Automatic Control 1

CHAPTER 2
MODELING IN THE
FREQUENCY DOMAIN
Associate Prof. Yen-Chen Liu
Department of Mechanical Engineering
National Cheng Kung University

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan

Automatic Control 2

Outlines
Find the Laplace transform of time functions and the
inverse Laplace transform
Find the transfer function from a differential equation and
solve the differential equation using the transfer function
Find the transfer function for LTI electrical networks
Find the transfer function for LTI mechanical systems
Find the transfer functions for gear systems
Find the transfer function for LTI electromechanical
systems
Linearize a nonlinear system in order to find the transfer
function

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Automatic Control 3

Introduction
In Chapter 1, we saw that a differential equation can
describe the relationship between the input and output of
a system.
Although the differential equation relates the system to its
input and output, it is not a satisfying representation from
a system perspective.
We would prefer a mathematical representation such as

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Automatic Control 4

Laplace Transform
A system represented by a differential equation is difficult
to model as a block diagram.
Via Laplace transform, we can represent the input, output,
and system as separate entities.
If f(t) is a time-dependent function defined for all values of t>0,
then the Laplace Transform of this function is defined as

F ( s ) f (t )e st dt
0

This transformation transforms

Time domain function to the Laplace domain
Differential equations in t to polynomials in s

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Automatic Control 5

Laplace Transform (cont.)

Laplace Transform (t s)

{ f (t )} F ( s ) f (t )e st dt
0

Inverse Laplace Transform (s t)

j
1

1
{F ( s )} f (t ) F ( s ) e st
ds f (t )u (t )
2 i j

f (t ) F (s)
t-domain s-domain
1

Laplace transform is a one-to-one transformation.

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Automatic Control 6

Laplace Transform (cont.)

Example
f(t) = Unit Impulse

{ (t )} (t )e st dt
0
0
(t )e st dt (t )e st dt
0 0
0
(t )e st dt 0dt
0 0

e s 0 1 { (t )} 1

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Automatic Control 7

Laplace Transform (cont.)

Example
f(t) = Unit Step Function

1 st 1
{u (t )} 1e dt e
st

0
s 0 s

Example
f(t)= t

t st 1
{t} te dt e
st
1 e st dt
0
s 0 s0

1 st 1
0 2 e 2 1
{t} 2
s 0 s s
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Automatic Control 8

Laplace Transform (cont.)

Laplace Transform Table

n!
s n 1

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Automatic Control 9

Laplace Transform
Example
Find the Laplace transforms of f(t)= Ae-atu(t)

Since the time function does not contain an impulse function, we can
replace the lower limit with 0

F ( s ) { f (t )} Ae at e st dt
0

A ( s a )t A
A e ( s a )t
dt e
0
sa 0 sa
MATLAB
>> syms t s ans = 2/s^3
>> laplace(t^2,t,s)
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Automatic Control 10

Laplace Transform Theorems

We can use Laplace transform theorems to assist in
transforming between f(t) and F(s).

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Automatic Control 11

Laplace Transform Theorems

Example
Find the Laplace Transform of f(t)=dx/dt

dx st st
F ( s ) { f (t )} e dt x(t) e +s x(t )e st dt
0
dt 0
0

x(0) sX ( s )
Example
Find the Laplace Transform of f(t)=d2x/dt2

d 2 x st dx st dx st
F ( s ) { f (t )} 2 e dt e +s e dt
0
dt dt 0
0
dt

st
x(0) sx(t )e s 2 x(t )e st dt x(0) sx(0) s 2 X ( s )
0
0
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Automatic Control 12

Inverse Laplace Transform

Example
Find the inverse Laplace transform of F(s)=1/(s+3)2 .

1 1 1
{F ( s a )} e at
tu (t )
( s a)
2

1 1 3t
2
e tu (t )
( s 3)
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Automatic Control 13

Laplace Transform Theorems

Final Value Theorem
f ()= lim sF ( s)
s 0
For this theorem to yield correct finite results, all roots of the
denominator of F(s) must have negative real parts, and not more
than one can be at the origin.

Initial Value Theorem

f (0 )= lim sF ( s)
s

For this theorem to be valid, f(t) must be continuous of have a step

discontinuity at t=0 that is no impulses or their derivatives at t=0.

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Automatic Control 14

Laplace Transform (cont.)

