
Konventioneller Munition mit Schutzbauten, Mannheim Germany,
March 1987
3. Kropatscheck. "Tests and Evaluations of Close-in Detona-
tions", pp. 227 to 236, in Proceedings of The Interaction of
Non-Nuclear Munitions with Structures, Colorado, USA, May 1983
4. Marchand and Cox. "The Apparent Synergism in Combined Blast
and Fragment Loadings", pp. 239 to 252, in Proceedings of the
first International Conference: Structures under Shock and Im-
pact, Massachusets, USA, July 1989
5. Gruppe fur Riistungsdienste. "Grundlagen fur die Sicherheit
bei der Verarbeitung und Lagerung von Explosivstoffen: Lokale
Schadenwirkungen an Betonplatten durch Sprengladungen", Ernst
Basler & Partner, B 3113.10-2, September 1982
6. Nordstrom. "Fragment Loading of Concrete Slabs I. Methodolo-
gy to Determine the Energy Absorption Capacity in Reinforced
Concrete Slabs Loaded with Different Fragment Areal Densities",
FOA Report in preparation (in Swedish)
7. Nordstrom. "Fragment Loading of Concrete Slabs II. Energy
Absorption Capacity in Reinforced Concrete Slabs Loaded with
Different Fragment Areal Densities", FOA Report in preparation
(in Swedish)
8. Forsen. "Airblast Loading of Wall Panels", FOA Report C
20586-D6, Oktober 1985
9. Andersson, Axelsson & Holmstrom, "Fragments from Bombs.
Tests with 250-kg GP-bomb m/50 and 500 kg GP-bomb m/56", FOA
Report C 20744-2.3, January 1989 (in Swedish)
10. Kingery & Bulmash. "Airblast Parameters from TNT Spherical
Air Burst and Hemispherical Surface Burst", Technical Report
ARBRL-TR-02555, April 1984
11. Johansson & Aseborn. "ENFRI. A Computer Code for Calcula-
tion of Deflection and Reaction Force for Simply Supported
Blast Loaded Reinforced Concrete Slabs", FOA Report C 20262-D4,
September 1978 (in Swedish)
12. Andersson & Lithen. "Warhead Data for the 155 mm HE m/77
Artillery Shell Filled with TNT and RDX/TNT Respectively" FOA
Report C 20671, August 1987 (in Swedish)
HOLE FOR
GYPSUM
BLflSTING CRP
1.1kg
PETN/90;UflX/10
STEEL SPHERES
Figure 1. The fragment explosive charge.
CHARGE
FRAGMENT
1.05-1.8n
CONCRETE SLAB
V7/7/////////////A i.
Figure 2. The test set up with fragment loading of the slabs.
SLIDE RESISTANCE
HYDRAULIC JACK
LOAD CELL
STEEL BEAM
CONCRETE SLAB
Figure 3. The test set up with static loading of the slabs.
Energy absorption
capacity (kNm)
calculated
t = 40 mm
0.30kg/m2
0.20kg/m2
0.15 kg/m2
0.10kg/m2
undamaged
M O mm)
25 50 75 100 125 150
Deflection (mm)
Figure 4. Average energy-deflection curves from the experiments

with different fragment areal densities (thick lines) and cal-
culated curves considered different slab thicknesses (t) (thin
lines).
Force (kN)
t=160mm
t=100mm
- - t = 80 mm
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Deflection (mm)
Figure 5. Calculated dynamic r e s i s t a n c e functions ( s t a t i c * 1 . 3 )

for RC s l a b s ( t h i c k n e s s 160, 100 and 80 mm) with 10 mm bars at
300 mm c c ' s , loaded in the middle of a span of 2.4 m.
Anival time (ms)

10
Fragm. fr.
15.5 shed
Fragm.fr.
250kgGp
1
Blastfrom
5.6 kg
- Blastfrom
70 kg
0 1 4 5 6 10
Distance (m)
Figure 6. Arrival time of blast ( Kingery & Bulmash 1984, thick

lines) and fragments (thin lines). Fragment velocity v (m/s)
versus distance x (m) for different mass m (kg) has been calcu-
lated as v=v * EXP(-0.00456*x/nT0.333) where vO = initial
fragment velocity 2000 m/s for the 250 GP bomb and 1500 m/s
for the 15,5 cm artillery shell
Pressure (kPa) Deflection (m)
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08 Defl.
simpl.load
0.06
reaHoad
0.04
0.02 - - - Simplified
load
0
-Real-load
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Time (ms)
Figure 7. Calculated pressure load (thin lines) and deflection

(thick lines) for a 0.16 m RC slab at 10 m standoff from a 250
kg GP bomb, surface burst.
Force (kN)
600
500
fI
400
300
200
100
t = 350mm
ol * t i i . i i . i j _ j. i t = 270mm
50 100 150 200 250
Deflection (mm)
Figure 8. Calculated dynamic resistance functions (static*1.3)

for RC slabs (thickness 350 mm and 270 mm) with 16 mm bars at
200 mm cc's, loaded in the middle of a span of 2.4 m.
Positive phase
30000
0.14
25000
0.12
20000 0.10
15000 Defl.
simpl.load
0.06,
Defl.
10000 "real-load
0.04
5000 - Simplified
load
0 "Real-load
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Time (ms)
Negative phase
0.14
0.12
0.10
0 M
Defl.
simpl.load
0.06 _ ^
reaJdload
0.04
Simplified
0.02
load
-100 0 " "Real'load

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (ms)

(thick lines) for a 0.35 m RC slab at 4 m standoff from a 250
kg GP bomb, surface burst.
Positive phase
5000 0.12
0.11
0.10
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.06"" " Defl.

slml.load
0.05
- Defl.
0.04 "reaHoad
0.03
0.02-- - Simplified
0.01 load
Realwload
0
4 5 6 7 10
Time (ms)
Negative phase
0.12
0.11
0.10
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.061 Defl.
siml.load
0.05
Defl.
0.04 "real'load
0.03
0.02--- Simplified
0.01 load
-100 0 "ReaHoad
20 25 30 45 50
Time (ms)
(thick lines) for a 0.16 m RC slab at 4 m standoff from a 15.5
cm artillery shell, surface burst.
Nonlinear Rigid-Plastic Analysis of
Stiffened Plates under Blast Loads
R.B. Schubak (*), M.D. Olson (**), D.L. Anderson (**)
(*) Failure Analysis Associates Inc., 1477 West
Fender Street, Vancouver, B.C., V6G 2S6,
Canada
(**) Department of Civil Engineering, University
of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C., V6T 1W5,
Canada
ABSTRACT
A semi-analytical procedure is developed to predict the dynamic response of

stiffened plates to high intensity load pulses by modelling them as rigid-plastic
beams or grillages, and by approximating the response with instantaneous modes.
Allowance is made for partial end fixities of the panels. This method is used
to calculate the responses of one- and two-way stiffened plates. The predicted
responses compare favourably with finite element and experimental results. The
proposed method yields quick deflection estimates which are sufficiently accurate
for preliminary design of stiffened plates subjected to blast loads.
INTRODUCTION
The response of one-way stiffened plates subjected to high intensity load pulses
has been investigated experimentally, numerically and analytically [1,2,3]. For
pulses of very high intensity (several times the static collapse pressure), it was
observed that the displacements of the stiffeners and nearby plating were ap-
proximately the same. This result suggests that, away from the lateral edges,
the one-way stiffened plate behaves much like a singly symmetric beam with the
plate acting as a large flange. Similarly, a two-way stiffened plate might behave
like a grillage of singly symmetric beams.
By modelling a one-way stiffened plate with fully clamped edges as a fixed-

ended singly symmetric beam, the authors have previously derived an approxi-
mate closed-form solution for its response to blast-type pulse loads [3]. This same
model is presently used as the basis for a solution of the response of one- and
two-way stiffened plates having more general end conditions. Of neccessity, the
following treatise is brief, but complete details are available [4].
equivalent beam section UaJ
Figure 1: One-way stiffened plate subjected to uniformly distributed pressure

pulse.
ONE-WAY STIFFENED PLATES
A one-way stiffened plate with uniform stiffener spacing a is presently considered

(Fig. 1). The panel is supported along its edges, where transverse displacements
are zero and in-plane and rotational constraints may vary from free to fully fixed
conditions. Initially at rest, the panel is subjected to a uniformly distributed blast
load p(t), where t is the time measured from the original incidence of the load
on the panel. An interior portion of the panel, which includes one stiffener and
plating one-half of the distance to each neighbouring stiffener, will be assumed
to behave as a rigid-plastic beam of singly symmetric cross-section with mass
per unit length m acted upon by the line load q(t) = a p(t). Rigid-plastic links
of reduced axial and moment capacities and zero length are assumed to exist
between the beam ends and rigid supports so that partial end fixities may be
modelled. Finite deflections of the beam are considered, but are assumed small
enough that the axial force in the beam is constant along the span.
RESPONSE MECHANISMKINEMATICS
The beam and supports are assumed to respond in the mechanism shown in Fig. 2.
Plastic hinges will form at the supports and at a time-dependent distance X(t)
to either side of the beam's midspan. The transverse displacement a distance x
from the midspan is denoted as w(x,t); at the midspan as W(t). The velocity
field for the beam is given by w(x,t) = W(t)<f>(x]t), where
1, if 0 < \x\ <X(t);

cf>(x;t) = L-\x\ (1)
UX(t)< \x\ <L.
L - X(t)'
( plastic hinge
rigid-plastic
WA support link
w(t)
Figure 2: Travelling hinge mechanism.
STRESS RESULTANTSTHE YIELD CURVES
The beam and support links will resist loading by some combination of plastic
hinge stress resultants located at the section centroid: axial force TV, which is
positive in tension, and bending moments Mx and ML at the travelling and
support hinges, respectively, which are positive in sagging. These stress resultants
are determined by the yield curves for the beam and support links.
Typical yield curves for the beam and links are shown in Fig. 3(a). Only the
M > 0 stress space is considered for the beam yield curve since the travelling
hinges will be in sagging. Likewise, only the M < 0 stress space is considered for
the support link yield curve since the hinges within the links will be in hogging.
No and MQ are the maximum values of N and M that may be developed within
the beam section, and A is a dimensionless parameter which is a measure of the
asymmetry of the section. The support links have reduced axial and bending
capacities of vN0 and Â^, respectively. It is expected that the support links in
some way reflect the beam section geometry, so the beam asymmetry parameter
A is also applied to the support links.
The analysis is greatly simplified by inscribing the true yield curves with four
linear segments, as shown in Fig. 3(b). It can be shown that stress states are
determined uniquely only at points of slope discontinuity of the yield curve [4].
For the case shown in Fig. 3(b), wherein 0 < A < i/, the stress states will initially
correspond to the points AA! with Mx = Mo, ML = JXMQ{V ii)l(y + Ai/),
and N = XN0 while the midspan displacement W{t) is small. While W(t) is
somewhat larger, in the order of a beam depth, the stress states will correspond
to the points BB' with Mx = MQ(1 - Az/)/(l + A), ML = -^MQ and N = \i>N0.
Finally, at large VF(/), the stress states will correspond to the points CC with
Mx = MQ(1 - v)l(\ + A), ML = 0 and N = i>N0. Details regarding this and all
other possible combinations of stress states are given in [4].
beam
yield curve
\v
yN/N0 N/No
-1 -A
'support link
yield curve
(a)
Figure 3: (a) Yield curves for a singly symmetric I-beam and its support connec-
tions; (b) Linearized approximation to yield curves.
INSTANTANEOUS MODE RESPONSE
For nonlinear problems of the type encountered herein, a sequence of instanta-

neous mode form solutions, each existing uniquely at a given instant during the
response, may be found. Instantaneous mode response of the beam is expressed
as
w(x,t) = V(t)<f>(x;t), (2)
w(x,t) = A(t)<f>(x;t), (3)
where V(t) and A(t) are the midspan velocity and acceleration, respectively, and
<f)(x',t) is the instantaneous mode shape. Note that <j)(x;t) is time dependent
so that V(t) and A(t) are not merely time derivatives of the midspan displace-
ment VF(); rather, they are separate functions of time. Response based upon a
sequence of instantaneous modes is referred to as an instantaneous mode approx-
imation.
An extremum principle has been derived by Lee [5] for the determination
of instantaneous modes of nonlinear rigid-plastic structural response. By this
principle, the instantaneous mode (f>(x;t) renders the functional
J(4>) = -K(t) = D(<f>,t) - (4)
a minimum, where the kinetic energy K(t) is independent of the variation in

<f>(x;t). The term D{(f),t) is the rate of energy dissipation within the beam and
E(<f),t) is the rate of external work being done by the loads on the beam.
Making use of the assumed mode shape, the functional may be written as a
function of the hinge position X:
_ 3K_ NW)-q(t)(L*-X>)
(5)
Minimizing J(X) with respect to X gives the travelling hinge positions:
- ML + NW)
77
X(t) = if q(t)>6(Mx-ML + NW)/L2; (6)
0, otherwise.
With the hinge position determined, the equation of motion of the beam is derived
by setting J(X) = -K:
J_ g(t)(L*-X*)-2(Mx-ML)
2m L2 + XL-2X2
SOLUTION ALGORITHM
A semi-analytical algorithm for the solution of the coupled Equations (6) and (7)
is now developed. The problem is discretized by dividing the time domain fol-
lowing the onset of the blast load into relatively short time steps of duration At.
The time at the start of the nth step is denoted by (n 1) At = tn-\ and the
time at the end of the step by n At = tn.
At the beginning of any time step the hinge position Xn = X(t T ^ 1 ) may be
determined from Equation (6), provided that the midspan displacement W(tn-i)
is known. This is certainly the case for the first step (n = 1, *n_i = 0) after
the onset of response. If the time step is short enough, no great error is incurred
by holding this hinge position fixed within the step. The hinge position then
being a constant, the midspan velocity and acceleration become V(t) = W{i)
and A(t) = W(t), respectively, and the equation of motion for the step is reduced
to a linear, second order differential equation:
W(t) + u2nW{t) = Qn(t) - QQn (8)
where
3JV
W = (9)
' m(Z' + XnL - 2X1) '
_ Mt
Qn{t)
~
3(MX - ML)
The response of the beam is then governed by an initial value problem comprised
of the above differential equation and the initial conditions for the time step,
W{tn-\) and ^ ( ^ i ) - This initial value problem may be solved in closed form.
In particular, the response values W(tn) and W(t~) may be determined. These
response values are in turn used as the initial conditions for the following time
step, tn < t < * n +i.
The start of each new time step is, in general, accompanied by a finite change
in the beam's velocity field. This change in the velocity field is minimized ac-
cording to a criterion suggested by Martin and Symonds [6]:
(12)
[<t>n+1(x)]2dx
Recalling the hinge mechanism shape function, Equation (1), the midspan veloc-
ity after the mode change becomes
- w(r) (L + 2Xn+l)(L-Xn+1)
if Xn > Xn+\. If Xn < Xn+\, these two values must be transposed in the
numerator of Equation (13).
TWO-WAY STIFFENED PLATES
Attention is now directed towards the problem of a rectangular, orthogonally

stiffened plate subjected to blast loading. A rectangular plate spans a distance
2LX in the z-direction, and a distance 2Ly in the orthogonal y-direction. The
plate is stiffened by a set of identical and evenly spaced beams running in the in-
direction and by a second set of identical and evenly spaced beams running in the
2/-direction. This two-way stiffened plate is subjected to a uniformly distributed
pressure pulse, p(t). In a manner which is similar to that of the previous sections,
the stiffened plate is assumed to behave as a grillage of singly symmetric beams,
where the torsional capacities of the beams are neglected.
The instantaneous modes will be assumed to conform to a travelling hinge-

line mechanism, shown in Fig. 4. Lines of plastic hinges will be formed at a
time-dependent distance X(t) to either side of the y-axis, at a time-dependent
distance Y(t) to either side of the x-axis, and at the supports. The instantaneous
mode response of the grillage will be
w(x,y,t) = V(t)<j>(x,t)i>(y,t), (14)

w(x,y,t) = A(t)<t>(x,t)xl>(y,t), (15)
where V(t) and A(t) are the midpanel velocity and acceleration, respectively,
<f>(x,t) is given by Equation (1) and ip(y^t) is similar to <j>(xyt). The analysis of
this grillage then proceeds in a manner similar to the previous beam analysis.
rr
O plastic hinge
Figure 4: Travelling hinge-line mechanism for a beam grillage.
EXAMPLES
DRES Panel
A five-bay, T-beam stiffened steel plate, designed and constructed by the Defence
Research Establishment Suffield (DRES) for a series of experiments [1] is shown in
Fig. 5. The mass density of the panel is 0.733 x 10~ 3 lb-s 2 /in 4 , its elastic and strain
hardening moduli are 30 x 106 psi and 18 x 104 psi, respectively, and its yield stress
is 45,000 psi. The properties of the equivalent beam are m = 8.84x 10~ 3 lb-s 2 /in 2 ,
Mo = 8.85 X 105in -lb, No = 5.76 X 105lb, and A = 0.538.
In trial #327, the DRES panel was flush-mounted on a foundation and bare
high-explosive charges were detonated above it [1]. Pressures were measured by
transducers around the periphery of the panel, which are approximated by the
spatially invariant pressure pulse p(t) plotted in Fig. 6. As a result of the blast,
the longitudinal edges of the panel slipped inward by approximately 1.5 inches
and the midpanel had a permanent displacement of approximately 11 inches.
A preliminary analysis indicates that such large displacements are only pos-
sible if fi and v are both quite small. For example, if the panel's edges are fully
fixed, the present method predicts a permanent midspan displacement of only
3.8 inches. The panel edges are therefore assumed to be simply supported and
axially free, i.e., \i v 0. The midspan displacement W(t) determined by the
present method is plotted in Fig. 7 along with the result of the nonlinear beam
finite element program FENTAB [7]. The calculated midspan displacements are
in good agreement, aside from a large peak elastic displacement and rebound
predicted by FENTAB. The present method predicts a permanent midspan dis-
placement of 11.7 inches and FENTAB predicts 11.1 inches.
36 in 36 in 36 in 36 in 36 in
96 in
0.25 in
2.95
Figure 5: DRES panel.
1500
1000
500 -
a>
QL
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

Time t (msec)
Figure 6: Approximate pressure pulse from DRES Trial #327.
It is recalled that partial end fixites of the panel edges are modelled herein
by rigid-plastic links of reduced plastic capacities (see Fig. 2). Plastic hinges
in these links will undergo rotations and extensions which will correspond to
rotations and centroidal in-plane slippages of the panel's edges. The in-plane
centroidal end slippages as determined by FENTAB and the present method are
plotted in Fig. 8. Comparison between the predicted results is extremely good,
with both programs predicting a permanent in-plane end slippage of 1.15 inches.
An interesting feature of this end slippage is that the ends of the beam are
initially (during the first three milliseconds) pushed outward along the centroidal
axis, although they are eventually pulled back in as the transverse displacements
become large.
15 1 i i i ir~iiiirniiiiiiiiiiir
Present Study
FENTAB [7]
I I I I I 1 I I 1 I I I I l I I I I I 1 I I I I
15 30 45 60 75
Time (msec)
Figure 7: Midspan displacement of the DRES panel.
2.0
_i i r T I ( I i I i I I I I I I I I I I I I I r_
- 1.6
i 0.8 Present study - centroid

5
0.4
n FENTAB [7] - centroid
d)
c Present study - plating
_D 0.0
Q_
c -0.4 ~ I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 I I I I ~
15 30 45 60 75
Time (msec)
Figure 8: In-plane end slippage of the DRES panel.
The computed results compare well with those from the experiment, with the
permanent midspan displacements varying by approximately six percent. The
measured in-plane end slippage was roughly thirty percent greater than the cen-
troidal values predicted by the analyses, but it is unlikely that this measurement
was taken at the stiffened plate's centroid. It is more probable that the slippage
of the plating was measured. A prediction of this plating slippage is obtained
from the present analysis. The centroidal axis of the panel is calculated to be
approximately 1.1 inches below the plating centroid. If the centroidal slippage is
denoted as U and the end rotation of the panel as 0, the in-plane end slippage
of the plating is then given by U + 1.10 and is plotted in Fig. 8. The perma-
nent plating slippage predicted herein is 1.43 inches, a value which is in good
agreement with the approximate measured value of 1.5 inches.
Section a-a:
.007
.0065
4m 0.176
0.128 0107
Figure 9: Square stiffened plate.
Square Stiffened Plate

A four metres square plate is stiffened by three identical and evenly spaced T-
beams running in each direction, as shown in Fig. 9. The edges of the plate and
the ends of the beams are fully clamped. The panel material is elastic-plastic-
strain hardening with an elastic modulus of 210,000 MPa, a strain hardening
modulus of 1250 MPa, a yield stress of 375 MPa and a mass density of 7900 kg/m 3 .
The panel is subjected to a uniformly distributed rectangular pressure pulse

having an intensity of 2 MPa and a duration of 2 msec. The transverse displace-
ments of the points A, B and C are plotted in Fig. 10, and the permanent dis-
placement profiles of the beams ABD and BCE are plotted in Fig. 11. According
to the present rigid-plastic model, the displacements of A, B and C are identical
during the first 2 msec. During this time, the travelling hinge lines are roughly
stationary and are located to the outside of the beams BCE, as evidenced by the
kinks in the beam displacement profiles at 1350 mm from the panel's centre lines.
Afterward, the hinge lines move inward of the beams BCE and are then located
approximately 100 mm from the centre lines. The displacements of A, B and C
diverge. The permanent transverse displacement of A is approximately 280 mm;
the permanent displacement of B is 170 mm; and that of C is 110 mm.
The present results are compared with those from the nonlinear superelement
code NAPSSE developed by Koko et al [8]. The NAPSSE analysis considers one
quarter of the panel. Each bay of the panel, e.g. BCED, is modelled by one 55-
degree-of-freedom plate element and each beam span, e.g. BC, by one 10-d.o.f.
beam element. Results from the NAPSSE analysis are also plotted in Figs. 10
and 11. The agreement between the NAPSSE and present predicted displace-
ments of A, B and C is very good. NAPSSE predicts the displacements of the
three points to be similar (though not identical) during the first 2 msec of the
response, after which the displacements diverge as predicted herein. Both analy-
ses predict response durations of approximately 8 msec. There is also reasonably
good agreement between the predicted maximum beam displacement profiles.
300 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Point A
E -
E
200 - -
Point B
E
(D
O / /
_ _Point c -
100
1
l
Q_ Present study
1
l
i
1 1
NAPSSE [8]
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (msec)
Figure 10: Displacement response of the square stiffened plate.
300 I I I I I i I i i i i i i r
500 1000 1500 2000

Distance from centre-line (mm)
Figure 11: Maximum displacement profiles of the square panel's stiffeners.
CONCLUSIONS
A semi-analytical procedure has been developed to predict the dynamic response

of one- and two-way stiffened plates to high intensity load pulses by modelling
them as rigid-plastic beams or grillages. Partial end fixity of a stiffened plate has
been modelled by connecting the beams to rigid supports with rigid-plastic links
of zero length and reduced plastic capacities. Solution of the nonlinear problem
has been facilitated by approximating the response with assumed instantaneous
modes and through the use of a numerical time-stepping algorithm.
Examples of blast loaded stiffened plates showed good comparison between

results obtained from the present method and those from nonlinear beam and
stiffened plate finite element programs. In one case, good comparison was also
obtained with experimental results.
The procedure provides good estimates of the dynamic response of stiffened

plates subjected to blast loads. Furthermore, it offers substantial savings in cost
and time over nonlinear finite element solutionstypical run times on a 386 PC
are one to two seconds for a one-way stiffened plate analysis and one to two
minutes for a two-way stiffened plate analysis. As such, the present procedure is
ideally suited for preliminary design work.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work has been supported by the Canadian Department of National Defence
through a contract from the Defence Research Establishment Suffield.
REFERENCES
1. Slater, J.E., Houlston, R. and Ritzel, D.V. Air Blast Studies on Naval Steel
Panels: Final Report, Task DMEM-53, Defence Research Establishment
Suffield Report No. 505, Ralston, Alberta, 1990.
2. Khalil, M.R., Olson, M.D. and Anderson, D.L. Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis
of Stiffened Plates, Computers & Structures, Vol. 29, No. 6, pp. 929-941,
1988.
3. Schubak, R.B., Olson, M.D. and Anderson, D.L. Nonlinear Analysis of One-
Way Stiffened Plates under Blast Loads, pp. 345-354, Structures under
Shock and Impact, Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam, 1989.
4. Schubak, R.B. Nonlinear Rigid-Plastic Analysis of Stiffened Plates under
Blast Loads, Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, University of
British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada, April 1991. (Also see papers to be
published in Int. J. Impact Engng.)
5. Lee, L.S.S. Mode Responses of Dynamically Loaded Structures, J. Appl.
Mech., Vol. 39, No. 4, pp. 904-910, 1972.
6. Martin, J.B. and Symonds, P.S. Mode Approximations for Impulsively
Loaded Rigid-Plastic Structures, J. Engr. Mech. Div., Proc. ASCE,
Vol. 92, pp. 43-66, 1966.
7. Folz, B.R., Olson, M.D. and Anderson, D.L. Non-Linear Transient Beam
Analysis on a Microcomputer, pp. 341-348, Proceedings of the Third Int.
Conf. on Computing in Civil Engineering, Vancouver, Canada, 1988.
8. Koko, T.S. and Olson, M.D. Nonlinear Transient Response of Stiffened
Plates to Air Blast Loading by a Superelement Approach, Computer Meth-
ods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, Vol. 90, pp. 737-760, 1991.
Design of Blast Hardened Control Rooms:
A Case Study
D.D. Barker, M.G. Whitney
Wilfred Baker Engineering, Inc., San Antonio,
Texas, U.S.A.
ABSTRACT
Explosion accidents at chemical plants have claimed many lives and resulted in
extensive damage to facilities and equipment. The risks associated with these
operations can be quite high owing not only to the probability of an accident but
also to the devastating consequences. At many plants, personnel and control
equipment are housed in aging facilities which offer little protection from the
damaging blast loads from an unconfined vapor cloud explosion or pressure vessel
burst. Recent accidents have highlighted the need for replacement and upgrading
of these control facilities.
This paper describes the dynamic design of a replacement control room at a
chemical processing plant to resist substantial blast loads with an extremely short
construction schedule. To meet this schedule, a structural system consisting of
steel frame and precast concrete wall panels with a cast-in-place roof was chosen.
This scheme permitted the wall panels to be cast while the structural steel was
being placed. The roof slab was poured immediately upon completion of wall panel
installation, thus eliminating time consuming framework and shoring associated
with poured-in-place structural frame and walls.
INTRODUCTION
Refining operations conducted at petrochemical plants normally present a multi-
tude of potential explosion hazards due to the nature of the material and the
processes involved. The risks associated with these operations can be substantial
due not only to the high probability of an explosion, but also due to the significant
loss of life and property which may occur. The processing equipment is normally
controlled by a small number of personnel located in a structure close to the
operations. Because of the proximity to the potential hazard, the control facility
and personnel can be exposed to relatively high overpressures during an accident.
The most common accidents are pressure vessel bursts due to runaway reactions
and vapor cloud deflagrations. The bursting vessel scenario can include combustion
of products dispersed by the vessel rupture, depending on the material involved
and the confinement present. Vapor cloud incidents are normally relatively slow
flame speed deflagrations. The major factors determining the actual event are fuel
reactivity, confinement, and turbulence.
These types of events can produce blast pressure waves which are quite dif-
ferent than those produced by high explosives (HE); however, most current design
standards for control facilities are based on a detonation of an equivalent charge
weight of TNT. This is done primarily because pressure and impulse information
is much more readily available for HE explosions than for vapor cloud explosions.
Normally hazards are classified and assigned to a group which in turn specifies the
TNT equivalent weight and standoff distance. Surrounding structures must then
be designed for the side-on and reflected blast pressures produced by this equivalent
TNT event.
The control facility described here was designed as a replacement for a
structure which had been destroyed by an accidental explosion. The approximate
dimensions for the new facility were 75 ft x 50 ft x 16 ft high. A floor plan of the
structure is shown in Figure 1. The client required a facility that could withstand
substantial overpressure loads which could also be constructed in a very short time
frame to minimize downtime of process equipment.
The optimistic goal for building design and completion of construction was
four months. This schedule was a primary factor in the selection of the structural
system and the construction sequence chosen. Ultimately, design and construction
of the control room facility took approximately six months. Initial construction
began approximately six weeks after commencement of design. At this point, all
major elements of the structure had been designed, fabrication of structural steel
had been initiated, and excavation for the foundations began. Design of structural
steel and wall panel connections, reinforcing details, and anchorage for suspended
items continued for the next four weeks as construction continued. Coordination
of the wall panel casting by the contractor was excellent, allowing the panels to be
placed as soon as they had cured sufficiently. The connection detailing for the
panels allowed all panels to be installed in two working days, which was a significant
time savings over that required for cast-in-place construction. The panels were
positioned on the frame and then marked using the shop drilled holes in the columns
as a guide. The panels were laid on the ground and field drilled and then reposi-
tioned and bolted to the columns.
CONTROL ROOM DESIGN

Design Criteria
The new control room was sited adjacent to the damaged facility which it was to
replace. The structure classification assigned to the control room required pro-
tection against a peak side-on pressure of 10 psi and a peak reflected pressure of
25 psi, both with a duration of 20 milliseconds. This is equivalent to a blast pressure
environment due to an air burst of 2,000 lb TNT at a standoff of 100 ft. A secondary
load criteria consisted of a peak side-on pressure of 6.3 psi and a peak reflected
pressure of 15 psi due to a surface burst of 4,000 lb TNT at 200 ft. Each pressure
had a decay time of 30 milliseconds. A description of these loads is shown in Figure
2. The general approach used was to design the structural elements for the primary
load and check the design for the secondary load case. This worked well because,
even though both loads had approximately the same impulse, the secondary load
had a lower peak pressure and produced a lower response. Since the roof was
relatively flat, side-on pressures were used for the roof while reflected pressures
were used for the walls. The blast was assumed to be capable of occurring in any
direction, which meant that the structure could be subjected to quartering loads.
To simplify development of component loads, a normally reflected pressure was
used for all walls with a maximum of two faces of the structure being loaded at any
time.
The response criteria for the structure were less well defined. It was decided
to use TM 5-1300 [1] as a general guide for response criteria during the project
because of its wide acceptance and applicability to the project. The basic
requirement was protection of personnel and equipment from structural collapse
and falling objects. It was also desirable to maintain use of the building after a
design accident with the replacement of wall and roof panels only. This would
essentially require an elastic design since long term use of a permanently deformed
structure would not be permissible. A few trial designs revealed that allowing a
small amount of plastic deformation greatly reduced the section requirements and
afforded a much more efficient design. This response mode was accepted by the
client in conjunction with a frame side-sway limit of H/120. This response limit is
much less than the H/25 recommended in Reference [1]. Reinforced concrete
panels were limited to support rotations of 2 to eliminate the necessity of stirrups
in the cross-sections.
Preliminary Design
The time constraints imposed by the client necessitated a composite design. A
reinforced concrete structure was best suited for the loads involved; however,
installation of a cast-in-place structure required too long to construct. A steel
structure would have been relatively quick to construct, but the peak pressures
involved required substantial wall and roof decking designs. The best solution was
to use a structural steel frame with precast reinforced concrete wall and roof panels.
This scheme allowed utilization of the significant mass of the panels to resist the
blast loads. This scheme also allowed fabrication of the panels while the steel frame
was being installed. A slight variation to this configuration was made during
construction when it was decided to use a poured-in-place concrete roof deck
instead of precast panels. This option was chosen because the concrete could be
cast over a formed steel deck and did not require formwork or shoring. This
structural system was well suited to the site because existing slabs on grade
immediately adjacent to the site were available for casting of the concrete panels.
After deciding on the structural system to be used, a parameter study was
initiated to define the most efficient frame spacing and support system. This study
was somewhat limited due to the tight schedule; however, once the basic procedure
was input into a spreadsheet, additional analyses were performed quickly. Table
1 lists the principal variables investigated in this study. Moment resisting frames
necessary to support the various slab designs were developed, and a total structural
system cost was derived for each framing scheme. These designs were coordinated
with the space requirements of the client, which included a 45 ft x 50 ft open area
for control equipment with minimal columns.
TABLE 1. PARAMETER STUDY VARIABLES
Primary Variable Selection Comments
Support Rotation 2 Stirrups Not Required

2vs5
Structural Action 2-Way Action Significantly Less Reinforcing

1-Way vs 2-Way
Support Fixity 3-Sides Grade Beam Eliminated

3-Sides vs 4-Sides Fixed Supported
Frame Spacing 15 ft Lower Total Cost

15 ft, 20 ft, 25 ft
Secondary Variables: Concrete Thickness, Area of Reinforcing

Selected Section: 10-in. thickness, #5@ 12-in. E.W.E.F.
Concrete Design
The concrete portion of the control room design consisted of wall panels, roof
panels, and an alternate design for poured-in-place roof. A static design strength
of 4,000 psi was chosen for all concrete with Grade 60 reinforcing. In accordance
with the provisions of Reference 1, dynamic increase factors for far range design
were applied to these strengths to account for strain rate effects. Additionally, the
static yield strength of the reinforcing was increased by 10% to account for typical
strength increases above specified minimums.
Dynamic design procedures consisted of determination of equivalent
single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) properties for a typical element and performing
a numerical analysis to determine the maximum response. A spreadsheet was
developed with the equations from Reference 1 to determine the SDOF properties
for each element. Span, support conditions, thickness, and reinforcing were input
and the properties were automatically calculated. The properties were then input
into a SDOF response program (BIGGS [2]) to determine the maximum response,
ductility ratio, and maximum resistance, which were transferred into a spreadsheet
where support rotations and shears were calculated.
Wall and Roof Panel Design The first step in the design of wall and roof panels
was to evaluate the effect of allowable support rotation. Designs for support
rotations of 2 and 5 were developed to determine if the additional resistance
required for a 2 rotation resulted in less cost than a 5 design for which stirrups
would be required. Based on this analysis, the 2 section, without stirrups, provided
the best solution. The second step was to evaluate the effect of support conditions
on panel thickness and reinforcing. One-way and two-way action plates were
analyzed to determine if the additional orthogonal reinforcing in the two-way slabs
was offset by the increased resistance. The results indicated that two-way action
was most economical. Three-sides-supported versus four-sides-supported sections
were evaluated next to determine if significant reductions could be achieved by
providing additional fixity along the bottom. If this side were left free, the foun-
dation design would be simplified as well as the edge connection for the panel.
Based on this evaluation, the three-sides-supported slab was chosen.
These panels were then designed for various frame spans and bay spacings to
determine the lowest total cost framing scheme. A final section thickness and
reinforcing schedule was chosen for each wall and roof panel based on the final
framing scheme selected. The majority of wall panels were 15 ft wide and 16 ft tall
with a thickness of 10 in. and #5 reinforcing bars at 12 in. on center, each way,
each face.
The wall panels were framed with structural steel WT sections around the
perimeter. This configuration permitted attachment of the panels to the columns
using the outstanding flange. In addition, the WT provided a form for casting of
the panels. A detail of this connection is shown in Figure 3. Stiffeners were provided
on 12-in. centers to prevent bending of the flange in the perimeter sections and
exterior columns. The outboard edges of these flanges for adjacent panels were
aligned with a 1-in. gap at the column centerlines, leaving an 8-in. space between
the panel edges at each column. This gap was filled with concrete masonry units
to facilitate placement of insulated exterior wall covering. Within the panels, mild
steel dowels were welded to the perimeter frame and lapped with the flexural
reinforcing to provide anchorage. Shear studs were attached to the web of the WT
sections to provide additional dowel area during rebound of the panels.
Alternate Roof Design A poured-in-place option was requested by the client for
construction of the roof. This design, which was eventually chosen over the precast
design, consisted of a 6-in.-thick slab placed on a formed steel deck which was
supported by structural steel purlins spanning between the main frames. Rein-
forcing consisted of #5 bars at 12 in. on center, top and bottom, each way. Headed
studs were welded to the main members of the structural frame to anchor the roof
slab to the frame during rebound.
Structural Steel Design
Materials A-36 material was used for all structural framing. A static yield of 36
ksi and an ultimate strength of 58 ksi were multiplied by appropriate dynamic
increase factors to account for increased resistance to suddenly applied loads. All
bolts were specified as A-490 in accordance with the recommendations of Refer-
ence 1.
Frame Design The selected framing scheme, based on the results of the parameter
study, consisted of two-bay interior frames and three-bay end frames, all on 15-ft
spacings. The first interior frame from each end was required to resist biaxial
bending due to the moment resisting frame in the orthogonal direction.
Moment resisting frames were analyzed using a multi-degree-of-freedom,
two-dimensional frame program (STABLE [3]) capable of predicting nonlinear
response to transient loads. The program is a direct integration solution scheme
capable of determining plastic hinge formation, buckling and yielding response,
axial and flexural interaction, and secondary bending effects. The results include
printed and plotted data on nodal motions, member end forces, support reactions,
and member end rotations at each time step. A sample of the plotted output is
shown in Figure 4. These data were used to determine worst case combined stresses,
which were compared with allowable member capacities and response to verify
adequacy of the design.
The original response criteria for the framing required the structure to remain
elastic to allow total reusability of the frame given a design basis accident. Pre-
liminary designs indicated that very large member sizes would be required due to
the large tributary areas and spans. Since elastic response does not take much
advantage of the mass of the system in limiting displacements, a design approach
was adopted which permitted limited plastic response. This design produced
member depths which were approximately one half of those required in the elastic
design. It was decided to use this limited inelastic design but restrict allowable
deflections to one half of the deflection recommended by Reference 1. For this
frame, the allowable side-sway displacement was 1.6 in., corresponding to a
deflection ratio of L/120.
Several bay spacings and spans were evaluated to determine the most eco-
nomical scheme which would meet the criteria and provide the greatest flexibility
for the operators. These schemes were evaluated based on the structural framing
required as well as the roof and wall panels needed. The final scheme selected was
a combination of two preliminary plans. End bays consisted of 15- and 20-ft spans
and a 15-ft spacing. Interior bays were 25-ft spans and 15-ft spacings. Structural
tubes were chosen for interior columns because they provided enhanced lateral
stability and could be left exposed. This reduced the floor space normally needed
for wide flange sections which require a wall covering.
The original framing concept consisted of moment resisting frames for interior
spans in the short direction of the building. Trusses were used at each end of the
building to transfer the lateral load from the end wall into the foundation through
interior shear walls. These interior trusses were subsequently determined to be
unacceptable for architectural reasons. The framing scheme was revised to
incorporate trusses in the roof to transfer the lateral load from the end walls into
a truss on the long walls and then into the foundation. Since the wall trusses then
collected adjacent wall and roof loads, the long wall truss loading was too great to
permit reasonable member sizes, so the framing scheme was revised again to utilize
interior moment resisting frames normal to the main framing at each end of the
building. This eliminated transferring most of the end wall loads to the exterior
wall, but it produced biaxial bending at the intersections of the main frames. This
greatly reduced the uniaxial bending capacity of the common columns and proved
to be difficult to analyze because the loads from each frame occurred independently.
To accommodate the biaxial action, the combined forces occurring at any point in
time were extracted from the results of the individual analyses to verify that
interaction ratios did not exceed unity. A structural tube proved to be a good
choice for these columns due to its symmetrical bending capacity and good stability.
Component Design All component designs, such as roof purlins and panel framing,
were done by manually calculating structural properties and using the BIGGS
program to determine maximum response. This proved to be the most efficient
method since derivation of one-way properties was fairly simple. Shear reactions
were calculated based on the maximum resistance attained by each element. Bolts,
welds, and connection plates were sized based on their dynamic capacities without
regard to energy absorption occurring in the joint.
Base Plate Design Column base plates were designed using the maximum time
dependent loads from the frame analysis program. The magnitude of the loads
and tributary areas for many of the columns resulted in significant peak loads at
the base. This required substantial base plates to resist the loads and to develop
the flexural and axial capacities of the columns. Base plate thicknesses ranged up
to 1-1/2 in. with 3/4 in. x 6 in. stiffeners. Anchor bolts were ASTM 354 Gr. BD
material, 1-1/2 in. diameter x 52 in. long with double nutted anchorage plates
embedded in concrete piers.
Base plates at exterior columns located at the first interior frame line were
subjected to loads from the frame and truss systems. A special T-shaped base plate
was used in these locations to transfer the reactions directly into the foundation.
This eliminated a combined load occurring in the column itself, thereby reducing
the section requirements for the column.
Foundations Reinforced drilled piers were provided under each column. The
piers were subjected to extremely high compression and tension loads from the
columns. These peak loads were very short in duration and oscillated over many
cycles during frame response. Design of these piers for the absolute maximum
axial and moment reactions was not feasible based on individual pier response,
primarily because the only reliable resistance to uplift was the dead weight of the
foundation. To effectively resist the loads, it was necessary to couple the inertial
resistance of the piers and grade beams with the structural resistance. A dynamic
analysis was performed for all columns to find the maximum grade beam section
required. This analysis essentially balanced the worst case net uplift impulse against
the mass force of the concrete piers, the soil column above the under-ream, and
tributary portions of the grade beams. The maximum vertical displacement cal-
culated in this analysis was approximately 1 in., indicating that minimal damage to
the foundation should occur, making its reuse possible with limited structural
repair. The reinforcing steel in the grade beams was designed for the net tensile
resistance required, assuming the beams responded as cantilevers. To simplify and
speed construction, the most critical design was used for all grade beams in the
foundation.
Additional Designs Control facilities typically contain a large amount of suspended

electrical and mechanical equipment. The magnitude of the structural response
creates a potential for these items to become disengaged from their supports and
fall on personnel. To eliminate this hazard, all pieces of equipment which could
produce hazardous missiles were analyzed to determine the maximum support
reaction. This was done by determining the maximum deceleration occurring at
peak structural response and calculating the resulting force. Positive attachment
clamps were used to insure that lateral motion would not move the clamp off the
beam flange as shown in Figure 5. Structural angles were bolted to layin fluorescent
fixtures to prevent tear-out of the thin gauge housing. These angles were suspended
by threaded rod from the roof purlins. Exhaust fans were supported in a similar
manner. Ductwork near diffuser grilles and distribution boxes was supported with
galvanized steel straps secured to the purlins and frame members.
The most significant potential hazards from suspended equipment were large
CRT displays in the equipment monitoring room. These units weighed approxi-
mately 100 lb and were installed in a hanger assembly which weighed 135 lb. This
assembly was supported by a yoke and cradle for an additional weight of 75 lb. The
total supported weight of 310 lb was equally divided among four hangers attached
to the joists supporting the roof deck. These hangers were modified seismic iso-
lation devices with a very low spring rate to limit the transmission of load into the
support system. The displacement time history at the center of the long span in
the main frame was taken from the dynamic analysis and converted into an applied
load for the hanger system based on the spring constant of the isolator. The pre-
loaded position of the hanger was used as the initial condition for a SDOF response
calculation. The maximum acceleration and corresponding force were calculated
from the SDOF analysis to verify the adequacy of the spring system, hanger
assembly, and roof joists. Displacement for the spring system and the frame system
were superimposed on a graph to determine the maximum relative displacement
between the two. The total motion of the hanger assembly was approximately 2
in., with a peak difference in displacements between the two systems of approxi-
mately 1 inch.
A facility of this type inherently requires a great deal of cabling and piping to
enter the structure. From a blast protection standpoint, the best mode of entry
would be through the floor slab; however, due to the changing nature of operations,
future addition of cabling must be provided. This is most easily accomplished
through wall penetrations. This method was chosen by the client for this facility
to allow maximum flexibility. To provide multiple penetrations, a specially designed
enclosure was chosen consisting of a cast frame and compressible inserts. The
frame was welded to a channel subframe embedded in the precast wall panels,
which extended to the adjacent columns and perimeter beam. Inserts were provided
to match the specific pipe sizes passing through the enclosure.
To increase personnel protection in the facility, blast doors were provided at
each entrance. These were located on the sides of the building with the lowest
potential hazard. A double door was provided in one location to allow installation
of equipment. A structural steel subframe was embedded into the wall panels to
provide support for the door and frame.
SUMMARY
The design of this facility met the requirements of the client in terms of personnel
protection and construction schedule. It demonstrated that construction of a
facility providing a high degree of protection to personnel under significant blast
loads can be achieved quickly and economically. It reaffirmed that precast/tilt-up
methods of construction are well suited to short schedules and are capable of
resisting hazardous overpressures. This method permitted casting of the wall
panels during installation of the foundation and structural steel frame. The panels
were able to be installed as soon as the frame was completed, thus shortening the
normal construction period significantly. Special attention to connection details
to ensure that the panels would be properly aligned when installed was required.
A benefit of this type of construction is the option to replace damaged wall panels
without requiring frame removal.
This design pointed up the need for MDOF, dynamic analysis software for
designs involving frame structures. Simplified analyses do not adequately define
time dependent support reactions and member forces. They can lead to overly
conservative designs since there is no distinction between the time of occurrence
of axial, shear, and moment end forces. The step from SDOF to MDOF analysis
is normally a significant one because instead of a single value for response or axial,
shear, and moment end forces for each member, there are multiple combinations
occurring over time which may represent the worst stress condition. These must
be systematically analyzed to determine the adequacy of the structure.
Analysis and design of the frame structure emphasized the potential increase
in structural capacity when inelastic response is permitted. The original goal of
elastic response led to large member sizes because, as the resistance and stiffness
of the members were increased, the allowable elastic deflections decreased, thus
keeping the ductility ratio up. To allow the mass of the structure to fully participate,
it was necessary to utilize the energy absorbing capability of the frame in plastic
response. Even though this plastic action was permitted, the ultimate response
was still relatively small and a high degree of protection was provided.
Finally, design of equipment supports proved to be a vitally important, non-
trivial part of the facility design. If equipment anchorage is inadequate, even a
well designed structural system may not fully protect personnel and equipment.
The anchorages should be capable of supporting the heaviest anticipated loads for
the worst case structural response, with a reasonable factor of safety. The design
for these items should be performed by the design engineer and not left to the
vendor to develop. Falling objects typically cause more injuries than structural
collapse simply because the structural sections have been analyzed while the
anchorage details have gone unnoticed.
REFERENCES
1. "Structures to Resist the Effects of Accidental Explosions," Army TM
5-1300/Navy NAVFAC P-397/Air Force AFR 88-22, Departments of the
Army, the Navy, and the Air Force, November 1990.
2. Biggs, John M., Introduction to Structural Dynamics, McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company, New York, 1964.
3. Campbell, Scott D., and Bryant, Larry M., "Structure Analysis for Blast
Loading Effects. STABLE Computer Program, Version 2.0 User's Manual,"
JAYCOR Report No. J650-89-008/1506, for US Army Engineer District,
Omaha, December 1989.
Wall Truss, Typ. Blast Door Main Frames, Typ.
ti-
Blast Door'
75'
Figure 1. Control Room Floor Plan

2

If
25
2.
Q.
20 20
Time(ms) Time(ms)
Reflected Side-on
Primary Load Case
15 | 6.3
(0
30 30
Time (ms) Time(ms)
Reflected I Side-on I
Secondary Load Case
Figure 2. Design Blast Loads
Main Frame Column
Bolted Connection Stiffener plate

Shop Drilled Column 1
Field Drilled WT FlangeJ
/ Mild Steel Dowels
10"
y \
1"
Shear Studs 8"" - WT Perimeter Frame
Figure 3. Wall Panel-Column Connection

FINAL FRAME, LINE 3 P-Delta On

Node : 3 DOF : X
1.9
D
I /
f V
1.
1
3
C
\
o ,9
it
e
n
/
1
n
-.6
0 90 100 190 200 290 500 590
Tim (nec)
Figure 4. Sample STABLE Output
Structural Beam
Clamp
Structural Channel
Figure 5. Beam Clamp/Hanger Assembly

Offshore Role for Lightweight Aluminium
Armour
M.J. Bayley
Alcan Offshore, Chalfont Park, Gerrards Cross,
Bucks, SL9 OQB, U.K.
ABSTRACT
Lightweight aluminium alloy armour is widely proven in defence

applications. In the oil and gas industry it may offer a solution
to some offshore safety problems in the face of tightening
standards and the need to control topside weight. The paper
explores the potential for aluminium armour in offshore
structures.
INTRODUCTION
The need to minimise weight in offshore topside structures and

equipment has long been recognised; every extra tonne of
equipment or facilities at platform level and above demands more
strength, weight and cost in associated support structure, and
even more in the jacket itself. With the trend towards
lightweight lift installed jackets for the development of
marginal fields, the control of topside weight is of particular
importance.
The pressure to manage weight of existing facilities has

been intensified by a number of factors: the up-grading of
equipment and systems to improve yields, especially from older,
part-worked fields; the increased use of sophisticated and power-
hungry techniques like assisted recovery and horizontal drilling;
higher expectations in terms of living conditions for operating
staff; and above all, perhaps, an intensified preoccupation with
safety standards, brought into focus by the Piper Alpha disaster
and the Cullen Report.
New and proposed legislation, as well as the operators' own

intensive studies on risk analysis and management in the
preparation of the 'Safety Case1, has led to a whole series of
new demands on space and load capacity. These include enhanced
fire detection and control systems, faster, more comprehensive
and better fire-proofed evacuation equipment, rearrangement of
services and accommodation layouts to isolate vulnerable systems
and to distance people from sources of danger as far as possible.
Perhaps the most demanding of the safety related

developments in terms of weight management is the need, now
urgently recognised, to contain the effects of explosive
combustion. This may be by the provision of blast, fire, dropped
object and fragmentation protection, either by complete fire and
blast walls separating hazardous process areas, locally around
potential sources or by armouring vulnerable and vital services,
or combinations of these.
On new construction, these matters can be taken into account

at the design stage, but the need to contain costs and weight
remains a strong incentive to make use of lightweight
construction. In the case of updating the many existing platforms
with years of life left in them, the problem is compounded not
only by the original design load limits, but also by the
inevitable deterioration with age and in some cases by the re-
examination of design criteria in the light of current knowledge.
A further difficulty is that on existing platforms it is usually
impracticable to re-site major modules to achieve isolation from
danger, so that the need to provide containment may be greater.
ACCEPTANCE OF ALUMINIUM
In spite of a long-standing conservatism in an industry brought

up on steel, the advantages of aluminium in offshore structures
are now gaining wider recognition, and there is sufficient
experience in its use in the offshore environment for design
guidelines to have been produced, Alcan Offshore and Wimpey
Offshore [1]. Used increasingly for walkways, gantries,
helidecks, pipework, cableways, air-conditioning and ventilating
equipment, fire rated claddings and latterly complete
accommodation modules for personnel and equipment, it
consistently shows a weight saving compared with steel.
The range in weight saving achieved depends on the

structural requirements and the complexity of the design. Whilst
the strengths of structural aluminium alloys are moderately low
compared with high strength steel, the specific stiffness is
approximately the same as steel, and the specific strength about
double that of steel. From the point of view of the static load
bearing capacity significant weight savings are achieved of
between 30% and 70%.
The saving in construction costs due to lighter weight, ease

of forming, machining and welding, and the unique ability in
aluminium to use economical but complex extrusions closely
matched to the duty, are usually enough in themselves to make up
for the difference in the cost per tonne compared with steel. For
example in the construction of the 220 man all aluminium
accommodation module for the Saga Petroleum Snorre TLP, savings
of between 30% to 40% of man hours were achieved over
conventional steel constructional methods by the effective use of
aluminium. The ability to handle, ship and lift into place very
much larger single assemblies often results in a net saving in
capital cost. This is of even more significance in retrofit
applications where lightweight aluminium cassette systems, of
similar form to those now already employed in fire resistant
claddings in new construction, could provide easily handleable
solutions.
Further significant economies follow from the proven ability

of marine alloys to perform satisfactorily entirely without
protective coatings or regular maintenance. Aluminium has in fact
demonstrated its corrosion resistance and durability in the
marine environment through many decades of application in all
forms of marine transport, maritime and naval applications. The
modern wave piercing catamaran passenger and car ferries are
modern major structural applications of aluminium in the marine
field.
EXPLOSION PROTECTION
One aspect of safety-related design which has received particular

attention since Piper Alpha is the containment of violent events
including flash, fire and explosion. The potential role of
aluminium alloys in this field was the subject of a paper, eg.
Chunsheng Hu et al [2] presented at a recent Offshore Technology
Conference (OTC).
When the question of armour against both blast and

fragmentation effects arises, aluminium alloys would not perhaps
spring to mind as a first choice. It is probably not widely
appreciated that aluminium armour has been demonstrated to
provide better protection on a weight per unit area basis than
armour steel, and has been in wide and successful military
service in this role all over the world for the last 30 years.
The first substantial military use was in the US Mil series

of tracked light armoured vehicles in the 50's, developed
principally to meet the growing requirement for air transportable
fighting vehicles. The hull was built of a non-heat treatable
5000 series, Al-Mg alloy, which exhibited a substantial weight
saving over steel for equivalent resistance to penetration by
small calibre projectiles. Of the non-heat treatable 5000 series
alloys first used the alloy 5083 was chosen as being the
aluminium manganese alloy with a high potential hardening
capability while retaining good ductility, corrosion resistance
and excellent weldability. As strength is achieved by cold work
hardening, any areas of the material raised to strain relieving
temperatures, as in the heat affected zone of welds, will return
to the strength level of an annealed material.
Thousands of variants of these vehicles were built and have

seen service in many armies in every part of the world. The
material was also used in heavier armoured vehicles, including
self-propelled 105 mm howitzers and a 155 mm gun which served
with the British Army even up to the recent Gulf conflict.
The American Sheridan tank was the first vehicle to use a

heat treatable alloy. This offered improved ballistic
performance, but welding reduced the performance in the heat
affected zone and the alloy was found in service to be
susceptible to stress corrosion.
IMPROVED BRITISH ARMOUR
These second generation aluminium armour alloys, which were heat

treatable, offered both improved ballistic performance and
overcame the strength reduction in the heat affected zone that
occurred in the work hardened non-heat treatable alloys. The high
strength weldable heat treated alloys were found in service to be
more susceptible to stress corrosion cracking and further
developments of the alloy and manufacturing process, carried out
jointly by British Alcan and the MOD resulted in a much more
corrosion resistant alloy. A lower strength, more ductile and
more stress corrosion resistant variant of the alloy has also
been developed. These became the standard high strength armour
alloy used in armoured vehicles such as the Scimitar, Sultan, Fox
and Scorpion. In every case there is substantial saving in weight
over steel armour of equivalent performance. The 7000 series
aluminium-zinc-magnesium alloys are heat treatable and naturally
age hardening. This means that areas of the structure raised
through the welding process to temperatures high enough to
redissolve the precipitates in the prior artificial ageing
process will, by natural ageing process, re-precipitate and allow
strength recovery in the welded joint.
Military armour in general has to meet threats from high