Laplace Transform is a linear operator

If { f1 (t )} F1 ( s ) and { f 2 (t )} F2 ( s ) exist, then

{c1 f1 (t ) c2 f 2 (t )} c1 f1 (t ) c2 f 2 (t ) e st dt
0

c1 f1 (t )e st dt c2 f 2 (t )e st dt
0 0

c1 f1 (t )e st dt c2 f 2 (t )e st dt
0 0

c1 F1 ( s ) c2 F2 ( s )
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Automatic Control 15

Laplace Transform (cont.)

Example
Find the solution of x(t ) x(t ) t , x(0) 0, x(0) 2 by using
Laplace transform.

Laplace transform: {x(t )} {x(t )} {t}

1
{x(t )} X ( s ) {t }
s2
{x(t )} x(0) sx(0) s 2 X ( s) s 2 X ( s ) 2
1 1
s 2 X (s) 2 X (s) ( s 2 1) X ( s ) 2
s2 s 2

1 2s 2
X (s) 2 2
s ( s 1)
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Automatic Control 16

Laplace Transform (cont.)

Example (cont.)

1 2s 2 1 1
Since X (s) 2 2 2 2 (Partial Fraction Expansion)
s ( s 1) s s 1

1 1 1 1
x(t ) 2 2 x(t ) t sin t
s s 1
t sin t
MATLAB
>> syms t s ans = t+sin(t)
>> ilaplace((1+2*s^2)/(s^2*(1+s^2)),s,t)

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Automatic Control 17

Partial Fraction Expansion

Partial-fraction expansion (decomposition) of a rational
fraction is the operation that consists in expressing the
fraction as a sum of a polynomial and one or several
fractions with a simpler denominator.
If F(s)=N(s)/D(s), where the order of N(s) is less than the
order of D(s), then a partial-fraction expansion can be
made.
Roots of the denominator of F(s) are real and distinct

Roots of the denominator of F(s) are real and repeated

Roots of the denominator of F(s) are complex or imaginary

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Automatic Control 18

Partial Fraction Expansion (cont.)

Example (Real and distinct)
2 2 2
F (s)
( s 1)( s 2) ( s 1) ( s 2)
Example (Real and repeated)
2 2 2 2
F (s)
( s 1)( s 2) 2
( s 1) ( s 2) ( s 2)
2

MATLAB
>> n=2 r= p= k=
>> d=[1 3 2] -2 -2 0
>> [r, p, k]=residue(n,d) 2 -1
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Automatic Control 19

Partial Fraction Expansion (cont.)

Example (Solution of a differential equation)
Given the following differential equation, solve for y(t) if all initial
conditions are zero. Use the Laplace transform

d2y dy
2
12 32 y 32u (t )
dt dt
32
Taking Laplace transform s Y ( s ) 12 sY ( s ) 32Y ( s )
2

s
32 32
Y (s)
s ( s 12 s 32) s ( s 4)( s 8)
2

Using Partial fraction expansion

32 K1 K2 K3
Y (s)
s ( s 4)( s 8) s ( s 4) ( s 8)
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Automatic Control 20

Partial Fraction Expansion (cont.)

Example (cont.)
32
K1 sY ( s ) s 0 1
( s 4)( s 8) s 0
32
K 2 ( s 4)Y ( s ) s 4 2
s ( s 8) s 4
32
K 3 ( s 8)Y ( s ) s 8 1
s ( s 4) s 8
1 2 1
Y (s) y (t ) (1 2e 4t e 8t )u (t )
s ( s 4) ( s 8)
Inverse Laplace
Transforms
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Automatic Control 21

Transfer Function
Establishing a transfer function will allow separation of the
input, system, and output into three separate and distinct
parts, unlike the differential equation.
The function will also allow us to algebraically combine
mathematical representations of subsystems to yield a
total system representation.

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Automatic Control 22

Transfer Function (cont.)

Consider a general nth-order LTI differential equation
where the output c(t) is related to the input r(t) by
d n c(t ) d n 1c(t ) d m r (t ) d m 1r (t )
an n
an 1 n 1
a0 c(t ) bm m
bm 1 m 1
b0 r (t )
dt dt dt dt
as and bs are system parameters

Using Laplace transform with zero initial conditions

a sn
n
an 1s n 1 a0 C ( s ) bm s m bm 1s m 1 b0 R ( s )
where C(s) and R(s) are the Laplace transforms of c(t) and
r(t), respectively.

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Automatic Control 23

Transfer Function (cont.)

From the ratio of the output transform, C(s), divided by the
input transform, R(s), we get
C (s)
G (s)
m
b s m
bm 1 s m 1
b0
R( s) an s n an1s n1 a0
where G(s) is called the transfer function of the system.

G ( s ) : transferafunction
C ( s ) R( s )G ( s )
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Automatic Control 24

Transfer Function (cont.)

Example (Differential equation)
Find the transfer function represented by

dc(t )
2c(t ) r (t )
dt
Taking the Laplace transform of both sides, assuming
zero initial conditions, we have
sC ( s ) 2C ( s ) R( s )
Thus, the transfer function, G(s), is
C ( s) 1
G (s)
R( s) s 2
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Automatic Control 25

Transfer Function (cont.)

Example (System response)
For the system in the previous examples, find the response, c(t) to
an input, r(t)=u(t), a unit step, assuming zero initial conditions.
C ( s) 1
The transfer function is G ( s )
R( s) s 2
1
As r (t ) u (t ) R( s ) 1/ s C ( s ) R ( s )G ( s )
s ( s 2)
1 1
By partial-fractional expansion C ( s )
2 s 2( s 2)
Taking the inverse Laplace transform
1 1 2t
c(t ) e
2 2
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Automatic Control 26

Transfer Function (cont.)

In general, a physical system that can be represented by
a linear, time-invariant (LTI) differential equation can be
modeled as a transfer function.
The rest of this chapter will be devoted to the task of
modeling individual subsystems.
2.4 Electrical Network Transfer Functions
2.5 Translational Mechanical System Transfer Functions
2.6 Rotational Mechanical System Transfer Functions
2.7 Transfer Functions for Systems with Gears
2.8 Electromechanical System Transfer Functions
2.9 Electric Circuit Analogs
2.10 & 2.11 Nonlinearities and Linearization

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Automatic Control 27

Electrical Network Transfer Functions

Circuit Analysis by
Mesh Analysis (Kirchhoffs Voltage Law)
Differential Equations
Transform Methods
Nodal Analysis (Kirchhoffs Current Law)
Voltage Division

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Automatic Control 28

Electrical Network (cont.)

Example (Simple Circuits via Mesh Analysis)
Find the transfer function relating the capacitor voltage Vc(s), to the
input voltage, V(s).

Summing the voltage around the di (t ) 1 t

loop gives
L
dt
Ri (t )
C i( )d v(t )
0

dq d 2q dq 1
As i L 2
R qv
dt dt dt C
d 2 vc dv
As q Cvc LC 2 RC c vc v
dt dt
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Automatic Control 29

Electrical Network (cont.)

Example (cont.)
Applying the Laplace Transform, gives
( LCs 2 RCs 1)Vc ( s ) V ( s )

Solving for the transfer function, Vc(s)/V(s)

Vc ( s ) 1 1/ LC
G (s)
V ( s ) LCs 2 RCs 1 s 2 R s 1
L LC

G ( s ) : transferafunction
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Automatic Control 30

Electrical Network (cont.)

Component Transfer Function
1
Capacitance (C) V (s) I (s)
Cs
V (s)
Resistance (R) V ( s ) RI ( s ) Z (s)
I (s)
Inductance (L) V ( s ) LsI ( s )

[Sum of impedances]I(s)=[Sum of applied voltages]

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Automatic Control 31

Electrical Network (cont.)

Transform Methods:
Redraw the original network showing all time variables as Laplace
transforms.
Replace the component values with their impedance values.

Example (Transform methods)

Find the transfer function Vc(s)/V(s) by mesh analysis and transform
methods.
1 V (s) Vc ( s ) 1
As Z ( s ) Ls R , Z ( s ) and
Cs I ( s ) I ( s ) Cs

Vc ( s ) 1

V ( s ) ( LCs 2 RCs 1)

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Automatic Control 32

Electrical Network (cont.)

Example (Nodal Analysis)
Find the transfer function Vc(s)/V(s) by nodal analysis and transform
methods.
Node

Ground

V (s)
As I ( s ) , using Kirchhoffs Current Law at node
Z (s)
Vc ( s ) Vc ( s ) V ( s ) Vc ( s )

1
0
1/ Cs Ls R V ( s ) ( LCs 2 RCs 1)

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Automatic Control 33

Electrical Network (cont.)