velocity, armour piercing projectiles of various calibers; blast
effects; and fragmentation from exploding shells, bombs and
grenades.
The assessment of armour performance is complex, and a huge

amount of test range work has been done. This has demonstrated
that in almost all instances the penetration resistance of 7017
alloy is better than that of the equivalent weight of steel
armour. The direct weight saving for equivalent performance
against almost all threats varies between about 16% and over 20%.
In practice, the real saving is considerably greater because

the extra thickness of aluminium, about three times, weight for
weight, invariably provides so much stiffness that there is no
need for internal structure, bulkheads, sub frames or local
reinforcement and equipment such as power units, transmissions
and suspension can be directly attached.
Typical mechanical properties of aluminium armour are given

in Table 1. Generally speaking, the higher the strength of the
material the higher will be the resistance to high energy
penetration. However, because of the higher strength and the
higher impact energies likely with these materials, there is a
greater tendency to spall formation at the remote face of the
armour. This can be contained in various ways, principally by
either spacing the armour elements, eg. 15mm + space + 15mm
rather than on 30mm plate, or by adding a spall catching fibre
reinforced plastic liner eg. Kevlar, S-2 Glass, Spectra to the
remote face.
ARMOUR OFFSHORE
The performance of aluminium armour against the irregular shaped,

lower velocity fragmentation more likely to be encountered in an
offshore explosion when local containment of potential explosion
sources, or protection of critical components is required is at
least equally good as steel. The plastic behaviour of aluminium
at yield has an important energy absorbing effect in resisting
penetration. Although flying debris is not as severe a threat as
fragmenting munitions, the ballistic data, performance trends,
and material behaviour generated for armour applications could be
useful in designing a debris shield.
The thickness of material required will be dependent on the

scale of the threat; including fragment material, size, mass and
velocity; burst distance to determine fragment drag and blast
wave effects. It is difficult to be precise in a field where
practical experience is virtually non-existent, so inevitably
testing to ballistically evaluate potential alloys and material
systems will be necessary to determine the performance. But by
extrapolation from existing available ballistic data and by using
empirical models, plus taking the elimination of sub-structure
that may arise out of the greatly increased stiffness of the
thicker aluminium plate into account, the net weight saving over
steel for such structures might well be in the order of 20% to
30%.
Figure 1 and 2 indicate the performance of the non-heat

treatable alloy 5083-H131 and the heat treatable alloy 7017-T651
respectively against fragment simulating projectiles which are
flat-nose cylindrical hard steel slugs having a diameter of 20mm
and weight of approximately 0.055kg. The 'V50 velocity1 is the
velocity of the projectile at impact which gives a 50% chance of
completely penetrating the plate.
Against blast, too, the OTC paper eg. Chunsheng Hu et al [2]

suggests that the ductility of aluminium, 8% to 16% dependant on
alloy, by absorbing large amounts of energy through deformation,
lends the material well to the construction of lightweight blast
walls. Further, the lower mass compared with steel produces a
lower natural period which has the effect of distancing the
resonance period from the load duration and so reducing dynamic
response.
Further protection against explosion over-pressure is

commonly provided by the provision of blast relief panels.
Aluminium, with its low inertia, is ideal in this application,
and a Norwegian company has developed a lightweight thin sheet
design which opens within about 40 milliseconds in response to an
over-pressure of 50 millibar which is significantly faster than
normally achieved with stainless steel systems.
Local containment for potential explosion sources, such as

blow-out preventers, high pressure hydraulic systems and certain
electrical installations, would in most cases be a relatively
simple matter of erecting an enclosure of the smallest
practicable dimensions around the source, with suitable
arrangements for entry and egress wherever required. The
thickness of material, dependent on the scale of the threat,
including over-pressures, fragment size and velocity, would
generally mean that little or no support structure would be
needed. Components may be bolted together and or to the
supporting structure, using established methods of protection
between dissimilar metals where appropriate. Alternatively, since
metal inert gas (MIG) welding procedures for the armour material
are widely understood and practised in the defence industry, and
suitable equipment is available for both construction and repair,
welded construction methods and attachment through bi-metallic
transition joints welded direct to steel is a possibility.
The applications where the combination of fire, blast and

projectile protection is required may significantly influence
weight savings and the need for a structural core sufficient to
give projectile and blast resistance may not be totally
compatible with the insulation required for the thermal
protection of the system in the event of fire. The protection
however of aluminium components against fire and the use of fire
cladding systems incorporating lightweight aluminium skins is an
establish technology, see Bayley [3], but the work programme
covered in Chunsheng Hu et al [2] is expected to address the area
of the combination of fire and blast protection systems.
For vulnerable and vital equipment such as fire detection

and control systems, communications and evacuation equipment and
vital control centres, it might in some cases be appropriate to
provide protection at what might be termed the 'receiving end1.
The same general principles would apply, except that here lower
over-pressures and fragment velocities are likely to be
encountered than around the explosion source.
Although this is a relatively new field, the use of

aluminium for general construction offshore is rapidly becoming
accepted as routine. There is every reason to expect that it will
have as much to offer in these new safety related applications,
in terms of weight and cost saving and elimination of

maintenance, as it already does in an ever widening range of less
dramatic offshore applications.
REFERENCES
[1] Alcan Offshore and Wimpey Offshore. Design Guide on the

use of Aluminium in Offshore Structures. Oilfield
Publications Limited, Ledbury, 1990
[2] Chunsheng Hu, B Diab, J R Williams, and S Walker, Wimpey

Offshore, The Use of Lightweight Materials in Blast and
Fire Protection Systems, Offshore Technology Conference,
Houston, May 6-9 1991.
[3] M J Bayley, The fire protection of aluminium in offshore

structures. Paper submitted for the International
Conference on Materials and design against Fire, IMechE,
London, 27-29 October 1992.
t
Table 1 Typical mechanical properties of Aluminium Armour
o
3
Alloy 0.2% proof Tensile Elongation

and stress strength
C/3
Temper N/mm2 N/mm2 %
O
o
7017-T651 425 485 10 a-
7039-T651 400 460 11
7018-T651 300 360 12
7020-T651 360 400 12
5083-H115 290 360 12

(x 100)
31
28
1o
o
/
25
4J
22 /
r
0)
19 /
16
13
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Plate Thickness - Inches
Figure 1 The performance of non-heat treatable aluminium

armour alloy 5083-H131 against fragment simulating
projectiles
(x 100)
29
/
28
23
4J
20 /
w
O
O
<D
17 /
O
(1)
O
5-1
P /
/
14
11
0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7
Plate Thickness - Inches
Figure 2 The performance of heat treatable aluminium armour

alloy 7017-T651 against fragment simulating
projectiles
Computation of the Warhead Blast Effect
on a Structure: Experimental Validation
Ph. Cabridenc (*), P. Garnero (**)
(*) Warhead Group, Aerospatiale, 92322
Chatillon, France
(**) Computation Department, Aerospatiale,
92322 Chatillon, France
ABSTRACT
aerospatiale has developed and validated a computation tool to determine the

effect of blast generated by the explosion of a warhead on simple-shaped
structures (flat plates, cylinders, etc.) representative of anti-ship, anti-aircraft
and anti-radar missile targets.
The developed tool is based on the combination of the FLU2D aerodynamic

code which computes blast wave propagation in the air and around the target
with the EFHYD hydrodynamic code which computes target deformations.
The purpose of this paper is to describe at first the computation tool, followed
by an illustration with results of simulated explosions occurring in the vicinity
of square-based cylinders. The results of the simulations are compared with
experimental data such as the field of pressure on the structure and the
residual geometry of the structure following the blast wave passage.
INTRODUCTION
aerospatiale has developed a computation tool to study the blast effect on

simple-shaped structures representative of anti-ship, anti-aircraft and anti-
radar missile targets.
At the same time, the French firm Thomson Brandt Armements (TBA) has
conducted a program to test the warhead explosion in the vicinity of targets
such as flat plates, circular-based and square-based cylinders.
The paper begins with a description of the computation method used,

followed by a presentation of the results of simulated explosions in the
vicinity of square-based cylinders, compared with the data measured during
the TBA tests.
I BLAST EFFECT ON A STRUCTURE
The explosion of a blast effect warhead results in a significant rise in

temperature and pressure at the explosion point. This fast variation of
pressure produces, in the surrounding air, a wave characterized by a
discontinuity between the wave front upstream pressure (atmospheric
pressure) and the wave front downstream pressure (shock pressure).
Under the effect of this high pressure condition, the gas drives back the
atmosphere while setting in motion to expand. When the pressure at the
center of the zone is disturbed by the explosion reaches the atmospheric
pressure level, the gas speed is still very high, so that this moment is
followed by an additional expansion at the expense of the atmosphere which
produces a high vacuum condition at the explosion point. Once the explosion
gas have occupied their maximum volume, there is a significant reverse
motion of the gas, causing the vacuum to move from the center to the
periphery of the disturbed zone.Then a high air draft occurs towards the
center of the explosion. The wave propagation speed, at first equal to the
detonation speed, decreases constantly. The combined phenomena of the
decrease in the wave front pressure, of the air draft towards the center of the
explosion and of the decrease in the wave propagation speed are called "blast
effects" (Fig. 1) [1].
The interaction of the blast wave with a structure produces, on the latter, a
pressure force which can result in deformation of the structure. The blast
wave propagation around the structure results in the nearly-instantaneous
appearance of a reflected overpressure over the entire target, followed by a
decrease towards zero of the overpressure as the blast wave moves away. The
extent of the deformations on the structure depends on the pressure force
applied and on the capability of the structure to absorb the force.
The blast propagation around the structure is very fast with respect to the
response time of the studied structures. It is assumed that [1]:
- all the structure points are set in motion at the same moment,
- the wave/structure interaction phase is completed when the structure
begins to move.
In other words, the energy which is going to set the structure in motion is the
energy carried by the blast wave throughout the interaction phase, i.e. the
energy carried by the wave, as long as there is an overpressure field on the
structure. The effect of the blast wave is then characterized by the field of
reflected pulses on the structure. The reflected pulse is the integral of the
reflected overpressure throughout the duration of overpressure application to
the structure. Remember that the pulse is consistent with a momentum per
unit area.
Following the blast wave passage, each point in the structure is therefore
considered to have an initial momentum equal to the pulse reflected at such
point. Thus it is possible to compute the deformations on the structure, on the
basis of the initial conditions (momentum of various points in the structure),
the boundary conditions of the problem (embedding of the structure in its
support), and the mechanical behaviour of the structure.
II DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPUTATION METHOD
The developed tool is based on the combination of the FLU2D aerodynamic

code with the EFHYD hydrodynamic code. The aerodynamic code computes
the blast wave propagation in the air and its interaction with the target. The
hydrodynamic code computes, using data supplied by the FLU2D code, the
deformations occurring on the target.
II. 1 FLU2Dcode
The FLU2D two-dimensional code has been developed by the french research
center ONERA and adapted by aerospatiale to the blast effect problem. This
code solves the unsteady EULER equations using an explicit upwind scheme
with second-order accuracy in space and time for a perfect gas, with a finite
volume approach.
The specific feature of the present study is the use of time-varying boundary
conditions for the unsteady computation and the solution to problems raised
by the wave reflection on the computation range boundaries [2]. The
phenomenon is not numerically generated at the point of explosion, but on a
generating sphere of Ro radius (Fig. 2) where the time-varying boundary
conditions are defined. The boundary conditions come from an analytical
computation based on experimental data [3] and on a study performed by
BACH and LEE [4].
II.2 EFHYD code

EFHYD is a Lagrangian three-dimensional hydrodynamic computation code
with explicit finite elements [5]. On the basis of the initial and boundary
conditions of the problem, this code solves the equation system composed of
the laws relating to mass conservation, momentum conservation and energy
conservation as well as of a state equation and a material behaviour law.
The code is used in the present study to compute target deformations on the
basis of pulses supplied by the FLU2D code.
113 Principle of FLU2D/EFHYD combination

The purpose of this combination is to determine, by interpolation, the pulses
reflected at various nodes of the EFHYD mesh, generally different from the
FLU2D mesh. And supposing that, after the blast wave passage, each point in
the structure has a momentum equal to the pulse reflected at such point (see
paragraph I), the combination program computes the speed of each of the
nodes in the EFHYD mesh. The speed vector of the structure is assumed to
be normal to the surface of the structure at the considered node. This speed
field on the structure defines the initial condition for the EFHYD simulation.
Ill COMPUTATION OF EXPLOSIONS IN THE VICINITY OF SQUARE-

BASED CYLINDERS
III. 1 Studied configurations

The explosions of bare and spherical charges near two square-based cylinders
were simulated.
Cylinder A: height: 1 m
base: 100 mm x 100 mm
Cylinder B: height: 1 m
base: 180 mm x 180 mm
The cylinder bases are supposed to be perfectly embedded and the charge is
placed in a plane perpendicular to the cylinder axis and passing through its
center (Fig. 3). For each cylinder, three explosion distances were examined
(1.6 m; 1.95 m; 2.3 m). The performed simulations correspond to the TBA
test configurations (see introduction).
III.2 FLU2D numerical simulations
III.2.1 Hypotheses The computation of a spherical explosion near a cylinder

is typically three-dimensional. However, in order to save set-up and
computation time, while waiting for optimization of the three-dimensional
version of the FLU2D code, we calculated the spherical explosion near the
cylinder central section. To do so, we performed axisymmetric computations
by assimilating the square section of a torus to the cylinder central section.
The torus was formed by the cylinder rotation around the axis crossing the
explosion point and perpendicular to the explosion point-to-section straight
line. This allows to process, without simplification, the spherical explosion by
locally assimilating the cylinder to the torus.
Then, in order to take into account the three-dimensional effect on the other
sections of the cylinder, we applied a correction based on the computation
results produced by the explosion of the same charge in the vicinity of a flat
plate placed on the cylinder front face. The distribution of physical values on
the plate was used as the distribution of physical values on the cylinder front
face.
Using the physical values on the central section and on the front face of the
cylinder, it is possible to extrapolate for the entire cylinder through
proportionality (Fig. 4).
Mesh: The mesh for axisymetric computation of the explosion near a flat
plate is illustrated in Fig. 5. The problem being symmetrical, only a quarter
of the space is meshed. Similarly, to calculate the flow around the central
section of the cylinder, given the symmetry of the problem, we performed
calculations on a half-square. The mesh used for calculation around the 180
mm sided cylinder and for a target/charge distance of 1.95 m is shown in
Fig. 6. The front and rear half-faces are divided into ten meshes and the
lateral face is divided into 20 meshes, i.e. one node every 5 mm over the
entire section of the cylinder.
Boundary conditions: Unsteady boundary conditions for input are imposed on

the generating sphere. Sliding conditions (EULER code) are imposed on the
plate and on the cylinder. A symmetry axis condition is imposed on the axis
of the square section torus (see Fig. 6). A symmetry condition is imposed on
the symmetry plane of the torus (see Fig. 6). Non-reflection conditions are
required elsewhere to allow the waves to go beyond the computation range.
III.2.2 Results and comparisons between computations and tests The FLU2D
computations were performed for all configurations illustrated in paragraph
III.l.
The vectored axisymmetrical computation of the explosion within 1.95 m of

the 180 mm square-based cylinder required about 20 minutes of CPU time on
a CONVEX C220 machine.
Fig. 7 shows the time controlled evolution of the waves around the central
section of the 180 mm sided cylinder for a charge/target distance of 1.95 m.
The FLU2D computation results are presented in the form of isobar curves.
The front face of the square (central section of the cylinder) behaves as a flat
plate with creation of a spherical reflected wave. The wave diffracts on the
first edge of the square, with "separation" of the blast wave from the
obstacle, producing lower overpressures behind the edge (formation of
vortex). Following the passage of the edge, the wave gradually reintegrates
the square. A new diffraction occurs on the second egde with once again
skirting of the edge (formation of vortex), with gradual reintegration of the
diffracted wave in the square. Finally, the diffracted waves on each side of
the obstacle form a reflected shock at the far rear area of the obstacle by
interaction of both waves on the symmetry plane of the cylinder. Fig. 8,
taken from the literature, shows a physical analysis of a shock wave moving
around a parallelepiped; this enables us to notice (Fig. 7) that the FLU2D
code provides results which are, in all aspects, similar to the experiment.
Particularly the reflected waves, vortex and interaction of incident waves at
the rear of the cylinder are properly calculated by the code.
Fig. 9 shows the FLU2D results concerning the distribution of the maximum
overpressure on the square cylinder of 180 mm per side for a charge/target
distance of 1.95 m. X represents the position on the front and rear faces (X =
0 in the symmetry plane) whereas Y represents the position on the lateral face
(Y = 0 at center of explosion). Fig. 10 shows the distribution of the
computed pulse (integral of time controlled pressure) on the same cylinder for
the same charge/target distance as a function of the position X and Y. The
remarks made for Fig. 7 can be verified. The results show a decrease in the
pulse on the front face, skirting of edge between front face and lateral face,
skirting of edge between lateral face and rear face and repressing at the rear
of the target due to interaction of the two incident half-waves which skirt the
cylinder.
Fig. 11 shows the position on this cylinder of the pressure sensors used for
the TBA tests. Fig. 12 shows a comparison between computations and tests
with regard to the pulse on the front, lateral and rear faces of the cylinder.
The results of the FLU2D computations are similar to the test results. Fig. 13
shows the influence of the explosion distance on the computed and measured
pulses. Fig. 14 shows the influence of the target size on the computed and
measured pulses.
III.3 EFHYD numerical simulations
III. 3.1 Hypotheses
Mesh: The specific position of the explosion point with respect to the cylinder
(Fig. 3) creates a symmetry of the observed phenomena allowing to mesh
one-quarter of the structure only. Fig. 15 shows the mesh of the 180 mm
sided cylinder. The front and rear half-faces are divided into four meshes
while the side face is divided into eight meshes, i.e. one node every 22.5 mm
over the entire cylinder section. The generating lines of the cylinder are
divided into 25 meshes, i.e. one node every 20 mm.
Boundary conditions: A perfect embedding condition is imposed on the

cylinder bases. A symmetry plane condition is required on the two symmetry
planes of the cylinder.
Initial conditions: The EFHYD mesh nodes have, at t = 0, a non-nil speed

(see paragraph II.3, Principle of FLU2D/EFHYD combination).
III.3.2 Results and comparisons between computations and tests The EFHYD
numerical simulation is first used to study the structure response to the stress.
The movement of each of the mesh nodes passes through a maximum value
after a time period of about 1 millisecond, then oscillates around a non-nil
value, representing the residual movement of the point after passage of the
blast wave.
The structure response to the stress is simulated for a duration allowing to

estimate the residual geometry of the structure after passage of the blast
wave. In view of the mechanical characteristics of the targets and the effort
applied, the phenomenon was simulated for about 10 milliseconds. A
computation requires about 30 minutes of CPU time on a CDC Cyber 995
machine.
Fig. 16 shows, at the end of the simulation, the deformations on the 180 mm
sided cylinder placed within 1.95 m of the charge. We notice that the most
deformed face of the cylinder is the front face with practically no deformation
on the rear face (with regard to circular-based cylinders, the computations
and tests show that the rear face is slightly pushed in after passage of the blast
wave).
Fig. 17 provides a comparison between computations and tests relating to the

deformations of the front generating line of the 180 mm sided cylinder for an
explosion distance of 1.95 m. The computations and tests show that the
generating line located at the center of the front face of the cylinder takes the
shape of a "chain" after passage of the blast wave (Fig. 17). Fig. 18 provides
a comparison between computations and tests relating to the deformations of
the central section of the 180 mm sided cylinder for the three explosion
distances. Fig. 19 provides, for the two cylinder sizes, a comparison between
computations and tests relative to the evolution of the maximum indentation
on the front face according to the explosion distance.
The computation and test agreement obtained is qualitatively and

quantitatively highly satisfactory and this is true for the three explosion
distances (Figs. 18 and 19) and the two cylinder sizes which were studied
(Fig. 19).
CONCLUSION
The FLU2D/EFHYD combination provides a tool for realistic study of the

blast effects on simple-shaped structures such as flat plates and cylinders.
The computation tool can be used particularly to analyze the propagation of

the blast wave around the target and to provide information for researching a
simplified model of the interaction between the blast wave and the structure.
REFERENCES
1. G. F. KINNEY - K. J. GRAHAM
"Explosive shocks in air"
2. P. GARNERO
"Simulation numSrique d'ondes de souffle"
Acte des journees Detonique 88 Gramat (France)
3. "Structure to resist the effects of accidental explosions. Army Technical

Manual TM51300"
Depts of Army, the Navy and the Air Force, June 1969
4. BACH, LEE
"An analytical solution for blast waves."
Me Gill University, Canada, AIAA journal, vol. 8 Feb. 1970
5. "Engineering System International"

EFHYD 3D - Theoretical manual - Octobre 1985.
atmospheric pressure
B: immediately after passage of the shock front Figure 1 2 Blast wave pressures plotted against ti
BLAST EFFECT PHENOMENON

C: in negative overpressure phase with reversed blast wind
Figure 1
D: after blast wave subsides
Figure 1.1 Pictorial representation of blast wave effects

Time A to D in fig. 12 correspond to those
in this figure.
HVOUniCN OP AERODYNAMIC PARAMETER

BEHIND S H O d FRONT
NUMERICAL GENERATION OF BLAST WAVE
Figure 2
H=lm
bare spherical charge
CylAiU 100 mm
CylB: 1=180 mm
EXPLOSION NEAR SQUARE-BASED CYLINDERS
Figure 3
distribution function
of physical values
in front face of cylinder
(computation of flat plate)
extrapolation of physical
physical values on the central values on the central section
section of the cylinder of the cylinder taking account
(computation of the torus) distribution function
of physical values
on flat plate
AXISYMMETRIC MODELISATION OF A CYLINDER BY A TORUS
Figure 4
FLAT PLATE
GENERATING RADIUS
FLU2D NUMERICAL SIMULATION

MESH FOR EXPLOSION WITHIN 1.95 M OF A FLAT PLATE
Figure 5
HALF SECTION OF CYLINDER
SYMMETRY PLANE
GENERATING RADIUS
COMPUTATION SYMMETRY AXIS ENLARGEMENT OF MESH

MESH FOR EXPLOSION WITHIN 1.95 M OF A 180 MM SQUARE-CYLINDER
Figure 6
r~ "IBS
T-1.13J ms T-l.216 mi T-1,291 m
T-1.351 mi T-M1S T1,4W m

Direction of wave propagation

DISTRIBUTION VERSUS TIME OF COMPUTED ISOBAR CURVES
figure 7
PHYSICAL ANALYSIS OF A PARALLELEPIPED SKIRTED BY A SHOCK WAVE
Figure 8
FRONT FACE
SCEFACE
REAR FACE

DISTRIBUTION OF OVERPRESSURE COMPUTED ON CENTRAL SECTION
OF THE CYLINDER (180 MM SIDED CYLINDER - CHARGE/TARGET DISTANCE: 1.95 M)
Figure 9
PULSES PULSES
(BAR.MS) (BAR.MS)
FRONT FACE
SIDE FACE
0
* W 1,13
DISTRIBUTION OF PULSE COMPUTED ON CENTRAL SECTION
OF THE CYLINDER (180 MM SIDED CYLINDER - CHARGE/TARGET DISTANCE: 1.95 M)
Figure 10
CHARGE TARGEr
POSITION OF TEST PRESSURE SENSORS ON THE CENTRAL SECTION OF CYLINDER

Figure 11
Comparison FLU2D computations/IB A tsts/TM513OO

180 mm square section cylinder - charee/tareet distance 1.95 m
PULSE : i '. M i ! M ! 1 1 114!
(BAR.MS) i 1 1 i : i !
i M l i ! i i
! ! 1 "MM
' Mi
""M ! M
I i
1 1 ! !
ii i } i !
M M M M M M !!
>
.; CROSSOVER POINT TMS1300!
t 1 1 '' i i
; i i M i S M ! i : j
TEST! ; : M Mi : ! ! :
i :
Uu: ' 1 M M i 1
, - ' ' ! ' 1 Mill
MM
Mil ' M ! !
i i i i * M :

COMPARISON BETWEEN COMPUTATIONS AND TESTS ON THE CENTRAL SECTION OF CYLINDER
Figure 12
1 Comparison FLU2D computations/tests - 180 mm square section cylinder

Influence of charge/target distance on pulse
PULSE I
(BAR.MS)
! ! 1
i 1 i
i i MM
!
^TEST
| |
T FT TJ2D
*; 1
i i i ! ! i 1
i I j j i i M 1
MM i J M M
DISTANCE CHARGE/CIBl (M)

Figure 13
Influence of target size on computed and measured pulses

Square section cylinder with 100 and 180 mm sides
PULSE I ! ! I ! i I ! ! ! ! | M l ! ! !
(BARMS)
1 s i i M i n i ^y
-T 1 i i 1I I 1!!
nm i i i i : ' ' t i 7 1 1
: j I I MM 1 I " - i I MM
TBIk POINT PI j : | ! ! !
i i j Mi
! 1 TBA POINT P2
flu2
H1!|ti" >NT PI'T-" ! FUttb POINT P T " 1
1
S i ! I ! I ! ! M ! ! i i
! M I ! M i i ! i 1 ! ! !
5ID e.