Example (Voltage Division)
Find the transfer function Vc(s)/V(s) by voltage division and
transform methods.

Voltage across capacitor is a portion of the input voltage which is

proportional to the capacitor impedance to the sum of impedances.
1
Vc ( s ) Cs

V ( s)
Ls R 1
Cs
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Automatic Control 34

Electrical Network (cont.)

Complex Circuits via Mesh Analysis
Replace passive element values with their impedances Z(s).
Replace all sources and time variables with their Laplace transform
V(s), I(s).
Assume a transform current and a current direction in each mesh.
Write Kirchhoffs voltage law around each mesh.
Solve the simultaneous equations for the output.
Form the transfer function.

Impedances
Laplace transform
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Automatic Control 35

Electrical Network (cont.)

Example (Multiple Loops)
Find the transfer function I2(s)/V(s) of the given network.

Mesh 1:
R1 I1 ( s ) Ls I1 ( s ) I 2 ( s ) V ( s ) ( R1 Ls ) I1 ( s ) LsI 2 ( s ) V ( s )

Mesh 2:
1 1
Ls I 2 ( s ) I1 ( s ) R2 I 2 ( s ) I 2 (s) 0 LsI1 ( s ) Ls R2 I 2 (s) 0
Cs Cs
I 2 (s) LCs 2
By Cramers rule G (s)
V ( s ) ( R1 R2 ) LCs 2 ( R1R2C L) s R1
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Automatic Control 36

Electrical Network (cont.)

Ideal Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp)
vo (t ) A(v2 (t ) v1 (t )) Operational amplifier

Inverting Operational Amplifier

v2(t) is grounded
Vo ( s ) Z (s)
vo (t ) Av1 (t ) 2
Vi ( s ) Z1 ( s ) Inverting operational amplifier

Noninverting Operational Amplifier

Vo ( s ) Z1 ( s ) Z 2 ( s )

Vi ( s ) Z1 ( s ) Noninverting
operational
amplifier
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Automatic Control 37

Electrical Network (cont.)

Example (Inverting Operational Amplifier Circuit)
Find the transfer function, Vo(s)/Vi(s), for the given circuit.
Vo ( s) Z ( s)
2
Vi ( s) Z1 ( s)

1 360 103
Z1 ( s )
1 2.016 s 1
C1s
R1
1 107
Z 2 ( s ) R1 220 10
3

C2 s s
Vo ( s ) s 2 45.95s 22.55 The resulting circuit is called a PID
G ( s) 1.232 controller that can be used to improve
Vi ( s ) s the performance of a control system.

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Automatic Control 38

Electrical Network (cont.)

Exercise
Find the transfer function, G(s)=VL(s)/V(s), for the circuit given in the
figure. Solve the problem two ways-mesh analysis and nodal
analysis.

VL ( s ) s 2 2 s 1
G (s) 2
V ( s ) s 5s 2

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Automatic Control 39

Translational Mechanical System

Mechanical systems, like electrical networks, have three
passive, linear components.

Analogous to

Capacitor

Energy-storage
elements

Energy dissipator Resistance

elements

Inductor

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Automatic Control 40

Translational Mechanical System (cont.)

Example (Mass-Spring-Damper System)
Find the transfer function, X(s)/F(s), for the system.

Equation of Motion
Mx f v x Kx f
Taking Laplace Transform
( Ms 2 f v s K ) X ( s ) F ( s )
X ( s) 1
G (s)
F ( s ) Ms 2 f v s K

Transformed Free-body
Free-body diagram
diagram
Mx f v x Kx f
( Ms 2 f v s K ) X ( s ) F ( s )

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Automatic Control 41

Translational Mechanical System (cont.)

The Laplace transform of the force-displacement equation

F ( s ) KX ( s )

F (s)
F ( s ) f v sX ( s ) Z M (s)
X (s)

F ( s ) Ms 2 X ( s ) F (s) Z M (s) X (s)

[Sum of impedances]X(s)=[Sum of applied forces]

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Automatic Control 42

Translational Mechanical System (cont.)

Example (Two DoF)
Find the transfer function, X2(s)/F(s), for the system.

Forces due to only Forces due to only All forces on M1

motion of X1 motion of X2

[ M 1s 2 ( f v1 f v 3 ) s ( K1 K 2 )] X 1 ( s ) ( f v 3 s K 2 ) X 2 ( s ) F ( s )
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Automatic Control 43

Translational Mechanical System (cont.)

Example (cont.)

Forces due to only Forces due to only All forces on M2

motion of X2 motion of X1

( f v 3 s K 2 ) X 1 ( s ) [ M 2 s 2 ( f v 2 f v 3 )s ( K 2 K 3 )] X 2 ( s ) 0

X 2 (s) ( fv3 s K 2 )
By Cramers rule G (s)
F (s)

M 1s 2 ( f v1 f v 3 ) s ( K1 K 2 ) fv3s K 2
where
( f v 3 s K 2 ) M 2 s 2 ( f v 2 f v 3 )s ( K 2 K 3 )

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Automatic Control 44

Translational Mechanical System (cont.)

Example (Equations of Motion by Inspection)
Write the equations of motion for the mechanical network.

[ M 1s 2 ( f v1 f v 3 ) s ( K1 K 2 )] X 1 ( s ) K 2 X 2 ( s ) f v 3 sX 3 ( s ) 0

K 2 X 1 ( s ) [ M 2 s 2 ( f v 2 f v 4 ) s K 2 ] X 2 ( s ) f v 4 sX s (3) F ( s )

f v 3 sX 1 ( s ) f v 4 sX 2 ( s ) [ M 3 s 2 ( f v 3 f v 4 ) s ] X 3 ( s ) 0

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Automatic Control 45

Rotational Mechanical System

Rotational mechanical systems are handled the same way as
translational mechanical systems, except that torque replaces force
and angular displacement replaces translational displacement.

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Automatic Control 46

Rotational Mechanical System (cont.)

Example (Two Equations of Motion)
Find the transfer function, 2 ( s ) / T ( s ) , for the rotational system.

( J1s 2 D1s K )1 ( s ) K 2 ( s ) T ( s )
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Automatic Control 47

Rotational Mechanical System (cont.)

Example (cont.)

K1 ( s ) ( J 2 s 2 D2 s K ) 2 ( s ) 0

2 (s) K
G (s)
T (s)

J1s 2 D1s K K
where
K J 2 s 2 D2 s K
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Automatic Control 48

Rotational Mechanical System (cont.)

Exercise
Find the transfer function, G ( s ) 2 ( s ) / T ( s ), for the rotational
mechanical system.

2 (s) 1
G (s) G (s)
T (s) 2s 2 s 1

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Automatic Control 49

Systems with Gears

The linearized interaction between two gears is shown as

The relation between the rotation of gears

2 r1 N1
r11 r2 2
1 r2 N 2
The relationship between input and output torques
T2 1 N 2
T11 T2 2
T1 2 N1
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Automatic Control 50

Systems with Gears (cont.)

Rotational mechanical system driven by gears

N2
Equation of Motion ( Js 2 Ds K ) 2 ( s ) T1 ( s )
N1
N1 N N
As 2 1 ( Js 2 Ds K ) 1 1 ( s ) 2 T1 ( s )
N2 N2 N1
2
N1
( Js Ds K ) 1 ( s ) T1 ( s )
2

2
N
2
Rotational mechanical impedances can be reflected through gear N destination
trains by multiplying the mechanical impedance by the ratio
source
N
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Automatic Control 51

Systems with Gears (cont.)

Example (System with Lossless Gears)

Impedances are reflected by (N2/N1)2, and torque is reflected by N2/N1.

N2
Equation of Motion ( J e s 2 De s K e ) 2 ( s ) T1 ( s )
N1

2 ( s) N 2 / N1
G (s)
T (s) J e s 2 De s K e

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Automatic Control 52

Systems with Gears (cont.)

Exercise
Find the transfer function, G(s) 2 ( s) / T ( s), for the rotational
mechanical system with gears.

2 (s) 1/ 2
G (s) G (s)
T (s) s2 s 1

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Automatic Control 53

Electromechanical System
A motor is an electromechanical component that yields a
displacement output for a voltage input.
The motors schematic is shown as the figure.

Ra: armature resistance

La: armature inductor
vb: back electromotive force
(back EMF)
ia: armature current
ea: applied armature voltage

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Automatic Control 54

Electromechanical System (cont.)