Figure 14
CHARGE
EFHYD NUMERICAL SIMULATION
MESH 1/4 CYLINDER WITH 180 MM SIDES
Figure 15
firpov--riTii.li:
SQUARE-BASED CYLINDER
DEFORMATIONS AT END OF SIMULA noN
[ 3 ?.S70COQ
I1
111 ^ 4 FRONT FACE
m
t.
nin .-7.IHE-02
In Clmt 34
lh/ 7.3f1f08
i
DEFORMATION ON 180 mm SIDED CYLINDER

EXPLOSION DISTANCE = 1.95 m (END OF SIMULATION)
Figure 16
180 mm square-based cylinder- Explosion distance = 1.95 n1

Deformation of generating line at center of front face
(computation/test comparison)
i
II /A
11
I
fif
ll
SI
2
Figure 17
TBA TESTS EFHYD SIMULATION
Explotkm disunce 2 3 0 m
Explosion distance 1.60 m
V
DEFORMATION ON CENTRAL SECTION OF 180 mm SIDED CYLINDER
(COMPUTATION/TEST COMPARISON)
Figure 18
Square-based cylinder (computanonAest comparison)

Emax/Einit Maximum indentation on front face = F(exploaon distance)
A': A position after blast weve passage
Computation
Tests
1
0 III) MM
IT"
Explosion distance (cm)
Rgure 19
Experimental Modelling of Explosive Blast
Effects on Structural Steel Cladding
A.J. Watson, B. Hobbs, S.J. Wright
Department of Civil and Structural Engineering,
University of Sheffield, U.K.
ABSTRACT
The effects of explosive blast loading on quarter scale

specimens of structural steel cladding supported on Z-section
steel rails and H-section columns, is reported in terms of
overall and local damage and the transient over pressure and
transient deformation results. Comparisons are made between
the damage produced on the scale model and on comparable full
scale buildings of similar construction.
INTRODUCTION
A common form of construction for light industrial,

single storey buildings, is structural steel portal frames
with walls and roof of steel sheet cladding, Figure 1.
Horizontal steel rails, often of Z-Section, span between the
columns of adjacent portal frames to support the wall
cladding, and purlins span between the rafters to support the
roof cladding. The steel sheet is usually less than lmm thick
but has the structural stiffness required for cladding
because the sheets are folded to form a series of troughs
parallel to one edge. This gives the cladding an overall
depth of about 50mm and enables it to support loads on a span
of about 2m in the direction of the folds. Figure 2 gives a
typical example.
Some industrial buildings with this type of construction

have been accidentally exposed to explosive blast loading and
this paper compares the results of such an accidental
occurrence with those of carefully controlled laboratory
tests.
The tests were carried out on a section of wall, Figure

3, representing one bay of the building and built to a size
which roughly gives a scale factor of 1:4 with a typical full
scale building of this type. The columns were rolled steel

joists, bolted top and bottom to rigid supports with no
allowance made for the sway deformation which would occur at
the top in a typical portal frame connection. Although only
one bay was tested, the cladding rails were extended beyond
the columns for a distance of span/3 to give the continuity
representative of an intermediate bay in a complete building.
The test bay was constructed in the door opening at one end
of a large concrete bunker which did not have roof openings
and so it was assumed that the rear face of the test specimen
would be at atmospheric pressure until the test panel was
perforated by the blast wave.
Column and rafter

Steel sheet of portal frame
cladding \
Typical
cladding rail
Bay width
Figure 1. Typical steel clad structural steel portal frame construction
275
22 6 Rear face
1O
1 f~*t*t t % v ^ ^ r - w - \ u T " Adjacent panel
Quarter scale model cladding
76 35 Rear face
890 jJ1 ^ Adjacent panel
Full scale Prototype cladding

panel length 3150
Expanded cross sections of cladding panels

(all dimensions in mm)
Front elevation
(model)
Figure 2. Prototype and quarter-scale cladding panels
500 (or 700) 1500 (or 1100) 500 (or 700)
Concrete
surround
Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4

Elevation
I I
Cladding panels Cross section Cladding
(all dimensions in mm) rail
Figure 3. Quarter-scale wall specimen
The explosive charge was placed on the ground outside

the concrete bunker and in front of the test specimen along
the normal to the centre of the bay. There were concrete wing
walls perpendicular to the specimen on each side and high
earth banks beyond. The blast pressure wave incident on the
specimen would then include waves reflected from the sides
and from the ground. A charge of 1.36kg of high explosive in
the form of an uncased cylinder with one conical end, was
placed at distances varying from lm to 9m from the specimen
with the conical end touching the ground and the axis of the
cylinder vertical.
The charge standoff distance was the principal variable

in the ten tests reported here but more minor changes were
made to the span of the cladding rail, the end connections of
the column and the number of screws fixing the steel
cladding panels to the cladding rails.
During the tests, measurements were made of the

transient Y-plane deflections of the two main columns and
also the overpressure-time history produced by the blast
wave. Post test measurements were made of the residual
deformations of the columns, cladding rails and cladding
panels.
MODEL TEST SPECIMEN
The general arrangement of the quarter-scale specimen is

shown in Figure 3 with four vertical columns 2.68m high. The
two centre columns represent the columns of two adjacent
portal frames forming one bay of a building. Five horizontal
cladding rails were fastened to these columns at 400mm
centres and extended to edge columns to give the continuity
that would typically exist in an intermediate bay. Each steel
cladding panel was fastened to three cladding rails, giving a
test wall area 2.6m wide by 1.6m high. The top 1.08m was clad
with plywood simply to avoid blast pressures behind the test
specimen. The blast wave from the explosion, first imposed a
dynamic pressure on the cladding panels; this was transferred
into the cladding rails and then into the columns which are
supported top and bottom by the concrete.
Steel sheet 0.2mm thick was used for the quarter scale
cladding panels with the dimensions and profile shown in
Figure 2. The overall length of a panel was 890mm and there
was a 45mm overlap at each end with the next panel. The width
of 275mm gave a side overlap of 19mm. The panels were
normally fastened to each rail by four no 2, 0.25" pan head
stainless steel self tapping screws.
Cold reduced mild steel plate, 0.6mm thick, was folded

in a plate bender to form Z-section, model cladding rails
with the dimensions shown in Figure 4. The maximum rail
length available was 2m and so a joint was made in each rail,
using angle cleats bent from 1.5mm thick mild steel plate,
drilled for 4mm bolts. The joint was made at a column and so
these cleats gave both continuity to the rails and fixing to
the columns, Figure 5. Sag bars of 3 mm diameter mild steel
threaded rod, connected each rail to the rails above and
below at the mid points on the longest span.
The columns were grade 43 structural steel, 102x64 RSJ

9.65 kg/m and were bolted at each end to 305x89 RSC 41.69
kg/m channels bolted to the concrete to provide semi-rigid
connections. Steel plates 10 mm thick x 150 mm long x 100 mm
wide were welded to each end of each column to give
additional torsional restraint in all tests other than those
on wall specimens Wl and W2.
Cross section Side elevation

Full scale prototype cladding rail
(alt dimensions in mm)
Figure 4. Prototype and quarter-scale cladding rails

MODEL EXPLOSIVE CHARGE AND BLAST WAVE LOADING.
A 1.36 kg high-explosive cylindrical charge with one

conical end, was used to produce the blast wave loading on
the test specimen. The overall dimensions of the charge were
325mm long x 62.5mm diameter and it was detonated at the
centre of the plane end. Measured overpressure-time
histories are shown in Figure 6, and this clearly shows that
reflections altered the form of the blast wave imposed on the
test specimen from the more idealised form that would have
occured in a free space. Since the reflected path length and
angle of incidence on the concrete wing walls alters with the
charge standoff, there are some unavoidable differences in
the reflected component of the blast wave as the charge
standoff range varied in these tests.
From the overpressure-time records measured by the blast

pressure guages, were obtained the blast arrival time,
reflected overpressures and the specific impulse of the
positive phase.
MONITORING EQUIPMENT USED IN MODEL TESTS.
The blast pressure gauges were piezo-resistive, and had

a natural frequency of 700KHz and a pressure limit of 70bar.
Two gauges were mounted in the plane of the test specimen
directly opposite the charge. One was in the plywood panel,
just above the top of the steel cladding and one was at the
bottom of the cladding. Both gauges were face-on to the
blast. The gauge output was recorded on a digital storage
oscilloscope.
Rectilinear potentiometer displacement transducers were

used to record the transient deflections of both main columns
in the plane perpendicular to the plane of the test specimen,

ie. the column Y-plane.
DYNAMIC TESTING
The space in front of the test specimen was the track to

the bunker. It was level, about 4.5m wide, and bounded by
concrete wing walls and earth banks. The ground had a
concrete slab for about 5m in front of the specimen and was
then loose gravel. The track was straight and in line with
the bunker for about 10m and then curved.
A charge, supported on the ground by a polystyrene

block, was placed on the perpendicular from the centre of the
specimen at various distances. Table 1 summarises the
variables for each of the ten tests carried out, showing that
the charge standoff distance varied from lm to 9m. The only
other variables were: the number of screw fixings which was
normally 12 for each cladding panel but was increased to 21
for Wall W7; the central span of the cladding rails which was
normally 1.5m but was decreased to 1.1m for Walls W8 and W9;
and the end plate on the ends of the columns which was
ommitted in Walls Wl and W2.
Table 1 Summary of model wall test conditions
Wall Charge General description of

specimen range each model wall
(m)
Wl 4.0 UC, NSF, 1500mm CRS

W2 6.0 UC, NSF, 1500mm CRS
W3 8.0 SC, NSF, 1500mm CRS
W7 6.0 SC, ASF, 1500mm CRS
KEY: UC -- Columns without end plates

SC -- Columns with end plates
NSF -- Normal screw fixings
ASF -- Additional screw fixings
CRS -- Central rail span
QUARTER SCALE TEST RESULTS
Damage to cladding panels and screw fixings.

On both wall tests done at a charge range of less than
6m, every cladding panel was severely damaged. In all tests
except W10, the panels that were dislodged from the cladding
rails were propelled towards the charge and they were found
on the track several metres from the frame. Wall W10, had
the charge at a range of lm and all the panels were propelled
away from the charge. In none of the tests did a cladding
panel fracture because of bending, but there was severe
distortion and failure by pull out of the screw fixings. Most
of the screws were left in the cladding rails.
The 6m range appeared to be close to critical because

there were some significant differences in the damage caused
to the cladding in the four tests done at this range. Two
tests, W2 and W8, had all 20 of the panels severely damaged
with no screw fixings remaining, so that practically all
were dislodged. In tests W6 and W7, a number of panels
remained although they were severely damaged. From W6 only 13
of the 20 panels were completely removed although many of the
remaining panels had lost screw fixings and only about 11% of
the total number of screws used in the wall remained. Only 4
panels were removed from W7 but only 50% of the screw fixings
remained. The very significant difference in the construction
of Walls W6 and W7 was that a total of 305 screw fixings were
used for W7, but only 240 for wall W6. This shows how
important the fixings are in enhancing the blast resistance.
There were also some differences between the other specimens
tested at a 6m range, W2 and W8, namely that the central rail
span was 1500mm in W2 but 1100mm in W8 and the columns were
unstiffened by the addition of the end plates in W2. The end
plates were fixed to the columns in W8 and these added to
their torsional stiffness, but the similarity of damage to
the cladding in each test, although it was total loss, might
indicate that these were not important variables for cladding
damage.
Only one test, W3, was carried out with a charge

standoff of 8m, but the results from this compare logically
with W6 in the 6m range tests. Both W6 and W3 had the same
number of screw fixings and the same rail span, but where W6
had 14 panels removed, W3 had only 3 panels removed and in
both cases the least damaged panels, which also retained the
most screw fixings, were in the centre of the test specimen.
Panels at the side of the specimen are expected to be most
vulnerable to pressure reflections from the side walls.
Three wall tests W4, W5 and W9, were carried out with a
charge range of 9m and all had stiffened columns and the
normal number of 240 screw fixings. Both W4 and W5 had very
similar damage to the cladding panels although 4 panels were
removed from W5 and only 1 from W4. The damage was visibly
less than the damage to the panels on wall W3 which had the
charge at 8m range, although W3 only had 3 panels removed.
The span of the cladding rails seemed to make a difference at
this range and Wall W9, with cladding rails spanning 1100mm,
had six panels removed. Walls W4, W5 had a cladding rail span
of 1500 mm.
Damage to cladding rails

All five Z-section cladding rails in every one of the
ten wall specimens had some residual deformation after the
test, Figure 7. This deformation had both vertical and
horizontal components and so depended on the bending and
torsional stiffness of the rail. Each rail was connected by
four 4 mm high yield bolts to cleat angles connected to each
of the four columns by two 4 mm high-yield bolts, Figure 5.
The 6m charge standoff range is once again seen as critical
because in one wall at the 6m range, wall W8, and in both
walls tested at less than 6m range, at least one rail was
broken by the blast pressure. When a break occurred it was
always at, or very close to a column cleat. No rails were
broken in the other tests at 6m to 9m charge standoff range.
Side elevation
2 No. 4mm H.Y. bolts
Cladding rail,
4 No.
4mm H.Y. bolts
102
(all dimensions in mm)
Figure 5. Cleated rail to column arrangement

on quarter-scale specimen
Another difference between those wall specimens tested

with a charge standoff of less than 6m, and those with 6m and
more, was the direction of the residual displacement in the
cladding rails. Without exception, the rails in walls Wl and
W10, at 4m and lm range respectively, had a residual
deflection away from the charge. In the four tests done at 6m
range, all the rails in W2 and W8 remained deflected away
from the charge but in W6 and W7 most remained deflected
towards the charge. At charge standoffs of 8m and 9m almost

all the rails were left with a residual deflection towards
the charge.
The maximum residual deformation obtained in an unbroken

rail was about 250 mm horizontal deflection at a point near
midspan and was for rail D in Wall Wl after test from a 4m
range charge. This is about 17% of the rail span and was away
from the charge. The corresponding residual vertical
deflection of the same rail at the same point was about 75 mm
downwards and hence the rotation of the rail at this point
could have been about 0.3 radians. In fact the rotation along
the rail was visibly not uniform and some rails had both
vertically upward and downward residual deflection at
different points in the same span which would have increased
the required rotation. Also the deflections, which are
measured relative to the original position of the centre of
the front flange, do include the severe local buckling of the
rail section.
Millisc-conds Milliseconds Milliseconds

c t t 8 0 2 4 6 3 c 2 4 6 8
<
Wai W4
Free space (bemom o column4)
[
1 1
?
Di ect
3 6j . Side wall
/ reflection
o \ 1
0 AAvJ If--. !
Charge ranee 4m Charge range 6m Charge ranee 9m
Figure 6. Face-on, positive over-pressure measured in Tree space and

on quarter-scale wall specimen
One effect of the tie rods connecting the mid span of
the rails was to distribute the blast pressure more
uniformly on all the rails. This was achieved by introducing
a restraint on the deflection of the rails supporting the
most heavily loaded cladding panels but putting additional
load on the rails supporting the most lightly loaded panels
which would increase their deflection. In all the tests it
was rails B, C and D that had the greatest horizontal
deflection because they supported twice the area of cladding
that was supported by rails A and E. Rails A or E did have
the greatest vertical deflection in every test and this was
towards the other cladding rails showing the pull exerted by
the tie rods. The only exception to this was rail A in wall
W10 where the charge standoff range was only lm.
Damage to columns.
The critical nature of the 6m charge range is also
indicated by the values of deflection in the X and Y planes
of the I-section columns. The Y-plane being perpendicular to
the cladding, gives deflection towards or away from the
charge and all tests with the charge at a range of 6m or less
resulted in residual deflections away from the charge for the
two central columns, Figure 8. These tests also produced
residual deflections in the X-plane for all four columns and
in every case the columns were pulled towards the centre of
the wall by the tension forces which developed in the
cladding rails, Figure 8. Only in walls W7, W8 with a 6m
range and W10 with a lm range, was there any residual
deflection in the Y-plane for the edge columns. At a range of
8m or 9m there was no residual deflection in any of the
columns in either the X or Y plane.
rlOO
F50
E
RailD P-50
Coll Col 2 Col 3 Col 4
Break-
Rail D
Figure 7. Residual deflections of cladding rail after test on

quarter-scale wall W8
Transient deflection of columns.

In all the tests except W5, the transient deflections at
the mid heights of columns 3 and 4, Figure 3, were recorded
using rectilinear potentiometer displacement transducers. In
test W5, one transducer was placed at the mid span of
cladding rail C which is 540mm below the mid height of the
columns but at the centre of the area of steel cladding. The
other transducer was placed at the mid height of column 3.
The columns with additional torsional stiffness were in

Walls W3 - W10, and were subjected to blast from the
explosive charge at a range of lm, 6m, 8m, 9m and all had a
vibratory response to the blast loading, Figure 9. Column 3
always had a greater amplitude than column 4 and the first
half cycle of deflection was away from the charge at all
ranges greater than lm, but towards the charge at the lm
range. This indicates that because the initial blast pressure
was away from the charge and at lm range was more
concentrated over the central steel cladding panels, then the

cladding rails must initially have deformed into the third
mode and the initial forces transferred from the cladding
rails to columns 3 and 4, were towards the charge.
Deflection in Deflection in
column X-plane column Y-plane
(inwards) (backwards)
(mm) 40 20 0 20 10 0 20 10 0
Position of
x lateral restraint of
finite stiffness
Original centreline
of column
Original centrelines L- RailE
of rails
- - R*ilD
- - RmilC
- - RmilB
- - R*ilA
Col 3 Col 4 Col 3 Col 4

Figure 8. Residual deflections of columns after test on
quarter-scale wall W8
The maximum amplitude of transient column deflections
occurred on the first quarter cycle and varied inversely with
the stand off range of the charge. The mean of the maxima
for column 3 was 24mm in the three tests at the 9m range and
was 40mm in the three tests with torsionally stiffened
columns at the 6m range. At the lm range the maximum was not
measured because it exceeded the capacity of the gauge for
measuring deflections towards the charge. The corresponding
mean values for column 4 were 14mm and 23mm but with the
charge at lm range it clearly exceeded 28mm in the opposite
direction. The ratio of cladding area supported by column 3
to that of column 4 was 3.73 or 2.47 for the wall specimens
with 1500 or 1100mm rail span respectively and since this is
greater than the ratio of the mean maximum transient
deflections of column 3 to column 4, it indicates that blast
pressures were probably greater at the edges of the specimen
for the long range tests.
In contrast to the vibratory response of the columns

which were torsionally stiffened, the unstiffened columns in
Walls Wl and W2 had a single pulse of transient deflection
away from the charge with column 4 having the larger value.
On returning to the undeflected position both columns of W2,
with the charge at 6m, became stationary but the columns in
Wl with the charge at 4m, behaved differently and only column
3 became stationary but column 4 had random vibrations. Since
all these deflections were measured in the Y-plane of the
columns any lateral-torsional oscillations causing rotation
of the column flanges, would also record a Y-component. It
can only be assumed that the uncharacteristic oscillatory
behaviour that was measured in these columns, was caused by
the superposition of the Y-components for these different
modes of vibration. Consequently the decision was made to
torsionally stiffen the columns for subsequent tests.
From the measured transient deflections, the first

period of oscillation was observed to be between 37 and 46
milliseconds for column 3, and between 25 and 42 milliseconds
for column 4, when the charge was at 6m to 9m range. This
compares with a positive duration for the blast pressure wave
of about 2msecs when the charge was at the 6m range and
3msecs when the charge was at the 9m range, neglecting
reflections. Figure 6 shows that when the charge was at 6m
the main reflected pressure reached the centre of the test
specimen just as the initial overpressure decreased to zero
and the almost continuous duration of positive overpressure
then had a duration of about 4msecs. At 9m range the
reflection arrived before the end of the initial positive
phase but the resulting overlap gave a positive duration of
about 5msecs. Because the natural period of the columns was
greater in all tests than the positive duration of
overpressure then the response was governed by the impulse of
the blast pressure and the energy supplied to the column is a
function of the square of the impulse and the effective mass.
From the transient deflection records and the post test

measurements of residual deflection, it can be concluded that
the maximum elastic deflection of the columns in their Y-
plane was about 25mm-30mm for both columns. This is a
limiting elastic deflection of span/107. When the column had
just reached or exceeded the elastic limit in the first half
cycle then the amplitude of deflection towards the charge in
the second half of the first cycle was much smaller and the
vibrations were damped out in four or five cycles. If there
was no residual deflection then the initial deflection away
from the charge was followed by a larger deflection towards
the charge. An anomaly to this occurred in Wall W3 where
column 3 reached a transient deflection of 26mm away from the
charge, followed by 18mm towards the charge, without any
residual deflection.
20-
10-
0-
v
I- -10-
-20-
-30-
1v i3
- column ^
-40-
-50-
V
1/
100 200 300 400

Timebase - detonation at zero (msecs)
Figure 9. Transient Y-pIane deflections at mid height of columns during
test on quarter-scale wall W8
PROTOTYPE RESULTS
On 22 March 1989 an accidental explosion occurred with

tragic consequencies, on a modern industrial estate in
Peterborough, England. The accident was caused when a
vehicle, transporting industrial explosives, caught fire and
exploded. When the accident occurred it was parked in the
open, about 30m from a single storey building with the type
of construction shown in Figure 1. This particular building
had brick cladding for the lower part of the walls but the
walls above that, and the roof, had the metal cladding shown
in Figure 2 with cladding rails of the type shown in Figure
4. There were other industrial buildings of the same type of
construction close by.
The construction of the vehicle and its precise location

at the time of the explosion are known, Health and Safety
Executive [1] , and it is also known that it was carrying
approximately 800kg of high explosive. The steel columns and
rafters of the portal frame of the building showed little
visible damage after the explosion but on the side directly
facing the explosion the brick wall, steel cladding and
cladding rails were severely damaged, Figure 10(a).
If it assumed that the high explosive in both the model

tests and in the accident, was the TNT standard and that in
both cases the charge was of the same shape, then by
neglecting the effect of confinement due to packaging and the
sheet aluminium walls of the box load compartment of the

vehicle, it is possible to relate the events using a scaling
factor.
Using cube root scaling the scale factor is 8, and so

the peak overpressure produced by the model charge at 4m is
equal to that produced at 32m by the Peterborough explosion,
but at this range the positive impulse and duration would be
eight times greater on the Peterborough building. Figure 10
shows the damage to both model and protype cladding and rails
at these scaled distances. It is clear from Figure 10(a) that
the prototype cladding had pulled away from the fixing screws
in the cladding rail and this had also happened in the model
cladding. Another building of similar construction at about
100m clear sight distance from the vehicle in the
Peterborough explosion, had cladding panels damaged as shown
in Figure ll(a). Although the scaled distance is 12.5m at
model scale, the maximum used was 9m and the damage to the
model cladding at this range is also shown in Figure 11(a).
CONCLUSIONS
The model test was not an exact scaled replica of the

Peterborough building because the experiments were designed
before the accident in Peterborough, but the similarity was
very close, both in the details of construction and the size
and distances of the charge. The comparison of the damage
that occurred in the scaled and prototype specimens was
qualitatively very good and indicates that model tests can be
used to determine the vulnerability of this type of
construction to explosive blast loading. The model scale
experiments were instrumented successfully and these detailed
results are being used to validate response equations
incorporated within a computer analysis of building
vulnerability to explosive blast loading, Watson et al [2].
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The model work was funded by the US Government through

the Denver Research Institute, Denver, USA. The assistance
and co-operation from Mr M. Keith and Mr L. Ullyatt is very
gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
1. Health and Safety Executive, The Peterborough Explosion,

ISBN 0 11 8855727, 1990.
2. Watson, A.J., Hobbs, B., Chan, A.K., Peters, J.,

Westaway, R. A P.C. Based Program for Blast Load
Analysis and Damage Estimation. 5th International
Symposium on Interaction of Conventional Munitions with
Protective Structures, Mannheim, April 22-26, 1991.
(a) Prototype building damage
(b) Model damage
Figure 10. Comparison of cladding damage at scaled distance

of 32m (a), 4m (b)
(a) Prototype building damage
(b) Model damage
Figure 11. Comparison of cladding damage at distance

of 100m (a), 9m (b)
SECTION 8: BLAST LOADING OF
UNDERGROUND STRUCTURES AND SOILS
Evaluation of Impulsive Loadings due to
Explosions in Underground Structures
S. Corti, G. Colombo, P. Molinaro, G. Mazza
ENEL-DSR-CRIS, Via Ornato 90/14, 20162
Milano, Italy
ABSTRACT
In underground power stations, the faults of elec-

trical equipment can give rise to gas mixtures ge-
neration due to physical-chemical reactions of the
oil used in the machinery as isolator. Of course, if
the gas cloud has the possibility of mixingwith air,
a strong deflagration, or even a detonation, can
take place.
In the present paper different simplified approaches
to evaluate impulses acting on structures are pre-
sented. The results are compared with those obtained
by means of complex differential equations solved by
means of a finite difference 3-D method.
From the comparison of the results, expressed in
terms of effects on structural elements, it can be
suggested the use of simplified methods because of
the substantial equivalence of the results with
those obtained using numerical solutions, at least
for preliminary designs or for simple geometries.
INTRODUCTION
The ill-functioning of electrical equipment, namely

a transformer and circuit-breaker installedin under-
ground power plants, can cause chemical-physical re-
actions (pyrolisis) in the oil used as an isolator, gi-
ving rise to a mixture of gases. If such mixture is
brought into contact with air, strong deflagrations
and even detonations can occur.
For this reason, in addition to electric safety

systems installed to prevent such events, civil
structures have to be designed as blast-resistant.
Recently ENEL has started a study in order to define
a general methodology for the design of the structu-
res of underground plants subjected to impulsive
loadings.
In the present paper preliminary results of such
methodology, relevant to the definition of first-ap-
proximation design rules, is presented: simple but
effective methods can be extremely useful for preli-
minary design of civil structures because sophisti-
cated numerical analyses are usually very expensive.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PHENOMENA AND SIMPLIFIED OVER-

PRESSURES EVALUATION
Phenomena relevant to the explosion of gas mixtures

turn out usually to be deflagrations, but they can be-
come detonations when turbulence arises, e. g. for
geometrical reasons.
The simplified approaches proposed by different
authors [1], [2], [3] make reference to experimental
data carried out on detonants, namely TNT.
An alternative method to the traditional ones could
be the so-called Multi Energy Method [4] that pro-
vides blast data derived by computation, firmly sup-
ported by experimental data on detonating fuel-air
charges.
These methods can be applied by transforming the
heat of combustion of the gas mixture, released du-
ring the electrical faults, into an equivalent TNT
or fuel-air charge respectively; blast wave proper-
ties (maximum overpressure and positive phase dura-
tion) , dependent on the distance from the blast epi-
centre, are obtained from blast charts.
In the present case the hypothesis that the actual
phenomena is closer to a detonation than to a defla-
gration can be acceptable because the actual gas
mixture (see table 1) is predominantly made of
hydrogen, that is among the gases with the highest
reaction rate (see table 2 ) ; hence its effect can be
considered similar to a detonation. Moreover, struc-
tural analysis under impulsive loadings, obtained
considering a detonative phenomena, is generally
conservative.
It is worth while noting that simple methods satisfy

only when blast effects in regularly shaped volumes
are taken into account; if the space geometry is com-
plex, simple methods lose their validity and numeri-
cal analyses are required.
Table 1 - Composition of gas mixture produced by

1 KJ electric arc in a typical insulating
oil.
Volume Specific Specific Heat

Gases produced of gas Weight Heat of of
by Electric Arc Combustion Combustion
(liters) (g/g.mole) (kJ/g) (kJ/kJ)
Hydrogen H2 0,0730 2,016 142 0,932

Methane CH4 0,0035 16,042 55,6 0,139
Acetylene C2 H2 0,0207 26,036 49,7 1,195
Ethylene C2 H4 0,0021 28,05 51 0,134
TOTAL 0,0993 2,40
Table 2 - Explosion data of typical gases (spherical

chamber). Permanent spark gap: E 10 J.
p
Gas
(bar) (barm
where:
dp
Methane 7.4 64 KG - (
Propane 7.9 96 d t 'max
Hydrogen 6.9 659 p = max
max
The Baker method

The explosion of detonants in confined spaces is ou-
tlined by a series of three pressure-time impulses
(see Fig. 1) that simulate the effect of reflections
on the rigid surfaces of the box-space in which the
explosion is supposed to take place.
Blast wave properties (side-on and reflected over-

pressures, time of arrival, positive phase duration)
are obtained from blast charts for a generic point
of one of the surfaces which delimit the box-space
as a function of the energy content of the exploding
charge (transformed in a TNT charge of suitable wei-
ght) and of the distance of the point from the cen-
tre of the charge.
The Multi Energy Method

As previously said, the method can be considered al-
ternative to those that make reference to equiva-
lency with TNT.
Blast parameters are synthesized in charts (see
Fig. 2) derived by numerical blast models and vali-
dated by a large set of experimental data. Overpres-
sures and positive phase durations, relevant to
deflagrations of different strengths up to detona-
tion, are shown in the charts as function of the
energy content of the gas mixture and of the di-
stance of a generic point from the charge centre.
The value of the reflected overpressure is obtained
by means of experimental charts (see Fig. 3) as
function of the side-on overpressure and of the
angle of incidence between the wave and the surface
hit by the wave itself.
CASES ANALYSED
In this first step of study two typical geometrical

situations are considered. The first is shown in
Fig. 4a. The second, shown in Fig. 4b, is relevant
to a transformer cell with a quasi-cubic shape.
Case 1
The volume in which the explosion is supposed to
take place is not a box, but it is assumed to be
box-like.
Blast parameters are evaluated with reference to the
position P 1 of Fig. 4, where a steel blast-resistant
door, designed to close the transformer gallery, is
supposed to be installed.
The steel door is a structure of 4.5 m wide and
6.6 m high; it is formed by two slabs connected by 9
horizontal sects.
The finite element mesh used for stress analyses is

shown in Fig. 5. Because of the structural symmetry
only half door is considered.
Case 2
In this case blast parameters are evaluated with re-
ference to the centre of the steel structure that
closes the transformer cell.
The steel door is formed by 6 steel elements with a
length of 7.5 m and an height of 1.0 m, superimposed
along the longest side.
The finite element mesh used for computations, shown
in Fig. 6, make reference to a single steel element.
Also in this case half structure is considered for
symmetry reasons.
In order to evaluate the approximation level of the
simplified methods used to determine blast parame-
ters, the results of sophisticated numerical analy-
ses [5] have been considered as the reference va-
lues. The numerical analysis has been carried out
for both case 1 and 2 using a finite difference com-
puter code that simulate blast effects. The Euler
equations, i.e. the conservation of equations for
mass, momentum, and energy for three-dimensional in-
viscid flow of a perfect gas, are numerically solved
using a flux-corrected transport algorithm to cap-
ture and preserve shock phenomena in the flow.
The different pressure-time histories evaluated by
means of the two simplified methods (Multi Energy,
considering both a detonation and a strong deflagra-
tion; Baker) and the numerical approach were used as
input for stress analyses carried out with a finite
element computer code [6]. The code allows the tran-
sient non-linear dynamic analysis of three-dimensio-
nal shells. Both geometrical and material non-linea-
rities can be taken into account.
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
In Figs. 7a and 7b the different pressure-time hi-

stories computed according simplified and numerical
methods are shown (detonation and strong defla-
gration are practically coincident for the case 1 ) .
The results of structural analyses relevant to Case
1 and Case 2 are shown in Figs. 8a, 8b, 9a and 9b in
terms of displacements and stresses.
CONCLUSIONS
From the analysis of the results it can be noted

that for both Cases 1 and 2 the order of magnitude
of displacements computed using the simplified ap-
proaches and the numerical method are the same. Dif-
ferences can be considered rather small if one keep
in mind the different effort needed to obtain simple
and numerical pressure-time histories.
The differences of stresses in terms of trend seems
to be more important, but if one look only at the
maximum stresses, the results can be considered
pretty good.
However, a definitive conclusion can not be drawn
for the moment, on the basis of the two cases analy-
sed. In the next future new situations will be stu-
died in order to establish a general methodology for
the simplified analysis of civil structures that un-
dergo impulsive loadings caused by gas explosions.
REFERENCES
1. Baker, W.E., Esparza, E.D. and Kulesz, J.J.,

Venting of chemical explosions and reactions,
Loss Prevention, 1978.
2. Department of the Army, The Navy, and the Air
Force, Structures to resist the effects of ac-
cidental explosion, 1969.
3. Henrych, J. , The dynamics of explosion and its
use, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company,
N.Y., 1979.
4. Van den Berg, A.C., Van Wingerden, C.J.M., and
The, H.G., "Vapor cloud explosion blast mode-
ling", Int. Conf. on Modelling and Mitigation
of the Consequences of Accidental Releases of
Hazardous Materials, New Orleans, May, 1991.
5. Numerical simulation of blast effect in the
Transformer galleries of 4 hydropower stations,
TNO Defence Research, Confidential report drawn
up for ENEL, 1991.
6. Donea, J., Giuliani, S., Halleux, J.P., Theore-
tical aspects of the Eurodyn Computer Programs
for Non-Linear Transient Dynamic Analysis of
Structural Components, EUR 5473 and Commission
of the European Communities, JRC, ISPRA, Italy,
1986.
P
rl T r
rl 2
00
UJ
* ( P rl / 2 )l !
LU
r2
P
O r3 T r
P
r3' ( P rl /4 )1 'r3
a (3t a+ T r ) 5t,
TIME
Fig. 1 - Simplified pressure-time history relevant
to the explosion of a detonating charge in
a closed space (Baker, 1970).
10
10
\ ;
5 - 9
2 - 8
1 - 7
0.5 6
02 5
positi ve phase
01 - U

0 05 - 3 . 1
3
002 - 2
U
001 - 1
5
dimensioni
duration (
0.005
8
0.002 . 9
10
0001
0.1 02 05 1 2 5 10 20 50 10( 01 02 05 1 2 5 10 20 50 100
Ro combustion energy-scaled combustion energy - s c a l e d
distance I R ) distance (R)
r s
"Po d
" Po * (E/Po)1'3 (E/Po)1/3
Po = atmospheric pressure
c0 = atmospheric sound speed
E = amount of combustion energy
Ro = charge radius
Fig. 2 - Multi-energy fuel-air charge blast model

(van den Berg et al., 1991).
Ap$-4kjp/cm*n
ITS-

Ar 1 r
Ar
v Vk\
V
L J
^ \
o
r-r r
I \\ A '/
\
0,42kp/crr Y
\ \ \
it-O.Hkp/cm2' V
%
\ \
k \
\V
7
0 10 20 30 C0 50 60 70 80 90
or M
Fig. 3 - Reflection coefficients as a function of

side-on overpressures and angles of inci-
dence (Henrych, 1979).
BB
a)
m
EC = Exploding charge
Volume considered for computation
b)
Fig. 4 a) Layout and cross section of a typical

transformer gallery (Case 1: the transfor-
mer cell is supposed open).
b) Layout of a transformer cell considered
closed (Case 2 ) .
Front Rear Side Seels

\AAAAAAAAAA
y y / y y /y y y y /y 1 y y y y y y y 7
y y 1y y 1y y y y 1y 1y y y y y 1y /
/ \AAAAAAA7S7U\
y 1 y y y /1 y y y y y y y 1y y y y y /
y y y y y 1y y y y y y y y 1 y /y 1 y 7
y 1/ y y y y y y y y y 1 y 1y y y / y /
y y /y y y y y y y y y y y y y y y 1y 7
y /1 y y f 1 y y y 1y y y f y 1y 1y 7
yyyyy1yyyy y y y y 1y y y yy /
y y 1y y y y yy y 1y yy y y y y yy 7
y y /y y y y y y y y y y y y y /y y y 7
f
n \AAAAAAAAAA
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yy yyyyy yyy / \AAAAAAAA7U\
yyyyyyyyyy yyyyyy yyyy
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y 1y y y y y y y y y y y y y 11 7LJ
y 1y y y y y 1y yyyy yyy \AAAAAAAA7U\
Fig. 5 - Finite element mesh used for Case 1.
Froat
Rear Side
rArArArArArAvArArArAwArArArArArArArArArArA7ArArArArArArArArArArArArArArA
Scls
wwwwwwwvwwvwwwwwwwm
wwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwww\
WWWWWWWVWWWWmmAAAMAAM
Fig. 6 - Finite element mesh used for Case 2.

Case 1
Tlae Histories
Bafeer
Deflagration
0.06 0,12 '0.00 0.06 0.12

Tl (seconds) Tine (seconds)
Fig. 7a - Pressure-time histories computed according

simplified methods and numerical analysis
for Case 1.
Case 2 Case 2
TNO Tie History Tine Histories

Bafeer
9Sl2l!S2iJ' on
0<J tag^rja t ion
1
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 '0.00 0,01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
T
Tie (seconds) *-* <conds)
Fig. 7b - Pressure-time histories computed according

simplified methods and numerical analysis
for Case 2.
Case 1
Displacements
Tno
Baker
DeflagratIon
a)
0.00 0.06 0.12

Time (seconds)
Case 1
Stresses
Tno
Baker
DeflagratIon
b)
'0.00 0.06 0.12

Time (seconds)
Fig. 8 - Case l: comparison of the results obtained

by means of F.E. analysis.
a) Displacements
b) Stresses
Case 2
Displacements
~in
/
\ Tr\o
/ / / Baker
Q)
/
/ 'i
' /
" \\ \\\ \ li
o \ I/I \ \\ k
Detor\at lor\
Def tagrat lor\
<0
a0) . 1
/if
if
of
x '.
V \ /./
\ \ ^ 1/
\ )> a)
\7
o
o 1 1 1 I
1
0.00 0.05 0.10
Time (seconds)
Case 2
Stresses
Tno
Baker
DetonatIon
DeflagratIon
b)
0.00 0.05 0.10

Time (seconds)
Fig. 9 - Case 2: comparison of the results obtained

by means of F.E. analysis.
a) Displacements
b) Stresses
Analysis of a Buried Dome Under Blast and
Gravity Loads
H. Sucuoglu, P. Giilkan
Department of Civil Engineering, Middle East
Technical University, 06531 Ankara, Turkey
ABSTRACT
Dynamic and static analysis of a massive, buried, fiber reinforced concrete

shallow spherical dome, which provides blast protection to a facility located
underneath is presented. The dimensions of the structure are impressive.
The sphere has a radii of 60 m and the plan diameter is 90 m. Shell thickness
is 1.75 m.
A finite element analysis was carried out for calculating the stresses and
deformations developed under the gravity loads, and under the dynamic loads
defined in accordance with the specified design bomb. Axisymmetric plane
strain elements were employed for idealizing the dome and the foundation
beam whereas linear and rotational springs were used to represent the
foundation compliance. The bomb was assumed to detonate on the crown at
ground surface, identified as the most unfavourable location. Both impact and
pressure components of blast loading were considered in the analysis. The
propagation of pressure waves on the ground surface were traced throughout
the response duration. The dynamic response of the dome was calculated by
time history analysis in which the equations of motion are solved numerically
by a direct integration algorithm.
The results of the analysis indicated that a spherical shell facilitates

rational design under blast loading because the main load resisting mechanism
is provided by membrane compression. Moreover, a single bomb detonation
on the target produces localized effects on the shell which do not propagate
further throughout the entire structure.
INTRODUCTION
The structure investigated in this study is a spherical concrete protection cover

which has a radius of 60 m and a thickness of 1.75 m. Its circumferential
radius is 45 m and the rise equals 20 m. The spherical dome is supported by
a stiff foundation ring beam having a width of 8 m and an average depth of
2 m.
A vertical cross section of the dome is shown in Figure 1. It is covered

by a 2 m thick stone-embedded concrete layer, and a i m thick soil layer at
the surface. There are three access ports through the shell located over the
ring beam, which are separated by 45 degree central angles.
The concrete shell and the foundation ring beam are designed to
withstand the imposed gravity loads and the explosion effects of a 10 kN
conventional design bomb having a charge weight of 5 kN. Reinforcement for
the concrete shell is provided by several layers of meridional and
circumferential steel bars. Fiber reinforced concrete is used to enhance
deformability and spall resistance. A picture of the dome taken during the
construction at the reinforcement placing stage is shown in Figure 2.
Two types of analysis were carried out in this study. First, the entire
shell was analysed under the imposed gravity loads by using a 3-dimensional
finite element model. Then an axisymmetrical finite element model was
employed to calculate the dynamic response of the dome to blast loading.
Finally, the response envelopes for the combined results were obtained.
GRAVITY LOAD ANALYSIS
Gravity loads are axially symmetrical, however the presence of

unsymmetrically located access ports disturbs topological axial symmetry.
Hence, a three dimensional finite element model was used in the gravity load
analysis.
- Rock embedded concrete

Concrete shell
r Ground zero
Figure 1. Vertical cross section of the dome
Figure 2. A view of the dome during construction

Plain shell elements and beam elements were employed to idealize the
dome and the ring beam, respectively. The finite element computer code
SAPIV was used at this stage [1]. The framing around the port holes were not
included in the model. The soil compliance was simulated by imaginary
meridional columns connected to the ring beam. Accordingly, the vertical
(meridional) and rocking stiffnesses of the foundation beam were represented
by adjusting the axial and flexural rigidities of the imaginary columns. A shear
wave velocity of 500 m/s was used for the soil in calculating the foundation
stiffnesses. An isometric view of the finite element model is presented in
Figure 3, where the shaded portions imply port holes. The sign convention for
the shell stress resultants are also indicated on the figure.
The superimposed load increases gradually from 53 kN/m at the crown

to 128 kN/m at the edge of the dome. This pressure distribution corresponds
to a total gravity load of 139xlO4 kN, of which 39xlO4 kN is the self weight of
the dome.
The static deflections, bending moments and stresses calculated under

gravity loads are presented in the following sections along with their dynamic
counterparts. Bearing stresses developed under the ring foundation varied

between 6 and 8 kPa, which are lower than the ultimate soil capacity obtained
at the site. Gravity loads create a uniform tensile stress of 1.5 MPa in the ring
beam that is equivalent to a hoop tension of 20 000 kN. Concrete alone can
resist this axial force in tension.
IMPULSE LOAD ANALYSIS
Further advantage of axial symmetry was utilized in the blast analysis phase
by reducing the protective spherical shell to an axisymmetric solid. Whereas
in the gravity load analysis phase it was accurate to model only the shell and
include the protective soil cover and rock-embedded concrete layer as super
imposed pressures, a different model was required for the blast loading.
Although the load resisting mechanism is provided principally by the shell
structure, the concrete shell, soil and rock-embedded concrete layers are all
described by axisymmetric plane strain elements with improved bending mode
deformations in the finite element model. Hence their contribution to the
r1-r_____ / S o i l laye r
Rock embedded concrete
20-
15 -
Imaginary gap
% ^
1.0-
Concrete shell ^ \ ./ V /C /^^^^^^
I
5-
0-
xr
Radius (m) ^%
-5-
system resistance was considered. However the two outer layers were
uncoupled from the shell by means of an imaginary thin gap between the two
concrete layers which transmits only the internal stress waves orthogonal to
the adjacent layers.
The finite element representation of the facility is shown in Figure 4.

In the model, the foundation beam was restrained by discrete springs whose
properties were determined from the elastic half-space compliance equations
[2] modified according to the number of springs. The material properties are
summarized in Table 1.
Table 1. Material Properties
Material Group E E V Y
(MPa) (MPa) (kN/m 3 )
Shell Concrete 30 000 12 000 0.25 24
Rock Embedded 30 000 12 000 0.25 24

Concrete
Soil 1 125 460 0.25 18
No account was taken of the part holes in the dynamic analysis phase.
This was justified on the grounds that the improvement in the modelling
would be small in comparison with the inherent uncertainty in the load
function describing the magnitude and time distribution of the blast loading.
Dynamic Loads
When a bomb strikes a target and explodes at the surface without full
penetration, it produces an impact in the first phase due to the collision of the
bomb shell on the target. This is immediately followed by the second phase
when the blast waves propagate on the target surface due to the surface
bursting of the bomb. Although the target can be any random point on the
surface, it was decided to identify the most unfavorable point and to calculate
the dynamic loads accordingly. This unfavorable location is the surface point
above the crown on the vertical symmetry axis, regarding the soil cover
thickness and spatial vertical stiffness distribution of the shell structure.
Impact The design bomb was specified as having a mass m of 1000 kg, and
having an approach velocity v of 300 m/s during the onset of collision. Since
the final momentum reduces to zero after impact, the entire initial momentum
is converted into impulse due to the impulse-momentum principle. Expressing
the total impulse as the product of an average impact force F and the impact
duration At, FAt can be calculated as 300 000 kg-m/s by substituting the
values of m and v into the impulse-momentum equation
F At = mv. (1)
The impact duration may be calculated on the premise that the initial velocity
decreases to zero linearly as the bomb penetrates into the 1.50 m thick
burster slab. Hence, by using the kinematical relation
At = s/(v/2) (2)
At can be calculated as 0.01 second. Consequently, the average impact force

was obtained as 30 000 kN by using Eq.(l). This force was applied as a
rectangular vertical impulse to node 2 as shown in Figure 5.a.
F(kN)
30.000
-*t(sec.)
O.OI
(a) (b]
Blast The design bomb which has a change weight of 5 kN was assumed to
be detonated after penetrating into the burster slab. Since the center of
gravity of the bomb remains above the burster slab despite its penetration, the
explosion creates a surface burst. A pressure wave due to explosion
propagates outward from the center of explosion on the ground surface.
Variation of blast pressure with time at a point on surface is as shown

in Figure 5.b. The actual variation between the arrival and decease times are
of exponentially decaying form, however a triangular variation corresponds to
a larger impulse, and it is more convenient for numerical description. Peak
pressure p 0 , duration td and arrival time t a of the pressure at any point on the
surface is calculated by using cube-root-scaling, and employing empirical
relations based on experimental data [3]. The pressure ordinates are then
converted into equivalent nodal forces having the same time variation as the
pressures.
The blast wave remains on the shell about 0.12 second and the total
inpulse developed is 11 000 kN-seconds. Therefore the total impulse due to
blast is substantially larger than the inpulse due to impact, which is 300 kN-
seconds.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Dynamic response was obtained through step-by-step direct integration by

employing a time increment of 0.0005 second. A total response duration of
0.12 second was considered in the analysis.
Dynamic vertical displacement patterns at six different instants are

shown in Figure 6 in comparison with the deflection shape under gravity loads.
In addition, the displacement histories at four equidistant nodes are presented
in Figure 7. The duration of pressure waves passing through these points are
indicated on each response curve. Peak displacements usually occur after the
blast wave passes through. Figures 6 and 7 reveal that the order of maximum
Phase Time (s)
1 0.020
2 0.030
3 0.045
4 0.065
\ 5 0.075
0.100
I 0 ^
c
E
o
o
"5. -5
Static deflection c
-10 s CD
1
nr
" - ^ ^ o
o
-15
10
i
20
i
30
y i
40
i
50 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 008 010
P
Z
Radius ( m) Time ( sec.)
Figure 6. Displacement patterns at various instants Figure 7, Displacement time histories of four
under blast and gravity loads different points on the shell
dynamic displacements are approximately equal to the static displacements

under gravity loads. This observation indicates that the spherical shell
possesses sufficient stiffness against local dynamic effects.
The type of results pertinent to design calculations are bending

moments and internal stress components. Bending moment distributions
m 22 (r) due to blast at two critical instants and due to gravity loads along two
different sections are shown in Figure 8. The maximum values of dynamic
moments are larger than the maximum static moment in general. However
maximum static moment occurs at the foundation boundary whereas dynamic
flexural waves die out as they reach the foundation region. Hence their
maximums do not reinforce each other. A two-fold increase in the static
moment is observed adjacent to the foundation due to the presence of a part
hole. Never the less, these bending moments are small in comparison to the
capacity of the shell section.
3000
Static, away from port
Static, adjacent to port
Dynamic, t = 0 . 0 2 0 s
2000
Dynamic, t = 0.045 s
- 1000
E
z
CD
E
o -1000
-2000
-3000
20 30 40 50
Radius (m)
More important for structural design purposes are the maximum and
minimum stress values under combined gravity and dynamic loading. Hoop
stresses are almost constant along the shell thickness at all sections, thus they
do not produce transverse bending action m u . Their maximum values are as
low as 1 MPa in tension and 4 MPa in compression at different locations. The
meridional stresses have maximum values of 10 MPa in compression at a
bottom fiber and 4.8 MPa in tension at a top fiber at the most critical
locations. These stresses can be resisted by the high quality concrete and
meridional reinforcement used in construction with minor cracking at the
associated sections. Principal tensile stresses due to combined shear, flexure
and axial force under blast and gravity loads occur at the middle fiber of the
shell. Their maximum value is calculated as 5.5 MPa at a section under the
center of explosion. Fiber reinforcement causes an increase in the tensile
strength of concrete between 40 and 150 percent [4], Moreover, high strain
rates may further multiply these increases by 3 to 4 [5]. In view of these
considerations, it was concluded that the principal diagonal tensile stresses can
conveniently be resisted by fiber reinforced concrete.
Another point worth mentioning is on the selected location of

explosion. Although the center of explosion is on the vertical symmetry axis,
i.e. the middle of the dome, extreme fiber stresses do not exhibit drastic
variations along the radial cross section, but rather show a smooth variation
as a response to combined dynamic and gravity loads. Therefore a uniform
distribution of strength in a buried structure is rational in design against a
bomb attact with an arbitrary target on the surface.
CONCLUSIONS
In view of the analytical results presented in this study, it is concluded that the
protective structure investigated can withstand gravity loads within the
allowable strength limits of its constituent components and materials.
Moreover, dynamic excitations due to impact and blast produce maximum
compressive stresses that can be resisted by good quality concrete. The
maximum tensile stresses are at a level that can be easily resisted by fiber
reinforcing and conventional section reinforcement. No partial or local
collapse is anticipated under the dynamic action created by the design
weapon.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Unitek Inc. served as the design structural engineer for the project described
in this paper. KAS Inc. is the contractor. We thank both companies for the
collabration they have provided.
REFERENCES
1. Bathe, K.J., Wilson, E.L. and Peterson, F.E., "SAPIV, A Structural

Analysis Program for Static and Dynamic Response of Linear Systems",
EERC 73-11, University of California, Berkeley, June 1973.
2. Barkan, D.D. Dynamic of Basis and Foundations, McGraw Hill, New

York, 1962.
3. Headquarters, Department of the U.S. Army, "Fundamentals of

Protective Design for Conventional Weapons", TM5-855-1, November
3, 1986.
4. ACI Committee 544, "State-of-the-Art Report on Fiber Reinforced

Concrete", Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 5, American Concrete
Institute, 1987.
5. Banthia, N. and Pigeon, M., "Dynamic Behaviour of Concrete and its

Fibre Reinforced Composites : A Review and Future Research Needs",
Proc. First Int. Conf. on Structures Under Shock and Impact, pp. 107-
119, Massachusetts, USA, July 1989.
Evaluation of Explosive Cratering
Simulations
T. Krauthammer (*), M. Geer (**)
(*) Department of Civil Engineering, Penn State
(**) Department of Civil Engineering, MIT,
Cambridge, MA 02139, U.S.A.
ABSTRACT
A proposed small scale, quarter space, crater simulation technique in a

centrifuge environment is compared with other scaled testing techniques for
evaluating their feasibility. Observed differences are studied for understanding
the causes for their introduction into the proposed experimental approach.
INTRODUCTION
Cratering mechanisms are of interest both to the military (for structural

survivability) and to civilian industry (primarily mining excavation and
construction). Full scale field data are very expensive and difficult to obtain,
and show significant scatter due to a wide range of site and explosive
conditions. This has lead researchers to investigate ways to physically model
full scale test conditions in a more controlled (and less expensive) laboratory
environment. Small scale tests at one gravity have shown that similarity
between model and prototype cannot be achieved (Goodings et al., 1988). For
laboratory tests to accurately model full scale events, gravitational acceleration
must be increased so that similar stresses are experienced at similar points in
the soil. The use of a centrifuge is the most common way of creating a high
gravity environment in the laboratory.
The problem of scaling parameters (crater volume, explosive charge, etc.)

between the one gravity full scale conditions and the multiple gravity model
conditions is perhaps the most difficult aspect of using models to predict
prototype responses. A second, more practical problem with centrifuge testing
is the possible distortion of the model crater by Coriolis and wind effects. The
rotation of the centrifuge basket gives rise to Coriolis forces that, under the
right conditions, can affect crater formation and ruin data. Furthermore, the
passage of the centrifuge basket through the atmosphere inside the laboratory
may blow the crater ejecta to one side of the crater, also causing a distorted
crater shape.
The data used in this research were obtained from a series of tests performed
by Gill and Kuennen (1991). The object of the experiment was to investigate
the feasibility of conducting half-space experiments in a centrifuge with the
intent of viewing explosive crater formation in real time. A "quarter-space"
container was fabricated to permit cross-sectional viewing of crater tests in a
half-space configuration. Specifically, these scaled tests studied crater
formation associated with the detonation of half- and fully-buried explosives
ranging from 227 kg to 909 kg scaled net equivalent weight of TNT. The
scaled depth of burial ranged from half-buried (0 m) to 4.57 m. The centrifuge
equipment itself is not particularly noteworthy, except for the specimen
container, or bucket. The bucket was specially designed for quarter-space
testing. It consisted of a metal swinging container with one side made of clear
plexiglass.
Through this plexiglass wall, the real-time growth and decay of craters and
underground cavities can be observed. To make observation possible, the
craters needed to be created against the plexiglass. In other words, the
explosive charge was placed as closely as possible to the inside surface of the
plexiglass. To enable this, a high strength steel cylinder (called an anvil) was
fixed relative to the plexiglass window with the inside end of the cylinder
nearly flush with the inside surface of the plexiglass. The anvil was set to
protrude slightly into the container, reducing damage to the inside layer of
plexiglass. The plexiglass window consisted of three sheets of plexiglass. The
outer two layers were provided for structural support of the soil inside the
chamber, while the innermost layer served as a sacrificial barrier between the
blast and the structural windows. The sacrificial layer was replaced after each
test. Fiducial markings were created by placing a printed mylar film between
the sacrificial layer and the inner structural layer of plexiglass. These markings
provided references for crater measurements. A clean sand was used for all six
tests, and the soil specimen for each test was created by raining sand in lifts
with soil markers being placed during interruptions in the raining process (Gill,
1988). The soil markers were layers of sand dyed black to contrast with the
surrounding sand.
Each test was conducted using a 4.85 gram hemispherical C-4 charge. The
nominal diameter of each charge was 2.20 cm and the packing density was
1.84. Each event was initiated with a Reynolds RP-83 detonator. Each
detonator had a 0.220 gram RDX pressing as the initiator, and the specific
energy of the explosive was 1.0894xl0 n erg/gr. The net prototype explosive
weights were determined by varying the gravity level for the model explosions.
APPROACH
Half-space centrifuge cratering methods have been well established by several

researchers (Schmidt and Holsapple (1980), Serrano, et. al. (1988)). The
results of the quarter-space tests presented in this paper will be compared with
these previously published half-space results. The authors propose to examine
the validity of the quarter-space method for producing craters that
1. Can be scaled accurately to prototype magnitudes, and

2. Are not excessively deformed by windage and Coriolis effects.
As results from models tested in a centrifuge do not always scale linearly with
the linear dimensions of the model, scaling laws for various parameters must
be developed. For example, the linear dimensions of a crater scale as the
number of g's (one 'g' equals 9.81 m/s2) of the centrifugal acceleration, but
the yield of the model explosive is typically related to the prototype yield by
some exponential power. This and similar relationships are determined by
scaling laws derived independently of the scale of the actual experiment. If
prototype craters can be matched in size and shape by scaled centrifuge craters,
then one can state the scaling laws are valid for the quarter-space method. In
the case of this research, the authors intend to compare the scaling laws from
the quarter-space experiments with those from previously performed half-space
tests.
Another question that may limit the applicability of quarter-space testing to

simulate full scale events is the effect of wind and Coriolis effects. A crater lip
much higher on one side than the other or different slopes from the center to
opposite lips would be indications the crater profile has been skewed by wind
and/or Coriolis effects. Visual comparisons between opposite sides of the
centrifuge craters will show any anti-symmetry.
Schmidt and Holsapple (1978, 1979) provide a large amount of data from tests
performed at very high g levels (300 - 500 grams). Finally, Serrano et al.
(1988) tried to duplicate the results of Schmidt and Holsapple (1980) while
working at much lower g levels (10 - 100 grams). Their results were in good
agreement with the results of both Schmidt and Holsapple (1980) and
Piekutowski (1974, 1975).
Similitude theory is the most common way of relating model and prototype
parameters, and this research will use similitude to relate model and prototype
responses. Similitude, in particular the Buckingham Pi theorem (Langhaar,
1951 or Baker et al., 1973), allows one to develop dimensionless quotients,
called Pi terms, that provide continuity between the model and the prototype.
This continuity, called similarity, demands that any one Pi term remain
constant for the model and prototype. The selection of appropriate parameters
and derivation of the Pi terms need to be done prior to conducting any
experiments.
Gill and Kuennen (1991) used a Pi term developed by Schmidt and Holsapple
(1980) to determine the acceleration necessary to simulate a desired prototype
explosive yield given a model yield. The Pi term for energy scaling (known for
historical reasons as Uj) is
n2= 1 (W)
In which g is the acceleration of gravity, Q is the specific energy of an

explosive, W is the explosive's mass, S is the distance from the explosives
center of gravity. For the model to simulate the desired prototype Pi terms
must be equal. As required, the above Pi term is dimensionless. In the case of
Gill and Kuennen (1991), all parameters were known for the model. For the
prototype, a desired explosive and yield were set (say 227 kg of TNT), fixing
W, Q, and 6. The only remaining unknown would be the gravity for the
model. Since the Pi terms must be equal, the values of the known model
parameters can be introduced into the Pi term, allowing one to solve for g.
Depending on the experiment, a number of Pi terms may be necessary to
insure similarity. Since this research concerns only half-buried cylindrical
charges in a cohesionless soil in both the model and the prototype, Pi terms for
soil strength, depth of burial, and the like, are not needed. The only
pre-experiment Pi term needed was an energy term, shown above. However,
one element not considered is soil particle size. That is, small particles in the
centrifuge are actually simulating larger particles in the field. Unfortunately,
researchers have found no acceptable way to circumvent this problem; test
results and prototype predictions should be viewed with this in mind.
Additional Pi terms may be derived to provide similarity between model and

prototype crater dimensions. The dimensions of concern are typically volume,
depth (measured from original ground surface), and radius. Pi terms for these
dimensions for the case of half-buried cylindrical charges in a cohesionless soil
were derived by Schmidt and Holsapple (1980), and are used here. Such terms
are crater dependent, that is, they scale only between craters with identical
values of n 2 . Expanding the Pi terms and solving for the crater's volume, V,
height, h, and radius, r, the following expressions for prototype dimensions are
obtained:
v = n, ng A [ 1 A w j-a (2)
P Q o
r = nr nf A w 11
P Q
h = E h EJ ( ^ ) 1 / 3 [ 1 (W)l/3 j-7 (4)
in which:
v
w
nr= h () 1 / 3 (6)
Hh= r (A) 1 ' 3 (7)
These expressions show the dependence of crater dimensions on the various

experimental parameters. In particular, the so-called "yield exponents"
(Schmidt and Holsapple (1980)), which show the dependence of crater size on
explosive mass with all other variables fixed, may be determined from a, fi,
and y. So, given a certain half-buried cylindrical charge in a cohesionless soil
and these exponents, the crater dimensions of volume, radius, and height can
be estimated for any charge mass. Also, the exponents occupy a fairly narrow
range while coming from a range of different soils. Thus the only strict
requirement for this case is that the soil be cohesionless. Another set of
relationships and requirements is available for cohesive soils, but that was
beyond the scope of this research.
RESULTS
As the object of the experiments performed by Gill and Kuennen (1991) was
to observe real-time crater formation, not much data was gathered on final
crater dimensions. The only available data for each crater were pre- and
post-shot photographs taken through the plexiglass window. Photos were taken
from four angles in front of the window, two from the extreme left and right
of the anvil, and two just slightly to the left and right of the anvil. From this
series of photos, a sketch of each crater was traced onto paper copies of the
mylar fiducial templates. The photographs were not taken at any particular
scale, so the sketches were necessary to put the crater profiles all at the same
scale.
The model radius and depth could then be measured directly from the sketches.
The depth was measured from the crater surface directly below the center of
the charge to the original ground surface. Crater radius was taken as half the
measured diameter. Model crater volumes were calculated by means of
cylindrical shells (Goodings, et al., 1988). Knowing that linear dimensions
scale linearly with acceleration and volumes scale with the cube of
acceleration, prototype dimensions can be calculated from model data.
The crater profile sketches were digitized using a commercial software

package. Once digitized, the profiles could be manipulated and scaled, making
relative comparisons possible. In this case, scaling meant multiplying the crater
dimensions by the number of g's of acceleration. Calculations were performed
to determine the terms H 2 , H v , H r , and H h . From the Pi terms, a power law fit
can be performed when plotting n 2 versus the other terms to obtain the
exponents a, fi, and y, as shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Scaling Exponents
Researcher alpha beta gamma

Gill and Kuennen, 1991 0.815 0.235 0.214
Serrano etal., 1988 0.850 0.288 0.257
Schmidt and Holsapple, 1980 0.842 0.280 0.279
The results from Gill and Kuennen, while near the results of the other
researchers, have consistently smaller exponents, meaning the quarter-space
method appears to generate smaller craters than the half-space method. The
authors suggest the reason for this is the presence of the plexiglass window in
the centrifuge bucket. The quarter-space method, by using a hemispherical
charge and creating half a crater, assumes the shock wave from the explosion
to be 100% reflected from the plexiglass wall. However, from elementary
wave mechanics, 100\% reflection will only occur if the acoustic impedance
of the plexiglass, pc, is very much larger than the acoustic impedance of the
soil. Where p is the density of the medium, and c is the velocity of a
compression wave in the medium. The shock wave propagated through a soil
during crater formation is not strictly a compression wave, but it is assumed
so for the calculation of acoustical impedance. If there is not 100% reflection
from the plexiglass, the energy imparted by the explosive (measured by Q, the
specific energy of the explosive) will be some amount less than the measured
experimental value. This reduced energy term, called Qe ff , provides a better
description of the actual amount of explosive energy available for crater
formation.
The issue of pc effects is valid for consideration of continuous media in which

local deformations do not affect the wave propagation and reflection. This
condition is examined first. An attempt to quantify the amount of energy lost
due to imperfect wave reflection and determine a Q eff that puts the scaling
exponents for the Gill and Kuennen (1991) in the range of the exponents from
Serrano, et al. (1988) and Schmidt and Holsapple (1980) is presented next.
For the purposes of this analysis, the three layers of plexiglass are assumed to
act as a single layer. The acoustic impedance of plexiglass is given by Rinehart
(1975) as 3.1xlO 4 gr/(sec-cm 2 ). For a soil, the acoustical impedance is the
mass density of the soil times the compression wave velocity in the soil. The
soil density is known and is assumed to be constant with depth. The
compression wave velocity, c, is a function of depth. Further, c is a function
of the known quantities of unit weight, y, the void ratio, e, Poisson's ratio,
v, the coefficient of lateral pressure at rest, KQ, and the depth z.
p is known, but the constrained modulus E c must be found from the theory of
elasticity (Timoshenko and Goodier, 1970), as a function of the Shear
modulus G and v (taken as 0.30). Assuming round-grained sands, the Hardin
equation (Prakash and Puri, 1988) can be used to estimate G as a function of
the void ratio and a 0 . From Gill and Kuennen (1991), it was determined that
the void ration, e, was 0.71, and a 0 for the geostatic condition is obtained
from Prakash and Puri (1988). K o was assumed to be 0.5, and the
corresponding ratio of the acoustical impedance of the plexiglass to the
acoustical impedance of the soil for selected prototype depths from zero to 300
cm is shown in Table 2.
So, on average, pc of plexiglass is about an order of magnitude larger than pc

of the soil. Whether or not this is a large enough ratio to assume 100%
reflection of the incident shock wave can be determined from wave theory.
First, several assumptions are made. The properties of the shock wave are
Table 2 Acoustic Impedance (AI) Ratio vs. Depth
Depth (cm) AI Ratio
0.0 -
12 0.063
60 0.094
120 0.112
180 0.124
240 0.134
300 0.141
unknown and indeterminate. Simplifying assumptions regarding the type and

shape of the wave front need to be made in order to quantify the energy lost
due to the plexiglass. The incident and reflected shock waves are presumed to
be spherical and compressive in nature, it can be shown that the kinetic energy
ratio between reflected and incident waves is
1 -I (8)
in which is the ratio of pc plexiglass to pc soil.
For a perfectly reflected wave, the reflected energy should be equal to the
incident energy, making the ratio equal to one. From the previous analysis, the
plexiglass to soil acoustic impedances ratio is only about 10, meaning that a
large portion of the incident energy may not be reflected. Therefore, an
analysis of the energy lost due to energy transmittal to the plexiglass must be
made.
Since the acoustic impedance varies with depth, so will the energy ratio. Using
the values of acoustical impedance by depth, energy ratios can be computed in
the same fashion. It was found herein that, for depths larger than about 26 cm,
the reflected energy is less than 75% of incident energy. The effect of this on
crater size can be determined by finding an effective explosive energy to
replace the term Q, the specific energy of the explosive. This Q eff should be
a better representation of the explosive energy delivered to the soil. The
effective energy term can be used to calculate new values of n 2 , leading to
new scaling exponents a, B, and y. The results obtained by this approach

indicated, however, that the exponents increased only by about one to three
percent. The increase is also in the direction of results obtained previously by
other researchers, indicating that the craters produced by the quarter-space
method are somewhat smaller than they should be. Certainly, the present
derivation and calculation of Qgff was crude, but it does indicate a loss of
explosive energy due to the presence of the plexiglass wall.
The new exponents are still not in the range of previously obtained results,
indicating that imperfect wave reflection is not the sole cause of energy loss.
One can calculate the Qeff necessary to bring the exponents within the range
of the results of Serrano, et al. (1988) and Schmidt and Holsapple (1980).
Setting a = 0.846, B = 0.284, y = 0.268, and solving Q eff gives results on
the order of approximately 0.0003Q. Certainly, there must be other phenomena
at work besides wave reflection to produce such a drastic energy loss.
The authors suggest one source of energy loss may be an arching effect,
caused by the localized deflection of the plexiglass. A significant deflection is
one large enough to cause separation between soil and plexiglass. Once contact
between soil and plexiglass is lost, soil confinement pressures decrease and a
great deal of energy is dissipated into the atmosphere through the gap between
soil and plexiglass, possibly on the order of 0.9997Q. The MlostM energy could
be a combination of vented pressure through the soil-plexiglass gap and energy
used to deform the plexiglass, thus creating the gap.
The effect of Coriolis and windage effects were examined empirically and
theoretically. The empirical analysis consists of visually comparing crater
profiles and looking for any asymmetry. A theoretical analysis, based primarily
on the work of Schmidt and Holsapple (1978) and Tan (1985), was used to
examine how Coriolis effects change a crater's shape and will determine if
conditions were right for Coriolis forces to affect the formation of the craters
from Gill and Kuennen (1991).
Schmidt and Holsapple (1978) analyzed the effect of Coriolis forces on craters
they had created and on centrifuge craters in general. They showed that the
direction of the Coriolis force for a particular soil particle depends on the
direction in which the particle is ejected from the soil mass. For a particle
ejected in the direction of centrifuge motion, the Coriolis force acts toward the
surface of the soil mass and the ballistic range of the particle is shortened.
Conversely, for a particle ejected opposite the direction of motion, the Coriolis
force will act away from the surface and the ballistic range of the particle will
increase. So, if Coriolis forces significantly affect the shape of the crater, it
will be by producing a crater with a higher lip in the direction of centrifuge
motion. Schmidt and Holsapple (1978) also state that the degree of the Coriolis
effect is determined primarily by the average ejection angle of the soil
particles. The average ejection angle, in turn, is mainly a function of soil type,
with granular soils having lower ejection angles, around 25 to 45 degrees, than
more cohesive soils, which can have ejection angles greater than 45 degrees.
Tan (1985), performed a number of computer simulations of cratering

experiments, primarily for determining the effect of Coriolis forces on crater
shape. He examined the effect of varying the ejection angle on the asymmetry
caused by Coriolis forces. Tan (1985) found that for ejection angles less than
40 to 45 degrees, Coriolis effects were relatively minor. According to this
theory, then, granular soils should not be excessively affected by Coriolis
effects.
So, from the analyses of Schmidt and Holsapple (1978) and Tan (1985), it may
be concluded that Coriolis forces did not affect the final crater shapes. This
issue was examined also by "folding" the left half of the profile onto the right,
and it was apparent from viewing this overlay that there are no visible Coriolis
or windage effects. All of the craters appeared roughly symmetric, and the
overlay showed the consistency in shape between different prototype explosive
weights.
CONCLUSIONS
Crater data from a new type of centrifuge crater test (Gill and Keunnen, 1991),
the quarter-space test, were examined to determine whether the quarter-space
method produces craters that can be used to predict the size and shape of full
scale craters. The scaling laws used in the analysis were developed and the
crater data were used to find scaling exponents. The results were compared to
previously published results, and a discrepancy was noticed. An approximate
analysis based on energy returned from the plexiglass was developed, and the
discrepancies were explained somewhat, though not completely. Apparently,
localized deformation of the plexiglass caused significant energy loss, and had
a major effect on the scaling relationships. Finally, the effect of Coriolis and
wind forces were examined and ruled insignificant.
REFERENCES
Baker, W.E., Westine, P.S., and Dodge, F.T. (1973), "Similarity Methods in
Engineering Dynamics - Theory and Practice of Scale Modeling", Hayden
(Spartan Books), Rochelle Park, NJ.
Gill, J.J. (1989). "Development and Testing of a Device Capable of Placing

Model Piles by Driving and Pushing in the Centrifuge", Report
AFWL-TR-89-36, Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland Air Force Base,
NM.
Gill, J.J., and Kuennen, S.T. (1991), "Half-space modeling of

explosively-formed craters11, Proceedings: Centrifuge 91, Bolder Colorado,
USA, 13-14 June, Balkema, p. 465.
Goodings, D.J., Fourney, W.L., Dick, R.D. (1988), "Geotechnical Centrifuge

Modeling of Explosion Induced Craters - A Check for Scaling Effects", Report
AFOSR 86-0095, Air Force Office of Scientific Research, Washington, DC.
Langhaar, H.L. (1951), "Dimensional Analysis and Theory of Models", John

Wiley & Sons, New York.
Piekutowski, AJ. (1974), "Laboratory-Scale High-Explosive Cratering and

Ejecta Phenomenology Studies", AFWL-TR-72-155, Air Force Weapons
Laboratory, Kirtland Air Force Base, NM.
Piekutowski, A.J. (1975), "A comparison of Cratering Effects for Lead Azide
and PETN Explosive Charges", AFWL-TR-74-182, Air Force Weapons
Laboratory, Kirtland Air Force Base, NM.
Prakash, S., and Puri, V.K. (1988), "Foundations for Machines: Analysis and
Design", John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Rinehart, J.S., (1975), "Stress Transients in Solids", HyperDynamics, Santa

Fe, NM.
Serrano, C.H., Dick, R.D., Goodings, D.J., and Fourney, W.L. (1988),
"Centrifuge Modeling of Explosion Induced Craters", Proceedings: Centrifuge
'88, p. 445-450.
Schmidt, R.M., and Holsapple, K.A. (1978), "Centrifuge Crater Scaling

Experiment I: Dry Granular Soils", Report DNA 4568F, Defense Nuclear
Agency, Washington, DC.
Schmidt, R.M., and Holsapple, K.A. (1979), "Centrifuge Crater Scaling

Experiment II: Material Strength Effects", Report DNA 4999Z, Defense
Nuclear Agency, Washington, DC.
Schmidt, R.M., and Holsapple, K.A. (1980), "Theory and Experiments on

Centrifuge Cratering", Journal of Geophysics Research, Vol. 85, No. 2.
Tan, T.S. (1985), "Two Phase Soil Study: A. Finite Strain Consolidation and
B. Centrifuge Scaling Considerations", PhD Thesis, California Institute of
Technology, Pasadena, CA.
Timoshenko, S.P., and Goodier, J.N. (1970), "Theory of Elasticity",

McGraw-Hill.
Interaction of Ground Shock with Soil
Pressure Transducers
Ph. van Dongen, J. Weerheijm
Prins Maurits Laboratory TNO, P.O. Box 45,
2280 AA Rijswijk, The Netherlands
ABSTRACT
Theoretically a pressure transducer should respond like the

surrounding soil particles. Because of size and mass of the
transducer, it behaves like a small structure embedded in soil.
Therefore the interaction pressure is recorded and not the free
field pressure. If the motion of the transducer is known the
measured interaction pressure can be adjusted to the real free
field pressure. For this purpose TNO-PML developed a special
housing for a pressure transducer with a built-in
accelerometer. This paper describes experiments to examine the
effect of the motion of the transducer and compares the motion-
adjusted data with predictions from TM5-855-1.
INTRODUCTION
To quantify the interaction process of a ground shock with a

buried structure it is necessary to have a well defined
incident free field shock wave. One can refer to directives
such as the Technical Manual TM5-855-1 to obtain quantitative
data of ground shocks. Disadvantage of the TM5-855-1 is that it
presents only a limited group of soil characteristics and non-
unique parameter values.
Sometimes it is possible to perform experiments on location

to determine soil characteristics and ground shock parameters.
To measure the free field pressure one needs a transducer which
acts the same as the surrounding soil. Since a transducer will
not meet this requirements normally it behaves like a little
structure. Therefore it records not only the free field
pressure of interest but also some reflected pressure. The

amount of reflected pressure depends on mass and size of the
transducer and the characteristics of the surrounding soil. If
interaction is considered to be mainly an one-dimensional
process the measured interface pressure can simply be adjusted
to the actual free field pressure when the motion of the
transducer and the acoustic impedance of the surrounding soil
are known. With this objective experiments were performed with
special soil ground shock transducers which consistof a pressure
gauge and a built-in accelerometer.
This paper presents the theory and measurement technique to

quantify the interaction process. Experimental results are
discussed and compared with predictions from TM5-855-1.
THEORETICAL RESPONSE OF TRANSDUCER
When a pressure transducer faces a plane ground shock it

experiences an incident free field pressure, ? f f ( t ) , plus a
reflected pressure, P (t):
P. (t) = P~(t) + P (t) (1)

1 ff r
Therefore the free field pressure can be calculated when the
reflected pressure is known. For wave propagation in an elastic
medium the incident wave pressure, P , depends on the mass
density of soil, p, the longitudinal wave velocity, C , and the
velocity of the soil particles, u (t).
Pff(t) = p.Cg.ug(t) (2)
The reflected wave depends on the velocity of the soil

particles as w e l l as on t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e t r a n s d u c e r , u (t).
P (t) = p.C . [ u ( t ) - u ( t ) ] (3)

r g g Jc
in which u, (t) represents the velocity of the transducer.
Substitution of equation (2) and (3) into (1) gives for free
field pressure P f f ( t ) :
P.(t) + p.C u k (t)

P f f (t) = (4)
For a better understanding of the physical meaning of equation

(4) the velocity of the transducer, u (t) , is related to P. (t) .
There are four categories in which the velocity of the
transducer has different effects on the recorded interaction
pressure:
1. p.C -uk(t) = 0 -> Pff(t) = Pi(t)/2

2. p.cg.u (t) < P. (t) -> P. (t) > P^(t) > P. (t)/2
r
g k I I ff I
3. p.C .u, (t) = P.(t) -> P,.(t) = P.(t)
g k I ff I
4. p.C .u (t) > P. (t) -> P-.(t) > P. (t)
r
g k I ff I
ad 1. The transducer does not move during impact (u = 0 ) .
Maximum reflection of the free field shock occurs,
ad 2. The transducer moves slower than the soil particles.
This situation is most common,
ad 3. The velocity of the transducer is the same as the
velocity of the soil particles, i.e. the transducer
responds the same way as the particles,
ad 4. The transducer moves faster than the soil particles.
A cavity will arise between the front of the
transducer and the surrounding soil particles.
From the theory it emerges that the velocity of the transducer
might have a significant influence on the recorded pressure.
Only under specific conditions, or a single moment, the
response of the transducer is the same as the surrounding soil.
In order to be able to measure the real free field pressure,
TNO-PML developed a combined pressure-acceleration gauge which
was tested in an exploratory test program.
EXPERIMENTS
The performance and validation of the combined gauges and the

necessity to adjust the recorded pressure for motion, were the
subjects of the experimental program. The soil pressure
transducer consist of a flat adapter containing a Kulite soil
pressure cell, type 0234, and an Entran accelerometer, type
EGC-240-500D for measuring the transducers' motion. Figure 1
shows a photograph of the framework with pressure transducer
and build-in accelerometer. The aluminium housing for both
transducers is rigid, so the measured acceleration equals the
acceleration of the pressure cell. The experiments were
performed in dry, loose, backfilled sand and covered two cases.
On one hand three transducers were placed in free field

conditions at scaled distances varying from 1.3 to 6.3 m/kg
On the other hand one transducer was mounted on the outside of
the front wall of a large cubic concrete structure (1 m ).
Figure 1 Photograph of soil pressure transducer.
The interaction process of this huge artificial transducer will

be quite different from the interaction process of the free
field transducers. However, if the described theory is valid,
the resulting free field pressures of both interaction
processes should be similar.
The remaining parameters in equation (4) were determined as

follows. The velocity of the transducer, u , was calculated by
integration of the measured acceleration. The density of the
soil, p, was determined by means of soil-samples. The average
velocity of the ground shock, C , near a transducer, was
determined with recorded times of arrival. Figure 2 shows the
locations of the transducers, the cubic concrete structure and
the explosive. During the test series only the explosive weight
was varied. The distances between the transducers and explosive
were constant. The centre lines of explosive, transducers and
structure were placed 2 meters below ground level in

backfilled, dry, loose sand.
T4
3.35 m
Explosive
h
1.00 m 1.00 m 1.00
T2 T1
Structure
Figure 2 Schematical topview of test set-up.
Table 1 presents all test data. In this paper only-

characteristic results of transducer T3 and T4 are discussed.
Table 1 Scaled distances, R1 (in m/kg ) , of free field

transducers Tl, T2, T4 and transducer T3 on structure.
Test TNT weight R1 Tl R'1 T2 R1 T3 R1 T4

no. (gram) (m/kg 1/3 ) (m/kg 1/3 ) (m/kg 1/3 ) (m/kg 1/3 )
1, 2, 3 125 2.0 4.,0 6.0 6.3

4, 5, 6 250 1.6 3.,2 4.8 5.0
7, 8, 9 375 1.4 2..8 4.2 4.4
10, 1 1 , 12 500 1.3 2..5 3.8 4.0
All signals were conditioned using Selabs SE-944 amplifiers

and stored at a Selabs SE7000 tape-recorder. At the laboratory
the stored data were digitized, using a multichannel 12 bits,
500 kHz ADC (Difa Measuring Systems, type TS9016) , with a
adjusted sampletime of 40OjLls .
TEST RESULTS
Figures 3a and 3b presents characteristic measured and adjusted

pressure-time diagrams of transducer T4 in free field and
transducer T3, mounted on the outside of the structure front
wall (Test number 10). From the motion-adjusted data it emerges
that transducer T3 does not respond the way the surrounding
soil particles do. Because of stuctures1 mass and size the
ra
20-
10-
200 220 240 260 280 300

Pi(t) transducer Time [ms]
Experiment : susi24.dat
Pff(t) transducer1
40-r
ra
30-
20-
10-
200 220 240 260 260 300

PKO structure
Time [ms]
Pff(t) structure
Figure 3 a. The measured and adjusted pressure-time curves for

transducer T4 (free field)
b. The measured and adjusted pressur-time curves for
transducer T3 (mounted on structure)
experienced peak load appeared to be almost 65 percent higher

than the calculated peak value of the incident shock wave, i.e.
P . max = 1.65 P max. During test number 10 the free field
I
transducer T4 reflects the incident shock wave for about 30

percent, i.e. P ^ a x = 1.30 * P ff max. This high percentage
emphasizes the necessity of the proposed adjustment procedure
such as concluded from the theory.
Figure 4a and 4b presents the acceleration and velocity

of transducers T4 and T3. The velocities are calculated by
integrating the measured acceleration curves. It is shown that
rv
in
30-
E,
20-
10- it
0- - L - J
J
Y
200 220 240 260 260 300
Transducer accel. Time [rns]
StructuPE accel.
Experimem : susi24.dav
b.
-0.00-^
200 220 240 260 260 300

Uk(i) transducer
Time [ms]
Uk(i) struciure
Figure 4 a. Measured accelerations of transducer T4 and T3

b. Velocities of transducer T4 and T3.
the shape of the adjusted ground shock of free field transducer

T4 meets the theoretical expectation. The pressure increases
sharply followed by a slower exponential decrease. The adjusted
ground shock of transducer T3 shows a more irregular feature.
The velocity of the structure only partially compensates this
fluctuations. Apparently the interaction process is more

complex. This is probably due to three-dimensional and cavity
effects.
Figure 5 presents all measured and adjusted peak pressure

values. In this diagram predictions from TM5-855-1 are also
included, which will be discussed in next section.
Pi T 4
Transducer
Pff T 4
Transducer
Pi T3
Structure
Pff T 3
Structure
TM5-855-1
n=2.75
TM5-855-1
n=3.00
Scaled distance [m/kg-x-x-1/3]
Figure 5 Measured, adjusted and predicted peak pressures.
Figure 6 shows the ratios of the measured interaction peak

pressures P ^ a x and the adjusted free field peak pressures
P f f max of both transducers. For the free field transducer T4
the average reflection factor is 1.27 with a standard deviation
of 0.07. For transducer T3, placed on the structure, these
values are 1.57 and 0.04 respectively. When all measured data
were adjusted to free field conditions using equation (4) this
led to rather consistent peak values related to scaled
distances (see Figure 5 ) . This result confirms the validity of
the method.
2.00
v T4
Transducer
o T3
Structure
0.75
Scaled distance [m/kg-*-* 1/3]
Figure 6 The ratios of the measured and adjusted peak

pressures.
COMPARISON OF TEST RESULTS WITH TM5-855-1
From theory and experiments it is concluded that the described

method and technique is valid and essential to determine p^^-
In literature P is presented as empirical relations, based on
experiments performed in the last decennia, but no mention is
made of the interaction process. For that reason the adjusted
data have been compared with predictions.
The Technical Manual TM5-855-1, Chapter 5, presents

empirical equations for predicting ground shock parameters like
maximum particle velocity and pressures. The manual provides a
set of parameters, such as the acoustic impedance and
attenuation factor which values depends on the type of soil.
These parameters and the scaled distance are the input for
empirical equations. Disadvantage of this method is that the
user must make an objective choice concerning the soil
description. According to the manual TM5-855-1 the soil
density, p, of dry loose sand is 1483 kg/m , the longitudinal
shock wave velocity, C , is 183 m/s and the attenuation factor,
n, must be chosen between 3.00 and 3.25. A value of 3.00 leads
to more conservative predictions and therefore has been chosen

for the comparison with the test results (see Figure 5) . For
this particular experiments the predicted peak values are about
a factor two lower than the adjusted free field peak pressures.
It has been found that the attenuation factor has a great
impact on the predictions. If an attenuation factor is chosen
of 2.75 instead of 3.00 the predicted peak values agree well
with the adjusted test results (see Figure 5). Therefore, the
influence of the attenuation factor for the prediction of the
peak pressure is dominant. A decrease of this factor from 3.00
to 2.75 (-8%) means, for the considered range of scaled
distances, an average increase of 86 % of the predicted peak
pressure. Because of this significant influence it is not
realistic to draw conclusions on the interaction process
incorporated in empirical formulas. If experiments on location
are performed, it is strongly recommended to record the motion
of the transducer as well.
CONCLUSION
The described measurement method and technique to adjust the

interaction pressure to the real free field pressure appeared
to be valid and essential. The need to adjust measured ground
shock pressures depends on the mass and size of the transducer.
The ground shock transducer developed at PML-TNO, measured,
within the described test conditions, a peak pressure which was
about 30 percent higher than the adjusted actual free field
peak pressure.
The adjusted peak pressures were compared with

predictions from TM5-855-1. It has been found that the
predictions gave a rough first approximation of ground shock
parameter values. Especially the attenuation factor appeared to
have a dominant influence on the predictions. Because of this
influence it is not realistic to draw conclusions on the
interaction process incorporated in empirical formulas.
REFERENCES
1. TM5-855-1. 'Fundamentals of protectiv design for

conventional weapons', US Army Corps of Engineers,
Huntsville Division, November, 1985.
2. Hinman E.E. and Weidlinger P. 'Single-degree-of-freedom

solution of structure-medium interaction1. Internationales
symposium 'Interaktion konventioneller munition mit
schutzbauten', band 1. BRD, Mannheim, 09-13 maerz 1987.
3. Dongen Ph. van. 'Verification of experimental determined

ground shock parameters with TM5-855-1 and the response of
a burried concrete structure' (in Dutch). PML 1991-concept,
October 1991.
Dynamic Structural Inspection of Buried
Pipes
Y. Diab
DUNE S.A., Centre d'Entreprise et d'Innovation,
P.O. Box 2132, 69603 Villeurbanne Cedex, France
ABSTRACT:
The method is based on the evaluation of the real structural behavior of buried
pipes in masonry. For that, a mechanical system is used to apply a non
destructive shock from the inside of the pipe.
The first step of inspection is to apply a shock to the wall of the pipe, the
energy level generated by this shock is then evaluated by using PISSARENKO
theory.
In the second step, produced dynamic displacements are measured; the

relation between dynamic applied loading and the above measured
displacements permits obtaining values of global stiffness modulus of the pipe-
soil system.
In this paper, a description of the mechanical system together with its

theoretical analysis is realized then a comparison with results of static test is
presented to demonstrate the reliability of this approach.
INTRODUCTION:
The total length of public sewers in France is 250,000 miles

(400,000 kilometers) and in recent years there has been increasing concern over
their condition. In the sewers, which are deeper and bigger than average, and in
the more critical situations, it is estimated that they represent around 20% of
the whole system. Replacement of that 20% alone is estimated to cost around
USD 40 billion, at 1989 prices.
When structural failure does occur on those sewers the resulting repairs can
be expansive and disruptive to the community. In recent years' considerable
resources have been expended in surveying the sewerage system using direct
and remote inspection methods to classify visible defects. These surveys
suggest that the incidence of defects in masonry sewers (Lime stones, sand
stones and bricks) is higher than in other forms of construction.
DEFECTS IN MASONRY SEWERS :
Masonry sewers, most of which were built in the nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries are formed in rings. Some of the more commonly found defects, e.g.
Diab [1], may be summarized as follows:
- Mortar missing : Mortar loss is an undesirable feature creating paths

along which fines can migrate.
- Displaced stones : Loss or movement of stones (bricks) causes

structural instability particularly when they are missing from the
crown.
- Cracks : These may occur longitudinally or

circumferentially,structural movements are the underlying cause of
such defects.
- Voids around the pipe : These are a result of the erosion of the soil
surrounding the sewer, voids might be one of the important instability
factor of a pipe.
ANALYSIS OF THE STATIC INSPECTION METHOD (MAC SYSTEM) :
Visual inspection is not sufficient alone.The MAC system (Mecanique

d'Auscultation des Conduits = buried pipes mechanical inspection) has been
conceived to understand the mechanical behavior of buried pipes in real
operating conditions and to evaluate their structural reliability degree, e.g. Prin
et al [2]. The MAC system allows inspection of different kinds of pipes
(reinforced concrete, sand concrete, masonry, clay...) from 700 mm to 4000
mm (27" to 157") diameter,with a nominal average of 2 Km per day.
MAC SYSTEM DESCRIPTION : In this paragraph the structural analysis

method based on MAC system will be developed (Figure 2). Two steps
summarize this method :
* Loading test inside the pipe : The MAC mechanical loading shows two
components (Figure 2) with distinctive and complementary functions :
- A mechanical component allowing MAC system moving, loading

cycles application and displacements measurements,
- An electronic and automatic component allowing measurements

treatment and the results visual interpretation.
The loading is made symmetrically automatically in an horizontal direction

with simultaneous measurements of loads and displacements by means of
LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) cells.
The mechanical loading test which principally is to apply a known load

and to measure relative displacements of the pipe; this test presents the
advantage of taking a direct measurement of soil-structure complex real
behavior, while integrating their interaction. Figure (3) shows the position of
load application points and of displacements measurements basis.
* Numerical modeling : The modeling by using the Finite Element Method

(F.E.M.) is developed as fundamental analysis for determining strains and
stresses distribution in a buried pipe, having a variety of embedment, backfill
and natural soils.
Global stiffaess of the soil-pipe system Kg (relation between the applied

load and the measured displacements) is calculated. The curve of a typical
loading test is shown in figure (3). This value is introduced in the F.E. model as
data to calculate the surrounding soil stiffness (reaction modulus), and to define
mathematically cracks positions identified by visual inspection from the inner
of the pipe. Then an evaluation of different loading cases is simulated in
function of : operating conditions of the pipe and the nature and the state of
surrounding soils. This analysis of different loading cases enables one to obtain
maximal values of stress in the pipe's wall and to estimate the structural
reliability degree of the pipe by defining security reserve factor or structural
risk level.
Finally, if the security level is not sufficient to ensure the pipe serveability,
it is possible to introduce in the analysis all kinds of rehabilitation techniques
(Stabilization techniques for masonry sewers,or lining techniques (insertion of
segments into a pipe to provide improvements in structural resistance) or
grouting of external voids e t c . ) .
Notes:
* The F.E. program used in this approach permits taking into account
elasto-plastic non linear mechanical behavior of the pipe's material
and the surrounding soil, e.g. Zienkiewicz [3].
* The mechanical behavior of the pipe's material and the surrounding

soil are introduced in the F.E. model as a data base obtained from
results of triaxial laboratory tests, e.g. Selig [4].
* It is important to distinguish positions of structures in the installation

vicinity to take their influence in account when the F.E. modeling is
realized.
* Generally the following loads are taken into account in the F.E.
modeling : -Weight of the pipe-earth loading in its different states (dry
or saturated e t c . ) , water weight and pressure, live loads.
SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES OF WORK :
A research program is being carried out to investigate the feasibility of using

non-destructive mechanical shock technique to understand the real structural
behavior of buried pipes.
The viability of using the mechanical shock technique to examine buried

structures has already been ascertained on piles and columns to evaluate their
mechanical resistance to statical loads.
The objective of this dynamic approach is to evaluate the stiffness of the

pipe-soil composite (Kg). This value is then introduced as data in our F.E.
modeling, to calculate strain and stress values in the pipe's wall.
In this paper, a description of the developed system is explained to

demonstate the reliability of this approach.
THEORITICAL PRINCIPLE:
The dynamic diagnosis method is based on the assumption that: The potential
energy generated by an external system (imposed movement, falling mass,
hammer, etc..) and applied to a structure will be transformed to an encased
deformation energy of the structure. In our application the concerned structure
is the pipe and its surrounding soil. This energy encased by the buried system
creates dynamic displacements.
In summary, the conceived system has to permit obtaining :
- Known value of generated energy.
- Feasible technical and technological realization adopted to

difficulties in sewers (Humidity, irregular geometry, obstructions,
etc.).
- Possibility to develop different energy values in function of

mechanical characteristics of the pipe and the soil.
- Mathematical interpretation of measured values.
To analyze buried structures, three approaches can be used, the principle of

these approaches is presented in figure (4).
- STATIC APPROACH : It is called static because of the equivalence relation

between dynamic response and static displacement, the problem is to :
- Find dynamic displacement equivalent to static one.
- Evaluate dynamic action equivalent to static load
- Calculate the stiffness of the pipe and its surrounding soil (Kg).
The principle of this approach is showed in the figure (5).
The evaluation of the equivalence relation can be realized either

experimentally or theoretically. Experimental approach permits comparing
dynamic displacements created by dynamic loading with static displacements
generated by the MAC system.
THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH : It is based on

mathematical formulations to transform a dynamic action to an equivalent
static load, and at the same time dynamic displacement is measured in field by
using LVDT cells, an analytical relation between dynamic applied load (energy
transmitted to the structure) and measured dynamic response permits obtaining
the stiffness of the soil-structure composite.
- DYNAMIC APPROACH : This method is based on a harmonic approach,

e.g. Clough et al [5], by applying a constant vibration force in a predefined
frequency domain to evaluate natural frequency of the pipe by using Rayleigh's
method. The method assumes that the system deforms at the fundamental
frequency - which corresponds to the frequency in first mode of vibration -.
- EVALUATION OF DIFFERENT APPROACHES : The inconvenience of

the experimental approach is its empiricism and the absence of theoretical basis
excluding its easy application because it permits using of available software
developed for the static approach and to compare obtained results with MAC
system data base.
The theoretical and experimental approach has two advantages :
- Possessing a theoretical basis permitting variety of methods to

analyze mechanical behavior of the pipe.
- Using database obtained from static analysis.
The theoretical approach is the only one allowing the analysis of the pipe-
soil dynamic response by taking in account the mechanical behavior of the pipe
and the results of its modal response, however to analyze the results of this
approach a specific signal treatment is necessary and no database is available to
evaluate mechanical behavior of the pipe with this kind of investigations.
The developed approach used in this research program is the second one, it
is based on the evaluation of energy created by an external loading system and
to measure dynamic response of the pipe (displacements and accelerations) in a
predefined frequency domain.
SHOCK ANALYSIS:
PRINCIPLE : A shock is an incitement of a short time, e.g. Pecker [6], it

begins and finishes in the same time, it is a single event containing a
combination of movements. In our approach the analysis will be limited to the
maximal value of the measured displacement.
THEORETICAL CONCEPT : The shock effect is evaluated by defining the

dynamic factor (Kd):
Kd = Dd / D s t (1)
D s t : Displacement induced by static loading in the elastic domain.
Dd : Displacement induced by dynamic loading in the elastic domain.
The dynamic stresses and forces can be defined as follows :
od = K d . a s t = Kd.Pst / S (2)
Pd = Kd.Pst
0"sb Fst: Static stress and loading.

Od, Fd Dynamic stress and loading.
S : Area of the section.
The stiffness of the pipe and its surrounding soil is given as follows :
Dst = Pst / C (3)

From (1),(2),(3) the following equation can be written :
D d = Pd / C (4)
The ratio loading/displacement is the same for static or dynamic loading.

The work realized by external loads is transformed to an internal deformation
energy.
PISSARENKO [7] demonstates that this deformation energy can be

expressed as follows :
Ud = Pd- Dd / 2 (5)
From (4), (5) we can write :

2
Ud = C. D d / 2 (6)
EVALUATION OF DYNAMIC FACTOR : Equations to evaluate dynamic

factor are based on the law of energy conservation in function of the kind of
shock. Two systems are presented :
- Falling mass system :
- composed system : mass + precompressed spring.
FALLING MASS : Figure (6) showed the principle of the system

producing the shock. The weight (W) of a mass (m) falling from a height (H)
produces an imposed movement of the stem, the impact of the stem on the pipe
generates the deformation of the pipe.
Application of the energy principle : If we called (Dd) maximal extention,

the work realized by the falling mass is equal to W(H+Dd).
The conservation energy law can be written as follows :
W (H+Dd) = C . D d . / 2 (7)
By replacing the equation (3) in (7) we obtain the following relations :

w (H+Dd) = Pst.Dd I 2D st
(8)
2
m . g (H+Dd) >d / 2Dst (9)
2
2H + 2Dd = Dd t f Dst (10)
Two solutions can be expressed for this equation, only the solution
presented in the equation (11) has physical meaning :
Dd = D s t [l+(1+(2H / D s t ) 1 / 2 ] (11)
The equation (1) can be written as follows for this dynamic force :
Kd = 1+ (2H / D s t ) 1 / 2 (12)
The different steps to analyze the mechanical behavior of buried pipes by

this method are presented in figure (7).
Evaluation of energy loss : The theoritical development of the energy loss

related to the material compression has been given by Roume [8]. The equation
to evaluate loss is written as follows :
2
LOSS = mb / 6[ V2 + (2gm m (H-h) / mb) +
V2(2gmm(H-h)/mb)l/2] (13)
Vi: Velocity of the bar superior section (m/s).
V2: Velocity of the end of the bar (m/sec).
mm: Weight of the falling mass (KN).
mb: Weight of the stem (KN).
- COMPOSED SYSTEM (MASS + PRECOMPRESSED SPRING) : The

system is composed of a mass and a precompressed spring (Figure 8).
The spring has a linear response, we can write :
Tx = -K.X (14)
Tx : Spring loading (KN)

K : Stiffness of the spring (KN/m)
X : Spring's lengthening (m)
The potential (Ep), kinetic (Ec) and mechanical (Em) energies of the
system might be given by these equations :
E p = K.X2 / 2 E c = m.V2 / 2 Em = E p +E c (15)

If the function displacement-time is harmonic, the movement equation can be
written as follows:
d 2 X / d t 2 = - K.X / m (16)
the potential and kinetic energies can be written under the form :
Ep= [K.X.m 2 c o s 2 ( w o t + e ) ] / 2 (17)

2
Ec= [ m . w 0 . s i n 2 ( w 0 t + 8 ) ] / 2
If we apply conservation energy theory, mechanical energy is constant and the
potential energy is transformed to a kinetic one and vice versa.
2
Ud= Em m.V 2 +K.X 2 = C.Dd (18)
The reaction modulus can be written as follows :
C = (m.V 2 +K.X 2 ) / Dd (19)

In summary, four external parameters has to be defined to calculate the reaction

modulus of the pipe and its surrounding soil:
- Mass in the free extremity of the spring.

- Stiffness of the spring.
- Velocity of the mass.
- Compressed length of the spring (distance between the the wall of
the pipe and the mass).
The dynamical factor is given by this equation :
Kd = [ ( K . X 2 / C ) 0 ' 5 ] / D s t (20)
NUMERICAL APPLICATION : To obtain reel orders of magnitude of

dynamic displacements in sewers and buried pipes, the result of a static loading
test realized with MAC system is presented in Figure (9).
The reaction modulus for this test is equal to 136 000 KN/m for a static
displacement (Dst) equal to 1200 microns and a static applied load (P st ) equal
to 200 KN.
If the compression length (X) is equal to 20 cm we obtain the following values

of dynamic factor:
K(KN/m) 5 10 20 30 40 50 100 200 400
Kd 1.0 1-4, 2.0 2.5 2.9 3.2 4.5 6.4 9.0
Values of dynamic displacements are given in function of the spring stiffness

and for X = 0.1 m.
K (KN/m) 5 10 20 30 40 50 100
Dd (mm) 0.6 0.85 1.2 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.7
CHOICE OF THE SHOCK NATURE :

The selected system is the composed one (mass + spring) for these reasons :
- Energy losses : They are more important in the case of falling mass
because of the stem presence.
- Less obstructions : Sewers present some times small sections and

these sections might be reduced by presence of pipes and cables and
many other obstructions. The mass-spring system presents the
advantage of being light.
- Possibilities of test: The mass-spring system can be used in different

directions of the pipe's section while the falling mass system can be
used either in vertical or in horizontal direction.
Actually, the realization of this new dynamic system is processed. A first

dynamic experimental test was realized in a masonry sewer by used an
instrumented hammer to validate the deformation shape of a pipe under a
horizontal dynamic loading, the first results are encouraging and confirm the
theoretical analysis developed by RAYLEIGH method.
CONCLUSION :
- A simple and rapid non-destructive mechanical testing suitable for use in

sewers at manhole access points has been developed.
- The stiffness of the pipe and its surrounding soil can be determined by this
approach by analyzing results of dynamic displacements by using a calibrated
system (mass+spring).
- The composed system mass+spring is casual, it can be adapted to different

shape and geometry of sewers and to different values of pipes stiffness.
- This approach permits using of data base developed by the MAC system
(staic test) for the analyses of stesses and strains in the pipe.
REFERENCES:
1. DIAB, Y.G.; "Approche de calcul des tunnels en maconnerie renforces par

une coque en beton projete" M.S. Thesis; Chapter 3, Etude du comportement
de la maconnerie,pp.l5 - 25; (I.N.S.A.)- LYON 1987 (in french);
2. PRIN, D.; MARONNE, G.; CANNARD, G.; "M&hode de diagnostic de

conduits souterrains appliques a des grands lineaires" Procedings of
international conference:" Underground Crossings for Europe" pp. 223-230;
BALKEMA edition, LILLE 1990 (in french);
3. ZIENKIEWICZ, O.C.; "The Finite Eement Method in Engineering

Science"; Chapter 18, Non linear material problems, pp.369-413 2nd edition,
Me Graw Hill, LONDON, 1971;
4. SELIG, E.T.; "Soil parameters for design of buried pipelines" Procedings of
conference: "Pipeline Infrastructures" A.S.C.E. pp. 99-116, NEW-YORK
1988;
5. CLOUGH, R.W.; PENZIEN, J.; "Dynamique des structures- Principes

fondamentaux"; Chapter 9, Etude des vibrations par la methode de
RAYLEIGH, pp. 133-147; Pluralis edition, PARIS 1980 (in french);
6. PECKER, A.; "Dynamique des sols"; Chapter 7, Interaction sol-Structure,

pp. 225-249, Presse de 1'E.N.P.C., PARIS 1984, (in french);
7. PISSARENKO, G.; YAKOVLEV, A.; MATVEEV, V.; "Aide mmoire de

resistance des materiaux"; Chapter 21, Calcul de la charge de choc, pp.746-
761; MIR edition, MOSCOU 1979 (in french);
8. ROUME, S.; "Auscultation des conduites ententes", M.S. Thesis, Chpter 2,

Auscultation dynamique, pp 54-67, C.U.S.T. Clermont-Ferrand 1991
(in french).
Hjdraulic jack
Displacement LVDT s.^5
Pression LVDT cell
Measurement Bridge
Treatment unit
\6J Loading area
Fig. 1: Mechanical and Electronical Components of MAC System
Convergence basis
PS
Divergence basis >^*^~'
^ & ^ ^ Load
Fig. 2: Positions of Loading Points and Displacement Measurements
Ko: initial stiffness

Kg: globas stiffness
p
o
Fig. 3: Typical Loading Test

STATIC approach DYNAMIC approach
experimental approach theorical approach movement equation

theorical relation [M] [D] + [C] [D] + [K] [D] = [P(t)]
ReE: equivalence experimental relation.

ReT: equivalence theorical relation.
[DM], [D'l, [ D ] : acceleration, velocity, displacement, matrix.
Fig. 4: Different Approaches
Pd = Re x Pst Dd = Re x Dst
\
P = C.D
Pd: dynamic load

Pst: static load
Dd : displacement under dynamic load
Re : equivalence relation
Fig. 5: Principle
Fig. 6: Falling Mass System

Dynamic test
Dd
IU.J21
Equivalent
Dsd
f Ps = Kd.Dst
Equivalent
Psd

Reaction modulus
Soil/structure
Fig. 7: Analysis Steps of the Falling Mass System
(5)
0 X
(a) pause position of the spring
(S)
T
L G
c/(/(/i/0(/wO(/00(X)0(/ i
i |
*<o d X
(b) the spring is compressed
Fig. 8: Spring and Mass System

i
en
A BEM Program for Two Dimensional
Transient Elastodynamic Analysis of
Underground Openings
E.K.S. Passaris, K.N. Kostoglou
Department of Civil Engineering, University of
Newcastle upon Tyne, U.K.
ABSTRACT
A program employing the direct boundary element method (BEM) has been developed
for the solution of transient elastodynamic stress concentration problems associated
with underground openings. The program employs plane strain analysis and is capable
of dealing with openings in infinite and semi-infinite continua. The solution is
accomplished by applying the Laplace transform to the equation of motion, by
implementing the direct BEM for the numerical solution of the problem and by
numerically inverting the transformed solution using Fast Fourier Transform (FFT).
The available forcing function can be an explosive P or SV shock stress wave. A
convenient feature of the program is the absence of any restrictions concerning the
orientation of the specified plane wave.
INTRODUCTION
Analytical methods in elastodynamic problems, were first used in early 1960s for the
calculation of stress and displacement fields around two dimensional idealization of
underground openings, subjected to harmonic or transient dynamic loading. Such
openings were characterized by a circular, elliptical, or parabolic cross section,
surrounded by elastic or viscoelastic medium extending to infinity. The text book by
Pao and Mow [19J is an established reference for this type of work.
The development in computer technology after 1960s, enabled the numerical

methods to advance rapidly. The Finite Element Method (FEM) was widely used and
as the most popular numerical method for this kind of work, is a very effective
technique especially for complex structure geometries, inhomogeneities in the material
and complicated constitutive behaviour. However the FEM is limited in that the
infinitely extended medium must be modelled as finite, and transmitting boundaries
must be used at the sides of the mesh. Normally such boundaries are placed far
enough, to allow for energy radiation, however the resulting solution still suffers from
an element of inaccuracy. The computational effort needed to model infinite continua
is considerable, even with sophisticated packages such as PAFEC [23] and ADINA
[4].
In the last fifteen years the BEM, has emerged as a powerful alternative to the
above methods, (Brebbia et al. [5], Banerjee and Butterfleld [2]). The BEM is ideally
suited for modelling infinitely extended medium in elastodynamic problems, because
the radiation and regularity conditions are automatically fulfilled, thus eliminating
wave reflection from infinity (Eringen and Suhubi [10]). Furthermore for linear
problems, only the surface on the boundaries of the surface needs to be discretized
resulting in reduction of the computational effort and a simpler mesh.
Cruse [6] and Cruse and Rizzo [7] used the direct BEM with Papoulis' inversion
algorithm of the Laplace transform , to solve a half plane propagation problem. In
addition Manolis [14] and Manolis and Beskos [17] used the BEM with Durbin's
inversion algorithm [9], to study two dimensional problems.
The BEM, in conjunction with Laplace transform, has been used successfully for
solving problems of explosions inside a cylindrical or spherical cavity. Kontoni et al.
[12], solved the problem of suddenly applied and maintained pressure due to an
explosion inside a cylindrical cavity. Manolis [16] and Ahmad and Manolis [1],
addressed the same problem but for a spherical cavity.
The work in this paper is concerned with the development of a BEM program
designed to solve the problem of stress concentrations around underground openings
subjected to dynamic loading. The accuracy of the program is demonstrated by
comparing it with available solutions for cavities of circular cross section under
conditions of plane strain. In addition the case of a stress wave which is maintained
constant and is generated from an explosion at a point outside a rectangular cross
section opening, is also addressed.
FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM
For the solution of the transient elastodynamic problem, the following steps are
applied:
a. Direct Laplace transformation of the time function of loading by analytical
methods.
b. Solution of the problem in the transformed steady state domain, by applying
the BEM.
c. Numerical inversion of the solution by the FFT algorithm, in order to obtain
the solution in the time domain.
Laplace Transformation of the Loading

The direct Laplace transformation is applied on the time function of loading and the
transformation is performed analytically.
Plane wave The plane wave is an incident stress wave that is suddenly applied and
maintained constant. The time history of the tractions is of the form [H(t-ta)], where
H the Heaviside unit step function and ta the time of arrival of wavefront at the node.
The Laplace transform of this function according to Spiegel [20], is
^ [ H(t-ta) ] = - (1)
where s is the Laplace transform variable being a real positive number sufficiently
large to converge the Laplace integration.
Wave generated by an explosion point In assessing the dynamic response of a

medium subjected to an explosion, it is important to know the velocity (V) and the
pressure (P) at a point. Three types of formulas which give these quantities are
examined.
a. The cubic root type This type is mainly used in explosions from conventional
weapons ([21], Weidlinger and Hinman [22]). The velocity of the ground particle and
the pressure generated at a node i=l,2,...n of the mesh are given by the expressions:
(2)
, Poi= (pc)Voi
where V^: ground particle velocity at node i (m/s).

P^: the peak pressure at node i (MPa).
W : charge weight of the explosive (kN).
Ri : the distance of the explosion point from the examining node i, (m).
pc : the acoustic impedance of the ground (MPa s/m). p: mass density,
c : wave velocity, taken equal to seismic velocity of the ground,
n : attenuation coefficient of the ground,
f : coupling factor of the explosion energy, taken as 1.0 for fully buried
explosion.
B : empirical coefficient that is unit system dependent.
b. The square root type This type is usually used in blasting operations
(Dowding [8]). The expressions for the pressure remains the same as in
Equation (2) and the velocity is given by:
(3)
where the meaning of variables and coefficients was explained above.
c. Empirical formula The following equation for the ground particle velocity
is also used for rock blasting operations (Hoek and Brown 111]):
where a,P are site dependent empirical coefficients.
d. Decay of the wave Irrespective of the velocity formula, the decay of

pressure in time, for every node is:
where t is the elapsed time counted from the time of arriving at node i,
and ta = R/c.
In this paper the explosive wave is examined without decay in time, and
by using Equation (1), the Laplace transform of the pressure function may be
expressed as:
se [ poiH(t-ta) ] = poi-^-^ <6>
Solution by the Boundary Element Method

The integral equation of the BEM in the Laplace transform domain, is
(Eq.(A7), Appendix A):
In order to solve this integral equation, the Cartesian coordinates and the
displacements and tractions at every node of the mesh, are expressed in terms
of shape functions and the nodal values of these quantities (Lachat and Watson
[13]) :
_ - _ _ (8)
where the indices i=l,2 correspond to the two coordinates and k= 1,2,3 refer to
the three nodes of the quadratic element. Combining Equations (7) and (8)
according to [18], results in:
c
(9)
ijui =
where J is the number of the total elements of the mesh. Employing

Equation (9) to all the mesh nodes for all the time steps and applying
summation, a system of equations is obtained, which can be solved for the
nodal tractions and displacements.
Solving for tractions and displacements at the nodes of the mesh in the
transformed domain, the stresses on the boundary may obtained. Employing
the constitutive equations and the boundary conditions for every node, the
following system of equations is derived:
rearranging these equations in a matrix form (according to [14],[17],[18]) the

system may be solved for the stresses on the boundary in a global coordinate
system. The stresses on the boundary are obtained by resolving them in the
radial and tangential direction for every node of the mesh. All the tractions,
strains, displacements and directions cosines of the unit normal and tangential
vectors, that are required in the above equations, are obtained via shape
functions for every element and node of the mesh.
Numerical Inversion of the Laplace Transform

Following the solution of the problem in the Laplace transform domain, the
solution in time domain has obtained by inversion of the Laplace transfonn.
This is performed by the Durbin's inversion algorithm [9], with the use of
FFT, according to [17]. This algorithm operates with complex data and the
inversion may be achieved for the displacements, tractions and stresses on the
boundary for all or the most important mesh nodes.
LINEAR VISCOELASTIC BEHAVIOUR
The linear viscoelastic behaviour may be introduced by replacing Lame's

constants X and u by corresponding complex values (Manolis and Beskos
[18]). For the Kelvin material:
\xs = \x+r)s , Xs = * - - | n s
and for the Maxwell material:

where T| is the coefficient of viscosity.
COMPUTER PROGRAM DESCRIPTION
The program is capable of solving problems dealing with two dimensional

idealization of unlined underground openings in infinite and semi-infinite
space. The geometry of the structure and the orientation of the free surface of
the ground is arbitrary. The materials used are linear elastic or linear
viscoelastic and to improve the accuracy of the solution, quadratic
isoparametric elements are used. For the numerical inversion of Laplace
transform and numerical integration, the subroutines by Manolis and Beskos
[18] have been significantly modified to meet the program requirements. The
programming language is FORTRAN 77 for Unix system and the flowchart of
the program is illustrated in Figures (1) and (2). The implemented sign
convention for stresses is negative for compression and positive for tension,
which is opposite to the sign convention used in Geomechanics. The program
can accept either SI units or Imperial units.
Special attention has been given in developing the program in modular

form, to allow for the incorporation of new applications and the modification
for a different graphical environment. The currently used graphical
environment is the SUN workstation version of the UNIRAS package. The
graphs are plotted on the screen or printer/plotter by calling simple FORTRAN
subroutines that are part of the UNIRAS library.
The program is divided into the preprocessing, processing and

postprocessing stages that may run independently. In the preprocessing part,
the data are read from a text file. For simple geometries the mesh is created
by giving code numbers e.g. 1 for an ellipsis, 2 for square, 3 for a circle. For
more complicated shapes, the mesh is generated by combining simple elliptical
or straight line segments. The total number of the elements of the openings are
given in the data and automatically the coordinates of the nodes are calculated,
by using shape interpolation functions. Furthermore in the preprocessing part
the loading in the Laplace transform domain is created and at the end of this
phase the user obtains on the screen plots of the mesh and the applied loading
conditions.
The processing is performed by the BEM and the results for tractions and
displacements are saved in an ASCII file for use in the postprocessing. In the
postprocessing phase, the results are presented on the screen or printer/plotter.
The stresses and displacements can be drawn in Cartesian coordinate system,
and/or in the radial direction on the periphery of the opening for every time
step. Furthermore drawing the distribution curves for more than one node, is
a facility which is available within the program.
APPLICATIONS
In the following applications the material properties used were: Young's

modulus E=20000 MPa, Poisson's ratio v=0.25 and density p=2.55 Mg/m3.
Furthermore in all applications the total time interval is 0.015 s implemented
in 20 time steps.
Circular cavity in an infinite medium swept by a plane P wave

This problem has been solved previously, by a combination of analytical and
numerical approach (Pao and Mao [19]), and by direct BEM (Manolis
[14],[15], Manolis and Beskos [17]). The radius of the cavity is 2.5 m. The
incident wave is a shock compressional plane wave of - 10.0 MPa magnitude
that is applied suddenly and maintained constant in time. The angle of
incidence of the incoming wave is 225, measured anticlockwise, from the
global horizontal x axis. Eight quadratic elements are used to represent the
surface of the mesh, corresponding to 16 nodes (see Figure 3). The position
of the plane wavefront at t=0, is considered as tangent to the circle, at the node
7.
The tangential stresses on the periphery of the opening for the time step
14, for all the nodes, is shown in Figure (3). The variation of these stresses
with time, for the nodes 7,9,11,13,15 which are at angles 225, 180, 135, 90
and 45 from the x axis respectively, is shown in Figure (4). Furthermore the
deformed shape of the mesh at time step 14 and the displacements in x and y
directions in m, are shown in Figure (4). The most compressive hoop stress
appears at the 12th step and is maintained approximately constant, at -29 MPa,
for the subsequent steps, which is in good agreement with the results of
Manolis [16],[14], Manolis and Beskos [18] and Pao and Mao [19].
Square cavity in a full space loaded by an explosion wave, employing the

cubic root formula
The length of the side of the square cavity is 5.0 m and the loading resulting
from the explosive stress wave is generated from an underground explosion at
a point. This point is located at (8.0,0.0) m with respect to the general
coordinate system with origin at the centre of the opening. Sixteen quadratic
elements are used and the velocities and pressures are calculated for every
node from Equation (2). The equivalent charge weight of a GP 1000 lb bomb
([21]) is used, corresponding to 188.7 kg of explosive weight.The attenuation

coefficient is taken n=2.75, and the coupling factor f=1.0. The stress wave
generated from the explosion, is calculated from the cubic root formula for
every node and is maintained constant without decay in time. In Figure (5), the
tangential stresses on the boundary of the opening and the deformed shape of
the mesh are presented, where one can see that the nodes nearest to the
explosion point are significantly stressed. The change of the hoop stresses and
displacements versus the time steps at the nodes 1,30,29,28,25,22,21,20 and 17
is shown in the same Figure. The maximum tangential compressional stress is
-120.8 MPa and develops at the comer node 29 at the 8th time step, which
forms an angle of 45 with the global x axis. The maximum tensile stress is
29.0 MPa and develops at node 1 at the 7th time step.
APPENDIX A
For a homogeneous, isotropic, linear elastic material and small displacements,

the motion is governed by the well known Navier-Cauchy equation, which may
be expressed according to Banerjee et al. [3] as:
(ci - cl)uifij + clujfii + bj = uj (Al)
where
K+211 |I
=
N P <A2>
E VE
2(1+v) ' (1+V) (1-2V)
where A,, u are the Lame's constants and v the Poisson's ratio.
The constitutive equations are
(A3)
= p(d 2 - 202)12^8.^ + cl(uifj + ujti)
where
and 5,j is the Kronecker delta. The boundary and initial conditions are:
(A4)
U l ( P , t = 0) = Ui0 , u.(P,t = 0)=Ui
where P is the source node, u^Pjt) and ti(P,t) is the displacement and traction
vector at the point P(x,y) and at time t, and bj is the body force per unit mass.
Using the dynamic Betti's reciprocal theorem on the surface A, for the
tractions and displacements matrices of the source node and the fundamental
singular solutions of tractions and displacements, the following integral
equation is derived:
= J [ G..(P,Qj)*t.(Pj) (A5)
- F.j(P,Q,t)*u.(P,t) ] dA(P)
where * indicates convolution, A is the surface of the mesh, Q is the receiver

node and G,F are the fundamental singular solutions. The discontinuity term
c{j takes the values: 1 for Q located in the interior of the region, 0.5 for Q on
the surface of the smooth boundary and 0 for Q located in the exterior of the
region.
Applying the Laplace transform with zero initial conditions and zero body
forces, the following equations in the Laplace transformed domain are
obtained:
(c, -c2)ui;. + Ctu^ = sTuj (A6)
the integral transformed equation is
c,/G),(e,0 = J [ U/.(/',G(0*f,(/},r) (A7)

A
- T.P&t)*ujJ>jt) ] dA(P)
where the overline indicates the transformed value of a variable.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This paper is published with the permission of the Hellenic Air Force General
Staff.
REFERENCES
1. Ahmad, S. and G.D. Manolis 'Dynamic analysis of 3-D structures by a

transformed boundary element method', Computational Mechanics Vol 2, pp.
185-196, 1987.
2. Banerjee P.K. and R. Butterfield, 'Boundary Element Method in engineering
sciences1, McGraw Hill, London, 1981.
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4. Bathe KJ. and G. Larsson, 'The use of ADINA in Engineering Practice'
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6. Cruse ,T.A. 'A direct formulation and numerical solution of the general
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8. Dowding, C.H. 'Blast vibration monitoring and control', Prentice-Hall Inc.
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11. Hoek E. and E.T. Brown 'Underground excavations in rock' Institute of
Mining and Metallurgy, London, 1980.
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Dyn. Earthquake Engng., Vol.6, pp. 227-238, 1987.
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transforms1, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1965.
21. U.S.Army Engineer Waterways Experimental Station 'Fundamentals of
protective design for conventional weapons' TM5-855-1, Vicksburg,
Mississippi, 1984.
22. Weidlinger, P. and E. Hinman 'Analysis of underground protective
structures', Journal of Structural Engineering', Vol.114,7, pp. 1658-1673,
1987.
23. Woodford, C.H., E.K.S. Passaris and J.W. Bull 'Engineering analysis using
PAFEC finite element software', Blackie, Glasgow, 1992.
Centrifuge Modelling the Protection of
Buried Structures Subjected to Blast
Loading
M.C.R. Davies, A.J. Williams
School of Engineering, University of Wales,
College of Cardiff, U.K.
ABSTRACT
Centrifuge model tests have been conducted to

investigate the feasibility of protecting buried
structures from the effects of buried explosives by
the use of a barrier formed of a low acoustic
impedance material. In the tests the attenuation of
stress waves was monitored in the free-field and in
the zone behind the barrier using earth pressure
cells. Dynamic soil/structure interaction of both
protected and unprotected structures was investigated
with a combination of strain gauges and
accelerometers. The structures were observed to
respond to two distinct loading mechanisms. These
together with the other results of the experiments
are presented.
INTRODUCTION
Buried structures may be subjected to dynamic loading

resulting from blast. The source of the explosion
could be an airburst, which results in a surface
overpressure, or a buried charge. The later might be
caused by a penetrating or buried weapon, mining and
quarrying, or during a construction process, such as
tunnelling. It is well established, e.g. Ambraseys
and Hendron 1 , that as a result of geometric damping,
the amplitude of the dynamic stress wave reaching the
structure reduces the further it is located away from
the buried explosive. Although it may sometimes be
possible in an industrial context to maintain blast
stress levels at acceptably low levels in the region
of sensitive structures (e.g. Dowding 2 ), this is
clearly an impossible objective when considering the
effect of weapons (be they shells or terrorist
charges) on buried structures and lifeline services.

The effect of blast loading resulting from a buried
explosion initiated in close proximity of structures
is considered in this paper.
Blast loading at close range results in

localised loading of the structure or an element of
that structure. If unacceptable response to loading
is to be prevented then either the structure should
be designed to withstand the expected loading, or
some means of protection which reduces the dynamic
loading on the structure installed; this could form
part of the original design or be retro-fitted.
The use of open or filled trenches has been

proposed as a method for attenuating the energy of
surface waves. Woods 3 conducted a series of field
trials to investigate the attenuation of surface
waves, such as might result from the vibration of
machines, using open trenches. The tests revealed
that high degrees of surface wave attenuation could
be achieved using an open trench provided the trench
was constructed to a sufficient depth in order to
reduce stress wave diffraction. Recent theoretical
studies of both open and filled trench barriers,
conducted by Al-Hussaini and Ahmad 4 , indicated that
whereas open trenches successfully attenuated both
vertical and horizontal components of propagating
surface waves, trenches filled with media such as
concrete attenuated vertical components
satisfactorily, but did not efficiently attenuate
horizontal components. Since body waves resulting
from blast loading in the proximity of structures
will have high horizontal components in the form of
compressive (i.e. P) waves, solid barriers alone may
not be appropriate for the screening of this type of
wave.
Using theories of wave propagation, it may be

shown that when a compressive stress wave encounters
a barrier of low acoustic impedance it is attenuated;
the level of attenuation depending on the thickness
of the barrier and the nature of the stress wave. The
use of low acoustic impedance protective barriers
located between a structure and an explosive source
to attenuate the amplitude of blast stress waves has
been proposed by Davies and Ismail 5 .
A series of ten centrifuge tests was conducted

to investigate stress wave attenuation using low
acoustic impedance protective barriers. In the
testing programme the soil/structure interaction
resulting from blast loading of structures protected
with low acoustic impedance barriers was compared

with that of unprotected structures. Herein is
described the results of the experimental programme.
EXPERIMENTATION
Centrifuge modelling of dynamic loading

The experiments were conducted using the geotechnical
centrifuge at the University of Manchester. This has
a diameter of 6.4 m and is capable of carrying a soil
package 2 m x l m x O . 6 m . For the test programme
described herein, the models were contained in a
strong box 0.75 m diameter and 0.46 m deep. All tests
were conducted at a centrifuge acceleration of 2 0g.
The technique of centrifuge modelling has been

previously used in investigations of dynamic soil
structure interaction. Kutter et a l 6 reported an
investigation to establish the feasibility of using
centrifuge model tests to study the effect of blast
induced loading on buried structures; concluding that
gravity effects should be considered when modelling
buried flexible structures. Steedman et al^ examined
the effect of blast loading on deep foundations; also
observing the importance of scaling gravity effects
on the response of the models. When considering the
effect of blast close to buried structures it is
important that any influences of crater geometry on
the soil/structure interaction are correctly
modelled. This can satisfactorily be achieved at
elevated gravity.
Apparatus
A general arrangement of the models may be seen in
Fig. 1. Two structures were subjected to blast
loading in each experiment. One, the "protected"
structure, was located behind a low acoustic
impedance protective barrier and the other, the
"unprotected" structure, was placed at the same
distance from the charge and acted as a control
specimen.
The sides and base of the strong box were

initially lined with a 12 mm thick polystyrene sheet
to reduce the reflection of stress waves as they
reached the boundaries of the model. Prior to
preparation of the sand bed a 40 mm drainage layer of
pea gravel was placed in the bottom of the box.
The soil used in the centrifuge tests was a fine

Mersey River Sand (D 5 0 = 0.22 mm, Cy = 1.5). Sand was
placed in the box by pluviation; resulting in a
density of 16.68 kN/m 3 . The model structures and
instrumentation were installed at the required depth

during formation of the soil model. Layers of dyed
sand were placed at regular intervals during the
pluviation process. The layers enabled
discontinuities to be observed in the foundation
layer when it was sectioned following the test. On
completion of the model the soil was saturated and
then allowed to drain thus producing a damp sand
exhibiting negative pore pressures.
Model structure The structures used in the

experiments consisted of a cubical steel box of
internal dimensions 90 mm x 90 mm x 90 mm and side
wall thickness 5.0 mm. Steel plates, 0.5 mm thick
were located on the front and back faces of the
structure. These plates were fixed to the side walls
only (i.e. spanning one way) and are considered as
encastre for analysis purposes. The plate facing the
charge was instrumented with three strain gauges
located at the mid and quarter span points. At
prototype scale the face plates of the model
structures represented a 10 mm thick steel plate with
a span of 1.8 m* The mid-height of the structures was
located at a depth of 100 mm beneath the ground
surface, i.e. 2 m at prototype scale.
Protective barrier A sheet of expanded polystyrene 12

mm thick was used for the low acoustic impedance
protective barrier. This corresponded to a barrier of
0.24 m thickness at prototype dimensions. The barrier
spanned the full width of the strong box and extended
to the full depth of the box or the invert level of
the structures as determined by the requirements of
each experiment.
Explosive charge In all tests the charge consisted of

1.5 g of plastic explosive plus a detonator; giving a
total charge weight of approximately 2 g. This
corresponded to 16 kg at prototype scale. The charge
was placed in a borehole with its centre of gravity
at a depth of 100 mm, the same level as the mid-
height of the structures. The borehole was backfilled
following placement of the charge.
Instrumentation
In addition to the instrumented structures, a
combination of pressure transducers and
accelerometers was included in the models. To
minimise electrical interference, signal conditioning
of the output from the instrumentation channels was
conducted prior to the signals passing through the
centrifuge slip rings. The amplifiers had a band
width of 50 kHz. Signals were recorded on a 14 track
tape recorder and later transferred to a digital

signal memory recorder for analysis.
RESULTS
Crater Profile
Investigations into craterina phenomena in centrifuge
models (e.g. Serano et al^) have indicated that
scaled crater volumes agree closely with those
measured in full scale field tests. In both
centrifuge and field studies empirical correlations
between crater volume, V and charge mass, W indicate
that
V Wn (1)
where 0.75 < n < 1.0.
Typical crater profiles measured in the

centrifuge tests are shown in Fig. 2. An advantage of
these centrifuge models was that it is possible to
section the model following the test to locate the
outline of the true crater profile in addition to
that of the apparent crater. The diameter of the
craters in the experiments was typically 300 mm, the
apparent depth 80 mm and the true depth 12 0 mm. This
corresponding to 6 m, 1.6 m and 2.4 m at prototype
scale, respectively, which is good agreement with
predictions using the method proposed in TM 5-855-1
(US Army 9 ) . As Fig. 2 shows, the protective barrier
and hence the structures were located outside the
true crater. The soil/structure interaction therefore
resulted from the effects of stress waves propagating
through soil and not from ejecta interacting with the
structure or barrier.
Stress Attenuation
The peak stress amplitudes measured in one of the
experiments at varying distances from the charge,
both in the free-field (i.e in the unprotected region
of a model) and behind the barrier are shown in Fig.
3. The results indicate two forms of attenuation. The
first is geometric damping resulting from the
spreading out of the energy of the blast with radius
from its source. Secondly behind the barrier,
screening of the wave drastically reduces its peak
amplitude. As can be seen in Fig. 3, the presence of
the barrier reduced the measured peak free field
stress at a distance of approximately 2 00 mm from the
structure from 1.17 MPa to 0.08 MPa.
Peak free-field stresses measured in a clay

model of similar geometry as the sand models are
compared in Fig. 4. The results indicate similar
geometric damping characteristics, but in the clay

model larger peak values of free-field stresses are
observed.
In addition to a reduction in peak stress, as

the wave passed through the barrier its frequency
characteristics changed. Higher frequencies were
observed to be more greatly attenuated by the barrier
than lower frequencies. This is demonstrated by
comparison of Fig. 5, which shows the compressive
wave 100 mm and 2 50 mm away from the source in the
free-field, with Fig. 6, in which the stress wave
recorded 18 0 mm from the source in the zone between
the barrier and the structure is plotted. This
confirms theoretical predictions that the value of
transmission coefficient for waves through a barrier
is inversely proportional to frequency, Davies and
Ismail 5 .
Soil-Structure Interaction
A comparison of strain gauges located at the mid-span
of the front face in the protected and unprotected
structures is shown in Fig. 7. These results, which
are typical of all the tests conducted, indicate:
(i) As the stress wave arrived at the two

structures the mid-span gauges initially
indicated a compressive strain followed by a
tensile strain. During this phase the protected
structure displayed higher values of both
initial compressive and subsequent tensile
strains. The period of this loading phase,
about 550 /zs, corresponded with the length of
the compressive wave impulse at this distance
from the source.
(ii) Following this first phase there is a continued
increase in strain development in both
structures. Both reach a peak some time after
the propagating wave passed the structure. The
maximum recorded strain values are very
similar, although the response of the
unprotected structure was slightly greater.
The observations, Fig. 7, indicate that there

are two distinct loading mechanisms operating on the
structures. In Phase 1 the dominant loading of the
structures resulted from interaction with the
propagating stress wave - "stress wave loading". This
was highly attenuated by the barrier, consequently
the protected structure showed relatively little
response. The increase in deformation with time after
the wave front had passed the structure indicated a
continued loading. This resulted from the
acceleration of the soil located between the

structure and the edge of the crater. The response of
the structure develops over a relatively longer time
because of the inertia of this mass of soil - loading
in Phase 2 is thus referred to as "inertial loading".
Similar behaviour has also been observed in
centrifuge tests by Davies 1 0 and Kutter et al 6 .
Although the barrier was demonstrated to be

highly effective in reducing the stress wave loading
on the structure, the results show that it provided
limited, it any, resistance to inertial loading. This
is because the location of the barrier in relation to
both the crater and the structure was such that
significant inertial force could be developed by the
acceleration of the soil between the crater and the
barrier. Since the barrier was highly flexible this
loading was not distributed over a large area, but
was transferred to the soil in the zone immediately
behind the barrier and hence to the structure. The
selection of a more rigid barrier would probably have
reduced inertial loading, but due to a greater
acoustic impedance would have permitted the
transmission of greater stresses.
Figures 5 and 6 demonstrate the reduction in

peak stress wave amplitude as the wave passed through
the barrier. The presence of the barrier also reduced
the frequency of vibration and magnitude of the
acceleration experienced by the structure. Typical
values of peak acceleration were 2 60g in the
unprotected structure and 60g in the protected
structure; the barrier therefore reducing the peak
acceleration by approximately 70%. This type of
barrier would therefore be effective in reducing
shock loading to buried structures and the
foundations of surface structures.
CONCLUSIONS
A series of experiments has been conducted to

investigate the protection of buried structures
subjected to blast loading by the use of low acoustic
impedance barriers. The following conclusions can be
made:
1. Centrifuge experiments may be used for modelling

the effects of blast on buried structures The
measured model crater dimensions corresponded well
with predicted prototype values. Centrifuge modelling
laws permit inertial loading effects to be correctly
simulated at small scale.
2. The recorded values of peak stress amplitude

reduced with distance from the source of the blast.
This was attributed to geometric damping.
3. As the stress wave was transmitted across the

barrier higher frequency components were subjected to
the greatest attenuation.
4. The soil structure interaction revealed that there

were two distinct loading mechanisms. The first
resulting directly from the propagating stress wave
and the second due to inertial loading from the soil
located between the crater and the structure.
5. Although a low acoustic impedance medium barrier

was highly effective in reducing peak stresses and
accelerations it only provided limited resistance to
inertial loading.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The study described herein has been carried out with

the support of Procurement Executive, Ministry of
Defence, on behalf of Defence Research Agency, RARDE
(Christchurch). The authors wish to thank Dr W.H
Craig, Mr M. Cruickshank and Dr C M . Merrifield and
their colleagues in the centrifuge modelling group at
Manchester University for their help in conducting
the experiments.
REFERENCES
1. Ambraseys, N. and Hendron, A.J. Dynamic Behaviour

of Rock Masses. Rock Mechanics in Engineering
Practice, (Eds.) K.G. Stagg and O.C. Zienkiewicz,
John Wiley, London, 1968.
2. Dowding, C.H. Blast Vibration Monitoring and

Control. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1985.
3. Woods, R.D. Screening of Surface Waves in Soils.

Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundations
Division, ASCE, Vol. 94, SM4, 1968, 951-979, 1968.
4. Al-Hussaini, T.M. and Ahmad S. Design of Wave

Barriers for Reduction of Horizontal Ground
Vibration. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering,
Vol 117, No. 4 pp 616-639, 1991.
5. Davies, M.C.R. and Ismail, A.B. Retro-Fitting of

Expedient Protection for Buried Structures.
Rapidly Assembled Structures, (Ed.) P.S. Bulson,
Proc. Int. Conf on Mobile and Rapidly Assembled

Structures, Southampton, pp 163-174, 1991.
6. Kutter, B.L., O'Leary, L.M. Thompson, P.Y. and

Lather R. Gravity-scaled tests on blast-induced
soil-structure interaction. Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, Vol 114, No. 4., pp 431-
447, 1988.
7. Steedman, R.S., Felice, C.W. and Gaffney E.S.

Dynamic response of deep foundations. Proc. 4th
Int. Conf. on the Interaction of Non-nuclear
munitions with structures, Panama City, U.S.A.,
1989.
8. Serano, C.H. Dick, R.D., Goodings, D.J. and

Fourney, W.F. Centrifuge modelling of explosion
induced craters. Centrifuge 88, (Ed.) J-F Corte,
Proc. International Conference Centrifuge 1988,
Paris, Balkema, pp 445-450, 1988
9. U.S Army. Fundamentals of protective design for

conventional weapons, TM 5-855-1, Engineering
Waterways Experimentation Station, Vicksburg,
Miss., 1986.
10. Davies M.C.R. Modelling of Dynamic Soil

Structure Interaction resulting from impulsive
surface loading. Centrifuge 91, (Eds.) H-Y Ko and
F.G. McLean, Proceedings International Conference
Centrifuge 91, Boulder, Colorado, Balkema, pp 487-
493, 1991.
Typical plan view

750 mm
150 mm 200 mm
1 X 1 0 0 mm
460 mm
gravel
Typical section
Figure 1 Details of apparatus
(P - protected structure, U - unprotected
structure, TLC - earth total pressure cells)
Depth m m
apparent crater
-100
true crater
-200
protective barrier
-300
200 400 600 800

Distance mm
Figure 2 Typical crater profiles

peak stress, MPa
Stress attenuation
- free field
-Sfc- behind barrier
50 100 150 200 250 300 350

distance from charge, mm
Figure 3 Attenuation of stress wave in free-field and

behind barrier
peak stress, MPa
Stress attenuation
* free field - sand
-3K- free field - clay
50 100 150 200 250 300 350

distance from charge, mm
Figure 4 Comparison of the attenuation of free-field

stress waves in sand and clay media
4 68 MPa
r*
ii
100 mm Ahead
A * - 0 - 3 6 2 MPa
250mm Ahead
i i
Time u sec 1000
Figure 5 Free-field P waves
100 mm Ahead
^0-118 MPa 180 mm Behind
Time psec
Figure 6 P waves in free-field and protected zones
(a) Unprotected structure
Phase \j*r' Phase II
J r
50o'e ^b^ P r o t e c t e d structure
|i strain ^ H^^j^^.^ ^ ^ j.,vviv
5000
Time u sec
Figure 7 Typical unprotected and protected structural

response

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Structures Under Shock and Impact

Acknowledgment is made to A. Miyamoto et al for the use of Figure 7a,

Proceedings of the Second International Conference, held in

Editor: P.S. Bulson

Computational Mechanics Publications

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A Catalogue record for this book is available

ISBN 1-85312-170-3 Computational Mechanics Publications, Southampton

Co-published and distributed by Thomas Telford Services Ltd, Thomas

First published in 1992

Computational Mechanics Publications 1992

SECTION 1: MISSILE IMPACT AND PENETRATION

Safety studies for plant include assessments of the hazards

Safety studies for hazardous plant include assessments of the

The extent of a study depends on the plant and the

Safety assessments performed by the Impact Technology

Considerable research (focussed on the nuclear industry)

The guidelines are used to estimate upper limit missile

This paper outlines the route of assessment used by ITD

The following stages are considered in turn:-

(a) missile/target interactions,

When the assessment involves a complete or an extensive part

components, the survey can be divided into plant areas (plant

Potential missile/target interactions are identified by

In order to assess missile kinetic energy, the velocity and

Three failure modes are relevant to a disruptive failure

To illustrate the characterision of missile ejection

For brittle failure, a large number of small fragments

This yields an upper limit fragment-velocity,

For ductile failure, fewer relatively large fragments

For a fragment, where A-5>RY, the velocity is given

Similar to brittle failure, this formula yields an upper

For smaller fragments the velocity is given by,

A range of fragment sizes, relevant to the component

RETENTION OF MISSILES AND TARGET INTEGRITY

In assessing the retention of missiles ejected from the

(i) Missiles are assumed to be "hard" and not to

(ii) Normal impact is assumed, although impact is often

(iii) Minimum missile impact diameters are assumed. This

An assessment of the minimum missile size to perforate a

The missile kinetic energy and the target perforation

The empirical correlations for target perforation

For reinforced concrete barriers, impacted by hard

Figure 1 compares the lower bound perforation energy for

For steel barriers, the perforation energy for hard missiles

The lower bound energy for this formula is about 40%

Figure 2 compares the residual missile kinetic energy

The correlation for the perforation of a steel pipe by a

In addition, a further reduction of one third is made to

The assessment indicates that fragments of diameter

ASSESSMENT OF FAILURE FREQUENCY

The probability of failure of a target as a result of a

p(overall) = p-j x p 2 x other terms

where p1 is the frequency of component failure

Other probabilities can be included as appropriate.

For illustrative purposes, the two parameters p.j and p 2

The disruptive (random) failure frequencies of a component

Evidence indicates that disruptive failures are rarer

Since plant design, component design and plant

The assessment of the probability (p2) of strike and

For missiles originating from the spherical end-caps, it

Figure 4 illustrates the principle adopted for spherical

For the simple example of the disruptive vessel and the