Motor Torque Tm ( s ) K t I a ( s )
d m (t )
Back EMF vb (t ) K b Vb ( s ) K b s m ( s )
dt
ia (t )
Armature Circuit Ra ia (t ) La vb (t ) ea (t )
dt
( Ra La s )
Laplace Transform Tm ( s ) K b s m ( s ) Ea ( s )
Kt

Motor Dynamics
Tm ( s ) ( J m s 2 Dm s ) m ( s )
m ( s) K t / ( Ra J m )
If we assume that the armature
inductance, La, is small compared to Ea ( s ) 1 KK
the armature resistance, Ra, then s s ( Dm t b )
Jm Ra
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Automatic Control 55

Electromechanical System (cont.)

For a model-based control, we need to know the
constants in the transfer function.
m ( s) K t / ( Ra J m )

Ea ( s ) 1 KK
s s ( Dm t b )
Jm Ra

DC motor driving a rotational mechanical load

2 2
N1 N1
Jm Ja JL Dm Da DL
N2 N2

The other constants Kt, Ra, and Kb can be obtained by using dynamometer,
a device for measuring force, torque, or power.

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Automatic Control 56

Electromechanical System (cont.)

( Ra La s )
Laplace Transform Tm ( s ) K b s m ( s ) Ea ( s )
Kt
Kb Kt Kt
With La=0 Tm m + ea
Ra Ra
For a DC voltage ea Tm vs. m is a straight line

When Tm=0, i.e. No Load

Stall Torque
ea
No-load Speed no load
Kb
When m=0, i.e. Zero Velocity
K No-load Speed

Stall Torque Tstall t ea

Ra
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Automatic Control 57

Electromechanical System (cont.)

Example (DC Motor and Load)
Given the system and torque-speed curve, find the transfer function

L ( s) / Ea ( s)

ea 100
2
N1
2
1
Jm Ja JL 5 700 12
2
N 10 no load ea / Kb 50 Kb 2
2
N
2
1 Kt
Dm Da DL 1 2 800 10 Tstall K t ea / Ra 500 5
N2 10 Ra
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Automatic Control 58

Electromechanical System (cont.)

Example (cont.)
m ( s) K t / ( Ra J m ) m (s)

5 /12

0.417
Ea ( s ) 1 KK Ea ( s ) 1 s ( s 1.667)
s s ( Dm t b ) s s (10 5 2)
Jm Ra 12

By using the gear ration, N1/N2=1/10

L (s) 0.0417

Ea ( s ) s ( s 1.667)

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan

Automatic Control 59

Electric Circuit Analogs

Basic relationship for Electrical and Mechanical
Components

Two analogs: Voltage-current Force-velocity

Current-voltage Force-velocity
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
Automatic Control 60

Electric Circuit Analogs (cont.)

Series Analog
( Ms 2 f v s K ) X ( s ) F ( s )
K
Ms f v V ( s ) F ( s )
s
1
Ls R I (s) E (s)
Cs

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan

Automatic Control 61

Electric Circuit Analogs (cont.)

Parallel Analog
K
Ms f v V ( s ) F ( s )
s

1 1
Cs E ( s ) I ( s )
R Ls

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan

Automatic Control 62

Electric Circuit Analogs (cont.)

Example

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan

Automatic Control 63

Nonlinearities
The models developed in this course are linear time-
invariant (LTI) system.
A linear system possesses two properties
Superposition
Homogeneity

Linear System Nonlinear System

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan

Automatic Control 64

Nonlinearities (cont.)
Some Examples of Nonlinearities

A designer can often make a linear approximation to a nonlinear system.

Linear approximations simplify the analysis and design of a system.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan

Automatic Control 65

Linearization of Nonlinearities
Using Taylor Series Expansion
df ( x x0 )
f ( x) f ( x0 )
dx x x0 1!

d2 f ( x x0 ) 2
2
dx x x0
2!

df ( x x0 )
f ( x0 )
dx x x0 1!

df df
f ( x) f ( x0 ) ( x x0 ) f ( x) x
dx x x0 dx x x0

f ( x) m x x x
0

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan

Automatic Control 66

Linearization of Nonlinearities (cont.)

Example
Linearize f(x)=5cos(x) about x=/2

df
As f ( x) f ( x0 ) ( x x0 )
dx x x0

df
f ( x) 5cos( x) f ( x0 ) ( x x0 )
dx x x0

5cos( / 2) 5sin( x) x /2 ( x / 2)

5( x / 2)

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan