Quaternary Science Reviews, Vol. 17, pp.

395409, 1998
( 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd.
Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved.
PII: S02773791(97)00048-6 02773791/98, $19.00

SAHARAN WIND REGIMES TRACED BY THE SrNd ISOTOPIC

COMPOSITION OF SUBTROPICAL ATLANTIC SEDIMENTS:
LAST GLACIAL MAXIMUM vs TODAY

F.E. GROUSSET*, M. PARRA*, A. BORY-, P. MARTINEZ*, P. BERTRAND*,

G. SHIMMIELD- and R.M. ELLAM
* Departement Geologie et Oceanographie, UMR CNRS 5805, Universite Bordeaux I, Avenue des Facultes,
33405 Talence Cedex, France
(e-mail: grousset@geocean.u-bordeaux.fr.)
- Marine Geosciences Unit, Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Edinburgh,
West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JW, U.K.
Isotope Geosciences Unit, Scottish Universities Research and Reactor Centre, East Kilbride G75 0QF, U.K.
AbstractNew NdSr isotopic data on the (30 lm lithic particles of surface and Last Glacial
Maximum sediments recovered along the African margin between the Equator and the
Gibraltar Strait are presented in combination with grain-size measurements. This (30 lm size
fraction allows us to eliminate any hemipelagic contribution that could occur in the coarser
fractions. In the eolian fraction, both Sr and Nd isotopic tracers reveal the same major
northwestern origin (Mauritania, Mali, southern Algeria and Morocco). The Archaean forma-
tions of the western Saharan shield could be the source of the very unradiogenic ratios observed
here. The more southern regions (Senegal, Guinea) act only as secondary sources. A similar
pattern is observed for the LGM. Lithic particles are mostly transported by both Trade and
Saharan Air Layer (SAL) winds, along an approximate NESW axis; this main feature matches
the southern plume, characterizing the dust transport observed during winter. No significant
latitudinal shift of the belt winds is observed between the LGM and today. At the LGM,
however, dust fluxes were 24 times higher than today, leading to a more Archaean-type
imprint in the deposits. We do not observe any clear relationship between the latitudinal
variability of the upwelling systems identified in this region at the LGM and the location of the
major wind systems. Both enhanced aridity on the continent and increased wind speed
probably occurred together over western tropical Africa during the Last Glacial period. ( 1998
Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved

INTRODUCTION derived from the more southerly SaharanSahelian

region (Rognon et al., 1996), indicating transport by
It is well known that every year, millions of tons of
EW winds. Depending on their altitude, these EW
Saharan dust are transported over, and deposited in,
winds are called: continental trade winds, Saharan Air
the tropical Atlantic (Buat-Menard and Chesselet,
Layer (SAL) or African Easterly Jets. According to
1979; Kolla et al., 1979; Sarnthein et al., 1981; Ganor
dAlmeida (1986), they mostly originated from source
and Mamane, 1982; Duce et al., 1991), with the finest
regions located roughly at the same latitude in the
particles even reaching the Caribbean (Prospero, 1981).
Sahelian belt (Mali, Niger, southern Algeria and even
The study of dust accumulation in marine sediments
Chad). These two major wind systems are still active
leads to a better understanding of palaeo-atmospheric
to-day over this region (Schutz, 1980; Coude-Gaussen
circulation. Previous studies have demonstrated that
et al., 1987), their relative intensity being seasonally
Saharan dust is transported by two major wind sys-
modulated. They are at the origin of two major sea-
tems. Thus, the crust-derived fraction of the Holocene
sonal dust plumes over the ocean: one centered around
loess that accumulated over the Canary Islands was
20N during the summer, the other shifting southward
derived from Morocco (Grousset et al., 1992) and
around 10N during the winter (Kalu, 1979; Moulin
transported from the NE by the marine trade winds.
et al., 1997). The seasonal latitudinal shifts of about 10
By contrast, the crust-derived fraction of the Holocene
of the ITCZ (Inter Tropical Convergence Zone) from
loess accumulated over the Cape Verde Islands was
a summer northern location to a winter southern loca-
tion would control the location of these plumes. In
oceanic surface sediments, the distribution of lacustrine
Present address: Centre des Faibles Radioactivites, Laboratoire diatoms would reflect the transport of aerosols by
Mixte CNRS-CEA, Avenue de la Terrasse, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette,
France.
these two major wind regimes (Pokras and Mix, 1985).
Present address: Dunstaffnage Marine Laboratory, P.O. Box 3., According to Kolla et al. (1979), who studied the
Oban, Argyll PA34 3AD, U.K. quartz distribution in sediment cores, the main dust

395
396 Quaternary Science Reviews: Volume 17
transport axis was centered around about 8N at the
LGM and has shifted northward since that period, as
far north as about 18N in the late Holocene. Sarnthein
et al. (1981) studied the distribution of the terrigenous
silt fraction (%'6 lm of the carbonate-and-opal-free)
in both surface and LGM levels. This fraction should
reflect the input of African aerosols transported west-
ward, mostly by the SAL winds, across the Atlantic
ocean. However, these authors do not observe any
clear latitudinal shift of the patterns between these two
periods, but do infer an increase, by a factor of 2, in the
silt particle flux at LGM, with the latitudinal location
remaining roughly the same. Thus, the ITCZ may not
have shifted substantially between Glacial and Inter-
glacial periods, and the observed difference would be
the result of variable prevailing winds, NE trades car-
rying white quartz, chlorite and illite from the northern
region and EW SAL winds transporting iron-oxide-
coated quartz and kaolinite from the more southern
Sahelian zone (Sarnthein and Koopmann, 1979). On
the other hand, Ruddiman (1997) recently suggested
that, as changes in monsoonally driven source-area
aridity had not left a strong dust-flux imprint in tropi-
cal Atlantic sediments in the late Pleistocene, source-
area aridity could not be the main factor controlling
dust fluxes. In this scenario, enhanced glacial influxes
of dust would be more likely to the due to changes in
transport by winter winds, rather than to glacial hypera-
ridity. Furthermore, Rea (1994) suggested that aridity
was the dominating factor that controls the increase in
the dust flux emitted by the desert areas at the LGM.
Clearly, the origin of LGM lithic particles, their
glacial atmospheric context and their marine sedimen-
tary regimes are highly controversial issues. In this
context, we studied the (30 lm lithic particles (the
carbonate-free fraction) of surface sediments (box-
cores) and the LGM levels (piston-cores) recovered
along the African margin between the Equator and the
Gibraltar Strait. This size fraction ((30 lm) allows us
to eliminate any hemipelagic contribution that could
occur in the coarser fractions. The purpose of studying
the NdSr isotopic composition and the grain-size
distribution of these lithic particles was to fingerprint
their origins and identify their distribution patterns for
both periods (LGM and today). These two approaches
might help to constrain better the atmospheric trans-
port patterns and strength, to identify possible latitudi-
nal shifts that could characterize the contrast between
glacial and interglacial regimes and thus to assess
better the hypothesized temporal latitudinal shifts of
the Mauritanian upwelling system.
SAMPLES AND METHODS
Samples
Sample locations are reported in Fig. 1 and Table 1.
Aerosol samples: except for two samples collected
over the Canary Islands (dA18) and Niger (dNya), all
the aerosol samples were collected aboard research
vessels, during oceanographic cruises conducted over
the last two decades, off NW Africa between the Ca-
nary Islands and the Equator.
Loess, fine powdered dust (feshfesh) and silt sam-
ples were collected in the northwestern regions of the
African continent from Morocco to as far south as
Guinea, mostly in dune fields (ergs) and Sahelian pow-
dered dust accumulations. Although these deposits are
drifted by winds over long distances, we assume that
they are mainly derived from their underlying outcrops
and thus they provide an average composition of the
regional geological units. We also documented the
areas that are considered as the main sources of the
present-day aerosols (dAlmeida, 1986; Chiapello, 1996;
Chiapello et al., 1997).
Marine sediment samples: we sampled the first cen-
timeter of both the surface sediments (using multi- and
box-cores) and the LGM levels (using piston- and
karsten-corers) in cores recovered along the African
margin, between the Gibraltar Strait and the Equator.
Ages were derived from the organic carbon records
measured on all cores and calibrated against the d18O
records obtained on planktic foraminifera from three
of these cores (Bertrand et al., 1996; Martinez et al.,
1996). In the four BOFS cores, the LGM levels were
derived from the d18O records obtained on planktic
foraminifera (Matthewson et al., 1995). Due to biotur-
bation processes, surface sediments generally represent
a mixture of particles deposited over the last few centu-
ries and frequently the last two millennia. Thus, their
isotopic composition will most likely reflect an integra-
tion of the historical period, rather than the present-
day situation. For both the surface and the LGM
levels, we sampled hemipelagic deposits after checking
optically that there was no visible evidence of turbidi-
ties (hiatus, vertical grain-size gradient, laminae)
or of bioturbation (worm burrows). Nonetheless, we
cannot rule out the possibility of a hardly visible diffuse
bioturbation, mostly due to benthic foraminifera
movements (Bornmalm et al., 1997).
Methods
Grain-size distributions were measured on the lithic
fraction, after leaching the carbonate fraction, using
a Malvern 2600 E laser sizer, based on the near-for-
ward scattering of a laser beam by particles suspended
in water (McCave and Syvitski, 1991).
Sufficient sample was weighed out to yield about
100 mg of alumino-silicate material after dissolution of
the calcium carbonates and crushed in a grinder. Car-
bonate was dissolved using mechanical agitation of
a pH sodium acetate solution buffered at a pH of 4.5.
This carbonate free fraction was then sieved at 30 lm
in order to analyze the (30 lm fraction. The carbon-
ate-free material may include some opaline silica, but
since the concentrations of Sr and Nd in marine bio-
genic opal are low (+5 ppm and +3 ppm, respective-
ly, unpublished data), we do not consider this to be
 TABLE 1. Sample location, Sr and Nd concentrations and isotopic ratios

Sample Name Location Nd 143Nd/144Nd E(Nd)o Sr 87Sr/86Sr Source*

(ppm) ($2sig]10~6) (ppm) ($2sig]10~6)

Possible source areas

Ouj Oujda Morocco 29.9 0.512031 (12) !11.8 111.6 0.716593 (22) 1
Elra El Rachidia Morocco 32.7 0.511938 (21) !13.6 87.2 0.726932 (08) 1
Foum Foum el Hassan Morocco 38.7 0.511761 (14) !17.1 90.3 0.728197 (09) 1
Smara Essmarra Morocco 40.2 0.511798 (16) !16.3 104.6 0.734041 (18) 1
Zouerat Zouerat Mauritania 38.0 0.511725 (12) !17.8 91.6 0.735679 (37) 1
Atar Atar Mauritania 3.5 0.511717 (12) !17.9 23.1 0.727284 (19) 1
Erg Erg sud Atar Mauritania 3.2 0.511943 (07) !13.5 78.1 0.737645 (17) 1
Elm El Mroiti Mauritania 35.5 0.511784 (12) !16.6 94.1 0.737535 (16) 1
Tich Tichit Mauritania 31.4 0.511856 (08) !15.2 78.2 0.731493 (11) 1
Kif Kiffa Mauritania 31.5 0.511923 (07) !13.9 77.8 0.728389 (16) 1
Nou Nouakchott Mauritania 55.9 0.511760 (09) !17.1 126.5 0.720021 (10) 1
Tim Timimoun Algeria 21.1 0.726253 (13) 1
MEK-21 Sebkra Mekkerane Algeria 164.7 0.720515 (16) 1
MEK-58 Sebkra Mekkerane Algeria 168.6 0.724395 (35) 1
ATK-35 Atakor Algeria 39.7 0.512015 (08) !12.1 1
Tas Tassendjanet Algeria 0.511247 !27.1 0.713 2
Kay Kayes Mali 30.9 0.511855 (11) !15.2 66.9 0.736840 (10) 1
Tamba Tambacounda Senegal 31.4 0.511894 (08) !14.5 74.0 0.718296 (14) 1
Est Est Dakar Senegal 3.2 0.511807 (13) !16.2 10.6 0.726326 (11) 1
Foun Foundiougne Senegal 28.4 0.511901 (10) !14.3 127.5 0.714707 (18) 1
Ro continental shelf Senegal 41.9 0.511894 (11) !14.5 97.5 0.715296 (20) 1
Sen Riv Senegal river Senegal 19.2 0.511838 (31) !13.1 47.7 0.728581 (42) 1
Til Tillaberi Niger 29.0 0.511999 (12) !12.4 87.1 0.723832 (28) 1
Lab Labbe Guinea 22.0 0.512013 (08) !12.1 37.5 0.723603 (43) 1
F.E. Grousset et al.: Saharan wind regimes

Ivo Ivory Coast 0.511493 !23.2 0.7146 2

Aerosols Latitude Longitude
A17 Canaries Islands +28N +04W 33.9 0.511949 (10) !13.4 95.7 0.725225 (16) 1
SL off St. Louis (Senegal) +17N +1830W 13.9 0.511890 (14) !14.6 154.3 0.713499 (30) 1
A9- Cape Verde Basin 1114N +26W 35.6 0.512062 (17) !11.2 140.9 0.721871 (09) 1
Nya Niamey (Niger) 14N +0230E 32.0 0.512123 (11) !10.0 90.5 0.714660 (09) 1
A18 Sierra Leone Basin 813N +1330W 37.9 0.511897 (12) !14.4 147.3 0.721116 (14) 1
A4- Cape Verde Basin 03N +2930W 38.6 0.511980 (40) !12.8 127.7 0.720972 (46) 1
n4 Corsica 42N +09E 23.2 0.512059 !11.3 128.6 0.72071 3
n10 Corsica 42N +09E 25.9 0.511959 !13.2 92.5 0.72451 3
n17 Corsica 42N +09E 33.4 0.511913 !14.1 128.1 0.71925 3
n27 Corsica 42N +09E 31.3 0.511890 !14.6 116.0 0.72426 3
n59 Corsica 42N +09E 26.3 0.512025 !12.0 110.2 0.72227 3
397
 398
TABLE 1. (continued)

Sample Cruise Latitude Longitude Depth Nd 143Nd/144Nd E(Nd)o Sr 87Sr/86Sr Source*

(m) (ppm) ($2sig]10~6) (ppm) ($2sig]10~6)

Surface sediments
K23 Sedorqua 3420N 0701W 730 35.3 0.512037 (08) !11.7 102.2 0.719567 (19) 4
K25 Sedorqua 3224N 1025W 3165 33.0 0.511969 (10) !13.0 112.5 0.724544 (19) 4
K22 Sedorqua 2659N 1413W 1245 142.2 0.719791 (10) 1
K17d Sedorqua 2653N 1441W 2597 165.3 0.718151 (09) 1
K20b Sedorqua 2502N 1639W 1445 32.2 0.511911 (10) !15.3 200.0 0.720657 (11) 1
28 BOFS 2434N 2249W 4855 30.7 0.511947 (07) !13.4 131.0 0.720137 (19) 4
K15 Sedorqua 2344N 1716W 1000 27.4 0.511899 (09) !14.4 150.6 0.720385 (12) 1
32 BOFS 2231N 2200W 4560 29.4 0.511940 (10) !13.6 142.4 0.719635 (66) 4
K09 Sedorqua 2120N 1815W 2002 24.5 0.511876 (10) !14.8 137.7 0.720191 (08) 1
29 BOFS 2034N 2107W 4005 27.1 0.511892 (06) !14.6 133.1 0.720367 (19) 4
CV2 Dialante 2000N 3000W 5000 32.1 0.512024 (15) !12.0 121.0 0.720419 (27) 5
K02 Sedorqua 1929N 1717W 1407 21.9 0.511901 (58) !14.3 125.0 0.721866 (27) 1
31 BOFS 1900N 2010W 3300 27.4 0.511940 (10) !13.6 138.6 0.719497 (53) 4
VM22-196 L-DEO (Vema cores) 1350N 1857W 3728 32.4 0.511832 (19) !15.7 138.7 0.718021 (18) 1
VM27-175 L-DEO (Vema cores) 0848N 2212W 4548 34.6 0.512733 (11) #1.9 476.8 0.704635 (16) 1
VM22-189 L-DEO (Vema cores) 0455N 2107W 2525 40.0 0.511684 (12) !18.6 124.5 0.719184 (13) 1
VM30-41K L-DEO (Vema cores) 0013N 2303W 3874 26.6 0.512058 (14) !11.3 111.7 0.719789 (11) 1
Glacial sediments (LGM)
K17d Sedorqua 2653N 1441W 2597 205.3 0.716317 (25) 1
K20b Sedorqua 2502N 1639W 1445 24.8 0.511853 (28) !14.1 122.9 0.719334 (28) 1
28 BOFS 2434N 2249W 4855 28.5 0.512001 (08) !12.4 126.7 0.720436 (17) 4
K15 Sedorqua 2344N 1716W 1000 36.9 0.511634 (09) !19.5 187.3 0.719040 (50) 1
Quaternary Science Reviews: Volume 17

32 BOFS 2231N 2200W 4560 27.0 0.511964 (08) !13.1 104.0 0.720932 (33) 4
K11 Sedorqua 2129N 1757W 1200 30.7 0.511720 (11) !17.9 199.6 0.716994 (39) 1
29 BOFS 2034N 2107W 4005 28.2 0.511933 (11) !13.7 168.5 0.717435 (34) 4
K02 Sedorqua 1929N 1717W 1407 32.1 0.511723 (11) !17.8 113.1 0.723080 (44) 1
31 BOFS 1900N 2010W 3300 26.3 0.511957 (07) !13.3 158.7 0.717439 (38) 4
VM22-196 L-DEO (Vema cores) 1350N 1857W 3728 27.8 0.511697 (09) !18.3 79.1 0.719912 (13) 1
VM27-175 L-DEO (Vema cores) 0848N 2212W 4548 39.2 0.511819 (08) !15.9 145.1 0.718480 (73) 1
VM22-189 L-DEO (Vema cores) 0455N 2107W 2525 35.1 0.511928 (09) !13.8 112.1 0.718046 (11) 1
VM30-41K L-DEO (Vema cores) 0013N 2303W 3874 25.4 0.512053 (09) !11.4 126.2 0.717470 (07) 1

* 1"This work; 2"Allegre and Ben Othman (1982); 3"Colin (1993); 4"Bory (1997); 5"Grousset and Biscaye (1989).
-
In a previous paper we had already analyzed the bulk fraction of these samples (Grousset et al., 1988).

Cores from DGO (Sedorqua and Dialante cruises).

R/V Charles Darwin cruise 53 BOFS Leg C (U.K.).

 F.E. Grousset et al.: Saharan wind regimes
FIG. 1. Sample location. Symbols: Possible source areas (solid
circles), marine cores (squares), aerosols (crossed open squares).
Along with our sediment cores (solid squares), are some cores from
Dasch (1969) and Grousset et al. (1988) (open squares).
a serious problem. We will refer to this carbonate-free
fraction as the lithic fraction. This fraction may some-
times also contain a minor authigenic component, e.g.
FeMnoxides, that has a negligible effect on the iso-
topic composition of the lithic fraction (Grousset and
Biscaye, 1989). &20 mg aliquots of carbonate-free
samples (and &150 mg for the BOFS cores) were
dissolved with a mixture of teflon-distilled [HF#
HClO #HNO ]. Sr and Nd were chemically sepa-
4 3
rated through ionic chromatographic columns, in
a class-1000 clean laboratory. We followed chemical
and mass spectrometer techniques previously des-
cribed (Grousset et al., 1988; Grousset and Biscaye,
1989; Fitton et al., 1997). TIMS analysis of the samples
was done on two different mass spectrometers: analysis
of Sr and Nd in the BOFS cores (Table 1) was done on
a VG Sector 54-30 multi-detector mass spectrometer at
Scottish Universities Research and Reactor Centre
(SURRC) [U.K.]; analysis of Sr and Nd on the other
samples was done at the Universite de Toulouse
[France] on a Finnigan MAT 261 multi-detector mass
spectrometer. At Toulouse, Sr was mounted as nitrate
on a W filament and Nd as nitrate on a Re-filament; at
SURRC, Sr was mounted as nitrate onto Ta filament
and Nd as nitrate onto TaReTa triple filaments. All
the measurements, on both mass spectrometers, were
made using multiple Faraday cups. We have intercali-
brated the results of both mass spectrometers with
standards and the results are within the range of errors
399
for individual analyses on each mass spectrometer. The
measured 87Sr/86Sr and 143Nd/144Nd ratios were cor-
rected for mass fractionation by normalizing to 86Sr/
88Sr"0.1194 and 146Nd/144Nd"0.7219, respective-
ly. Blanks were measured (Sr(10~9 g and Nd(
10~10 g) and are considered to be negligible in all cases.
For convenience, 143Nd/144Nd ratios are normalized
and reported as follows: e (o)"((143Nd/144Nd/
N$
0.512636)!1)]104, in which 0.512636 is the Chon-
dritic Uniform Reservoir value (Jacobsen and Wasser-
burg, 1980). The spike contribution to the isotope
ratios for samples was corrected using an iterative
calculation. Strontium standard NIST 987 was meas-
ured 6 times at Toulouse with an average 87Sr/86Sr"
0.710205 ($0.00002), and 14 times at SURRC with an
average 87Sr/86Sr"0.710214 ($0.00002) vs the certi-
fied value of 0.710245. Neodymium standard LaJolla
was analyzed at Toulouse 5 times with an average
143Nd/144Nd"0.511846 ($0.000015) vs the certified
value of 0.511865. This standard was analyzed at
SURRC 20 times during instrument installation, when
it gave 0.511851 ($0.000012). Neodymium standard
Johnson-Matthey was analyzed at SURRC 25 times
with an average 143Nd/144Nd"0.511504 ($0.00002)
vs the long-term mean value of 0.511503 ($0.000016).
Differences between the analyzed and certified values
are within the range of the uncertainty of the sample
measurements.
Possible Effect of Grain-size on Isotopic Compositions
Dasch (1969) reported increasing 87Sr/86Sr ratios
with decreasing grain-size in carbonate-free sediment
samples. A grain-size effect on Sr-isotope composition
must therefore be eliminated or at least considered.
This possibility has already been discussed for the
Saharan-derived aerosols (Grousset et al., 1992;
Rognon et al., 1996). We minimized this potential
grain-size effect by studying the same grain-size frac-
tion ((30 lm) in all samples. The choice of this size
range is justified below (Results section). However, for
the BOFS samples (see Table 1), we analyzed the car-
bonate-free bulk samples: nonetheless we do not sus-
pect any significant bias in these four samples as they
were collected far away from the continent ('500 km
off the coasts), thus precluding any significant input of
coarse ('30 lm) particles, making the sediments
themselves effectively (30 lm.
By contrast, possible grain-size effects on Nd iso-
topic compositions are of little concern because the Nd
isotope ratios are almost not affected by grain size
variations, either in riverine sediments (Goldstein et al.,
1984) or in aerosols and loess (Grousset et al., 1992).
RESULTS
Grain-size Distributions
The grain-size distributions of source samples,
aerosol and marine sediment samples reveal three
400 Quaternary Science Reviews: Volume 17
FIG. 2. Grain-size distribution of the carbonate-free fraction of
some characteristic samples: uni-modal aerosols and sand dune fields
(a), present-day (c) and LGM (b) marine sediments; some rare LGM
samples display a bi-modal distribution, explained by a mixture of
aerosols and hemipelagic deposits, advected from the continental
shelf (d).
major features (Fig. 2). A first family (Fig. 2a) displays
a uni-modal distribution, with more than 80% of the
particles ranging between &70 and &90 lm. This
sandy population is very well sorted, is characteristic of
the Saharan sand dune fields and of the continental
shelf deposits, and is very different from the aerosol
distribution in which the mode is centered around
&20 lm. A second family also displays a uni-modal
distribution, with a mode centered around &20
25 lm (Fig. 2bc). In some samples, this mode shifts
slightly toward the coarser diameters, up to &30
40 lm. The fine particles ((10 lm) account for less
than 20%. These silty populations characterize most of
the marine sediments. A third bi-modal family (Fig. 2d)
characterizes a few LGM marine sediments from the
continental slope of Mauritania, the two previous
modes being superimposed (e.g. LGM levels in cores
K11 and K20). In this last group of samples, we suspect
that such coarse particles (coarse mode) could not have
been introduced by atmospheric transport, but more
likely reflect the addition of particles advected by
gravitational processes from the upper slope or the
external shelf. In core K20 (Table 1), we observe about
40% of '63 lm particles at the LGM, and less than
20% today; such a high value at the LGM could be
explained by an advected hemipelagic contribution.
Indeed, at the LGM the low sea-level stand was
located at about !120 m (Fairbridge, 1961) and, thus,
dune fields invaded the narrow continental shelf and
might have directly fed the slope with coarse particles.
This is confirmed by the fact that the size of '80% of
the particles from both the Saharan dune fields and the
sediments from the Senegal shelf, range from &60 to
&100 lm.
For this reason, in order to fingerprint only the
wind-borne particles directly derived from the atmo-
sphere, isotopic analyses have been conducted only on
the (30 lm grain-size fraction. Moreover, most of the
dust particles collected over this oceanic region are
smaller than &30 lm (Beltagy et al., 1972; Schutz,
1980; Coude-Gaussen, 1989; Wefer and Fischer, 1993;
Ratmeyer et al., 1997), which is in agreement with the
fact that in the surface sediments more than 80% of the
particles are smaller than 30 lm (mode centered
around 20 lm).
Isotopic Results
Sr/ 86Sr ratios and eNd (o) distributions
87
In considering the surface sediments, we have aug-
mented the new 87Sr/86Sr ratios measured in this
study, with previously published Sr isotope data
(Dasch, 1969; Grousset and Biscaye, 1989). In the detri-
tal fraction of the surface sediments, 87Sr/86Sr ratios
range from &0.715 to &0.725 (with an average of
0.7194 for 25 values) and are thus rather homogeneous
if compared to the values observed in the entire Atlan-
tic Ocean: &0.7033 to &0.7450 (Biscaye et al., sub-
mitted). Moreover, there is no obvious geographic
87Sr/86Sr zonation. Over the same region, aerosol Sr
isotope ratios define a similar range (&0.7135 to
&0.7253). Data from the literature (Biscaye et al.,
1974; Grousset and Biscaye, 1989), even though they
also fall within this range, are not directly comparable
because they were obtained on bulk aerosols and are
thus modified by the carbonate fraction.
The geographic distribution of e (o) in the detrital
N$
fraction of surface sediments is displayed in Fig. 3a.
Previous data from the literature obtained on both
sediments (Grousset et al., 1988) and aerosols (Gold-
stein et al., 1984; Grousset et al., 1988) are also included.
The general pattern displayed in Fig. 3a corresponds
roughly to that obtained previously, albeit at much
lower resolution (Grousset et al., 1988). Sixteen e (o)
N$
values range from !11.3 to !18.6 (with an average
of !13.8). Over the same region, present-day aerosols
display a narrower range (!12.8 to !14.6). These
values are much less radiogenic than the nearby Medi-
terranean Sea sediments, !2 to !10 (Frost et al.,
1986), that are significantly influenced by the local
active volcanism. A similar local volcanic influence is
observed in core V27-175 (e (o)"#1.9; 87Sr/86Sr
N$
 F.E. Grousset et al.: Saharan wind regimes 401

FIG. 3. (a) Present-day distribution of e (o). (b) Distribution of e (o) at the LGM. Symbols: Possible source areas (solid circles), marine cores
N$ N$
(data from the literature: open squares; our data: solid squares), aerosols (crossed squares), Senegal river (solid diamond). Isoline !20 is drawn
according to data from Chardon (1996) and Potrel et al. (1996).

&0.7046), in which some volcanogenic particles were

observed, probably inherited from the nearby Cape
Verde volcanic islands through turbiditic currents.
This sample cannot therefore be representative of
eolian material.
Although their contribution is probably negligible in
this region, we have also to consider local rivers as
possible sources of lithic particles. Potential riverine
sources include the minor local Senegal River, which
enters the Atlantic at the latitude of the Cape Verde
Islands (e (o)"!13.1), and the remote Niger River,
N$
which has e (o) of about !10.5 (Goldstein et al.,
N$
1984). Fluvial particles could be advected by oceanic
bottom currents flowing westward towards the region
studied here (Biscaye, 1965) and thereby influence the
sediment samples.
Finally, in the detrital fraction of the LGM sedi-
ments, 87Sr/86Sr ratios (Table 1) range from &0.717
to &0.723 (with an average of 0.72 for 14 values). The
e (o) values of the LGM sediments (Fig. 3b) range
N$ FIG. 4. 87Sr/86Sr ratios plotted against 1000/Sr of surface and last-
from !11.4 down to !19.5 (with an average of !15),
thereby revealing a significantly less radiogenic Nd glacial maximum (LGM) sediments and both literature values and
measured values of (30 lm fractions of aerosol, loess and desertic
than for the surface sediments. samples from possible source areas. Symbols: possible source areas
(solid circles; and open diamond for sample named Tim in Table 1),
87 marine surface sediments (solid squares), marine LGM sediments
Sr/ 86Sr ratios vs Sr concentrations (open squares), aerosols (crossed squares), Archaean Rocks (data
In considering the Sr isotope data, it is useful to plot from Potrel et al., 1996; Chardon, 1996) (solid triangles), Precam-
brian granitoids (data from Allegre and Ben Othman, 1980) (reversed
87Sr/86Sr vs 1000/Sr (Fig. 4). Inverting the concentra- solid triangles), sea-water (black cross), Cape Verde basalts (open
tion is avantageous because mixtures between two circle), Senegal river (solid diamond). For end-member A: see
end-members are constrained to lie upon straight lines Results section.
402 Quaternary Science Reviews: Volume 17
(instead of hyperbolae), making the identification of
binary mixing straight forward. On this plot, the data
define two distinct fields (called Field I and Field II in
Fig. 4). Both fields have a common end-member (low
87Sr/86Sr ratios and high Sr concentration) labelled A
in Fig. 4. Field I links end-member A to the most
radiogenic Sr-rich source samples (Morocco, Maurita-
nia and Mali). Field II links A to more southerly
source samples (Senegal, Guinea). Oceanic surface
sediments, as well as most of the aerosols, fall into Field
I. LGM sediments located north of the Cape Verde
islands also fall into Field I, but a few LGM sediments
located between Cape Verde islands and the Equator,
together with one aerosol collected off Saint-Louis
(Senegal), tend to shift toward Field II.
Sr/ 86Sr ratios plotted against eNd (o)
87
In this kind of diagram (Fig. 5), mixtures obtained by
mixing particles from two end-members, define hyper-
bolae, the shape of which are determined by the Sr and
Nd concentrations and isotopic compositions of the
two end-members (Langmuir et al., 1978; Faure, 1986).
The sediment samples plot within (calculated) hyper-
bolic envelopes encompassing the northwestern
source-areas (Field I: Morocco, Mali, Mauritania) and
the southern source-areas (Field II: Senegal), respec-
tively. These envelopes are hyperbolic mixing curves
calculated by mixing a volcanic end member and a de-
sert-derived dust component. Almost all the surface
sediment and aerosol samples plot in Field I, clearly
reflecting their northwestern origin. On the other
hand, most of the LGM sediment samples plot in Field
FIG. 5. 87Sr/86Sr vs e (o) of surface and LGM sediments and both literature values and measured values of (30 lm fractions of aerosol, loess
N$
and desertic samples from possible source areas. Symbols as in Fig. 4.
II, along with dust and loess samples from Senegal and
from coastal Mauritania (Nouakchott, named Nou
on Table 1) and one aerosol collected offshore Saint-
Louis-Senegal (SL).
As most of the LGM sediment compositions match
the Senegal-and-coastal-Mauritania (Nouakchott) trend
(Field II), we could consider that they derived from this
southern area. However, they display more radiogenic
87Sr/86Sr ratios and also unradiogenic e (o) values
N$
when compared to these sources.
DISCUSSION
Are bottom sediments reliable imprints of the eolian
input?
From the data obtained with sediment traps moored
at 20N and 20W, Wefer and Fischer (1993) concluded
that high eolian inputs coincide with enhanced biolo-
gical productivity and thus may favour high and rapid
particle sedimentation in the boreal summer off Cap
Blanc. Thus, the particle transfer rate from the atmo-
sphere down to the surface sediments should be short
enough to avoid any strong advection by currents or
any significant chemical exchange during their short
residence time in the water column. Taking into ac-
count both the present-day horizontal speed of the
watermasses at about 20N and the residence time of
the particles in the water column, a possible advection
of these particles could not exceed 3 degrees in latitude
(Jeandel, pers. com.; Siegel et al., 1990). This assump-
tion is confirmed by other studies which demonstrated
 F.E. Grousset et al.: Saharan wind regimes
that the mineralogical composition of surface sedi-
ments reflected the aerosol composition (Blank et al.,
1985). Two other studies of the vertical evolution
of e (o) in the tropical Atlantic water column, also
N$
revealed that the surface sediment composition reflec-
ted the aerosol composition (Jeandel et al., 1995;
Tachikawa et al., 1997; Bory, 1997), as aerosols were
transferred mainly as large particles, which sink rapidly
through the water column. Thus, we consider that the
isotopic composition of the surface sediments closely
reflects the isotopic composition of the present-day
aerosols. This assumption is verified by the fact that
e (o) values of aerosols correspond with the geo-
N$
graphic distribution of the surface sediment e (o)
N$
values (Fig. 3a). As far as the 87Sr/86Sr ratios are
concerned, it has also been demonstrated that the
aerosol imprint was retained in the underlying sedi-
ments (Biscaye et al., 1974). For the LGM samples, it
could be argued that their 87Sr/86Sr ratios may be
affected by post-depositional exchange with interstitial
water. However, the possibility of Sr mobility in the
lithic fraction is challenged by the observations of
Perry and Turekian (1974), who showed that Sr iso-
topes do not begin to move and equilibrate between
phases in P conditions corresponding to less than
thousands of metres of burial.
Present-day dust: origin, transport trajectories, fluxes
The average e (o) value in the surface sediment of
N$
the North Atlantic Ocean is about &!11 (Goldstein
et al., 1984; Grousset et al., 1988). This is typically the
range of values that we observe at the boundaries of the
studied area, off the Gibraltar Strait and in the Equa-
tor region (Fig. 3a). Between these two regions, charac-
terized by the Atlantic background values, e (o)
N$
values become less radiogenic, with the highest values
ranging between !14 and !18, between the Cape
Verde Islands and the African coasts. Such high values
require a relatively unradiogenic source on the conti-
nent. Such values are found in the region stretching
from Nouakchott to the western tip of Algeria, which
corresponds to Archaean outcrops of northeastern
Mauritania (the Reguibat Rise (Potrel et al., 1996)) and
to surrounding Palaeozoic formations. In this pro-
vince, Archaean rocks can display e (o) as low as
N$
!54, with an average of about !35 (Chardon, 1996;
Potrel et al., 1996). In the superimposed dune fields
accumulated over these formations (samples Nou,
Atar, Zouerat on Fig. 1), e (o) values range from
N$
&!17 to &!18, which reflect the unradiogenic
composition of their source rocks. This region is clearly
the source of unradiogenic Nd which controls the NE-
SW 143Nd/144Nd zonation observed in the oceanic
surface sediments (Fig. 3). Moreover, present-day aero-
sols derived from this region are enriched in illite-
micas, a clay-mineral which is abundant in these
Archaean rocks (Chamley, 1988).
In Fig. 4, we identified a second end-member called
A (low 87Sr/86Sr ratios and high Sr concentration),
403
the nature of which has to be discussed. This end-
member A is very close in isotopic composition to
sea-water. Sea-water might be a suitable end-member if
we had kept the carbonate fraction, but since we
leached our samples specifically to remove the sea-
water signature in the carbonate fraction, this is not an
appealling possibility. Another possibility could be
a volcanogenic end-member, but A also displays
a radiogenic value (&0.709). The only possibility is
provided by plotting the field of values obtained for the
Archaean rocks (Chardon, 1996; Potrel et al., 1996),
which goes exactly across point A.
Now, if we agree with the fact that the main source of
dust is located in the northen part of the western
Sahara (western Algeria, ex-Spanish Sahara, Southern
Morocco), we have to explain why we observe an
apparent NESW distribution of the dust inherited
from these regions. North of &20N, such a NESW
oriented gradient could be partly explained by advec-
tion in the NESW Canaria surface current (Melia,
1984); south of &20N, it requires, however, a simi-
larly oriented dominant wind regime.
Thus, if we look at the present-day airmass trajecto-
ries responsible for the transport of present-day dust,
we observe that the dominant pathway is a NESW
direction over both the continent (Chiapello et al.,
1997) and the tropical Atlantic (Kalu, 1979; Moulin
et al., 1997), matching the feature described above for
e (o) (Fig. 3a). Moreover, for many authors, one of the
N$
most important sources of dust in northwest Africa is
precisely located in the northwestern Archaean pro-
vince (region dA1 in dAlmedia, 1986; sector d3 in
Chiapello et al., 1997). Such a northwestern Saharan
origin matches precisely the contours of the nothwes-
tern Archaean province described above. According to
Chiapello et al. (1997), dust events of northwestern
and western Saharan origins (southwestern Algeria,
ex-Spanish Sahara, southern Morocco) are the most
frequent nowadays. This dominant regime, typically
a trade pattern, would explain why such a NESW
elongated feature is recorded in the oceanic surface
sediments.
LGM dust: origin, transport trajectories, fluxes
The e (o) of the LGM sediments are also less
N$
radiogenic than the so-called Atlantic background
(!11), ranging from &!13 to &!20. Paradoxi-
cally, they display the same geographic pattern as the
one observed for the surface sediments, with the same
major NESW negative gradient, roughly located at
the same latitudes.
Sarnthein et al. (1981) did not observe any clear
northward shift of the patterns between these two
periods, but more likely an increase by a factor 2 in the
silt particle flux at LGM, the latitudinal location re-
maining roughly the same. We have already observed
a similar increase in core K20 (Table 1; Bertrand et al.,
1996) and even in the remote Cape Verde abyssal plain
(30W; depth: 5000 m, CV2 in Fig. 1) (Grousset et al.,
404 Quaternary Science Reviews: Volume 17
1989). Kolla et al. (1979) studied the temporal evolu-
tion of quartz (%), in a core located &300 km off the
Senegal coast (core V22-196, Fig. 1). They observed
about 40% of quartz in the two last glacial maxima
(stages 2 and 6), compared to 1020% during the
interglacial periods. In terms of the flux of quartz, the
LGM fluxes were &3 to &6 times higher than today.
In the more southerly cores (as far south as the Equa-
tor), mean LGM dust fluxes are &2 to &3 times
higher than today (Franiois et al., 1990; Ruddiman,
1997). Such a factor, 23, does not characterize solely
the LGM, but is characteristic of at least the last
8 climatic cycles in this area (Parkin and Shackleton,
1973). It is interesting to point out that a similar pat-
tern was observed in another core also located in the
tropical latitudes, but in the eastern Pacific Ocean
(Boyle, 1983). Was it possible that advection processes
could have artificially increased apparent fluxes? Al-
though most of the material must have initially been
delivered by winds, there was then possibly local-scale
redistribution on the sea-floor. Thus, flux increase
evaluations should account for sea-floor redistribution
(Ruddiman, pers. com.).
In terms of Sr isotopic composition, most of the
LGM and present-day samples are very similar, both
lying within Field I (Fig. 4). Only the three southern
samples (south of 10N) display slightly different values
(shifting through Field II): they are thus more in-
fluenced by the SenegalGuinea province. When we
compare present-day surface and LGM samples on the
e (o) vs 87Sr/86Sr plot (Fig. 5), most of the LGM
N$
values tend to shift through Field II, toward the bot-
tom-left part of the plot (Fig. 5), where a possible third
end-member might exist. The SenegalGuinea pro-
vince thus cannot be the unique source for these depo-
sits. A possible candidate for such an end-member,
characterized by both unradiogenic Sr and Nd isopic
compositions, could be the old Archaean (Potrel et al.,
1996; Chardon, 1996) and Proterozoic (Allegre and
Ben Othman, 1980; Ben Othman et al., 1984) forma-
tions of the Saharan shield.
Samples with even lower negative e (o) values are
N$
observed along the margin over &200 km from the
coasts. For example, along the longitude 18W, e (o)
N$
ranges between !15 and !20 at LGM, and between
!14 and !15 at the present day. This less radiogenic
LGM pattern could reflect an increased contribution
of the Archaean-derived source region at the LGM.
Such an increase would require increased weathering/
erosion processes on the continent, but it is difficult to
imagine that it would preferentially affect the Archaean
outcrops and not the surrounding giant Paleozoic
formations. Moreover, it is difficult to admit that it
would preferentially affect the most unradiogenic
(87Sr/86Sr(0.71) outcrops (end-member A suggested
on Fig. 4).
A more plausible explanation can be proposed. In
the LGM sediments, lower (e (o) down to !19.5)
N$
could be explained by an increased dust input, which
would then prevail upon the Atlantic background
(e (o)&!11), which largely originates from the peri-
N$
Atlantic rivers (Goldstein et al., 1984) and is mostly
composed of (10 lm particles (Biscaye, 1965). Off the
Mauritanian coasts there are more than 40% of clay
minerals in the surface sediments and more than 60%
south of 15N (Johnson, 1979). Indeed, a simple mixing
calculation demonstrates that a doubling of the dust
flux can induce the observed e (o) shift (from !14 to
N$
!18). An argument confirms this explanation: the
most negative value (e (o)"!18.6) is observed at
N$
about 6N (core VM22-189; Fig. 1) on the top of
a seamount, less affected by possible advections, thus
recording a purer eolian signal. It must be pointed out
that, when we look at the ratio of the LGM to present
interglacial fluxes (Ruddiman, 1997), we observe the
same NESW elongation axis, roughly linking
Mauritania to the northeastern tip of Brazil. Thus, this
LGM NESW direction is reflected by both qualitative
(e (o)) and quantitative (terrigenous fluxes) parameters.
N$
Finally, overlapping this NESW trade dust signal,
a SAL dust signal can be recognized at more than
about 250 km offshore, west of +21W, south of 23N
(Fig. 3b). Elongated along an EW axis, the e (o)
N$
values range from !12 to !15, reflecting a more
Sahelian origin (i.e. Field II, in Fig. 5). This SAL signal
is deposited precisely where previous studies recog-
nized it in the grain-size (Sarnthein et al., 1981) and
clay mineral (Lange, 1982) features.
LGM vs today
According to Ruddiman (1997), the winter dust
plume would have been increased at the LGM com-
pared to nowadays and this change, involving wind
changes, could have been induced: 1) by a southward
shift; 2) or by an increase in aridity and/or by increas-
ing the deflation efficiency or 3) by increasing their
velocity. Are there arguments favoring one of these
possible explanations?
A southward shift in transport trajectories
According to Kolla et al. (1979) who studied the
quartz distribution in sediment cores, the main dust
transport axis was centered around &8N at the LGM
and shifted northward since that period, as far north as
&18N in the late Holocene. Such a shift, however, is
neither reflected by our isotopic data nor by Ruddi-
mans accumulation rate maps (1997), nor by the
'6 lm coarse particle distribution (Sarnthein et al.,
1981).
What do we know about wind trajectories? The
present-day wind regime has largely been described in
previous works (Kalu, 1979; Sarnthein et al., 1981;
Chamley, 1988; Coude-Gaussen, 1989; Rognon et al.,
1996). Nowadays, the most intense events come from
the more southern Sahelian source and occur only
during the coldest period (December and January)
(Chiapello et al., 1997; Ratmeyer et al., 1997). They are
induced by the so-called continental trade winds and
 F.E. Grousset et al.: Saharan wind regimes
are considered to be responsible for most of the dust
transport to the ocean (Lezine et al., 1995). This last
hypothesis is in agreement with higher influx of wind-
blown pollens, interpreted as indicating stronger trade
winds (Melia, 1984; Hooghiemstra, 1989). On the other
hand, during the summer period, the African easterly
jets reaching their maximum strength in the summer,
would be responsible for the transport of the main
pollen release from southern Sahara and Sahel zones
(Hooghiemstra, 1989), which is in agreement with the
increase in '6 lm coarse particles reported by Sarn-
thein et al. (1981). At the LGM, due to the extension of
the ice-sheets in the Northern Atlantic, the subsequent
cooling (Rind, 1987) and the southward shift of the
westerlies (Rognon and Coude-Gaussen, 1996), the
wind regimes characterizing northwest Africa could
have been intensified significantly (Sarnthein et al.,
1981; Ruddiman, 1997). The LGM increase in eolian
sedimentation occurred in both winterspring and
summer dust plumes (Balsam et al., 1995); this would
explain why we do not identify any clear latitudinal
shift. Finally, atmospheric global circulation models
(AGCMs) do not simulate any shift between the LGM
and today, but more likely a wind speed strengthening
(Joussaume, 1993).
An increase in source-area aridity?
According to Rea (1994), more dust would reflect
more aridity, but coarser grains would reflect stronger
winds. Thus, at the LGM the dust flux increase could
be the sole result of an aridity increase. There are some
arguments favoring this hypothesis. At the LGM, dune
fields were more extended in latitude over the Saha-
ranSahel area (Sarnthein, 1978), which could be the
result of increased aridity. The most efficient sources of
fine particles are, however, more likely to be located in
the semi-desertic regions, surrounding the main deserts
(Pye, 1987; Rea, 1994). Over the last 30 years, the
increase in dustiness over West Africa was caused by
a decrease in rainfall (NTchayi et al., 1994). The sub-
sequent decline in vegetation facilitates soil erosion
and thus air dustiness. An increase in the deflation
efficiency might have contributed too (Marticorena,
1995). This possibility has been suggested by Balsam
et al. (1995), who observed a higher iron oxide content
in sediments at the LGM, which could reflect an in-
creased deflation of the Sahara and Sahel dust during
glacial time. Similarly, it has been proposed that varia-
tions in Chinese dust flux to the North Pacific could
reflect to some degree variations in the intensity of
vertical dust lifting events (Pye and Zhou, 1989). Un-
fortunately, we do not have relevant data to address
this problem seriously. If we follow Rea (1994), more
dust would reflect more aridity. Indeed, increased dust
fluxes were observed in the LGM marine sediments at
different latitudes: a factor 4 for quartz at &25N
(Thiede et al., 1982), a factor 3 for Al at &20N
(Matthewson et al., 1995), thus supporting the aridity
enhancement hypothesis.
405
On the other hand, a few arguments against aridity
have to be considered. If aridity had been the only
reason for the dust flux increase, both wind regimes
(northeast trades and African easterly winds) would
have transported more dust particles and we would
observe the imprints of both the northern summer
plume and the southern winter plume (as described
in Kalu, 1979). Pokras and Mix (1985) observed
that LGM sediments from both plumes were highly
enriched in the freshwater diatom Melosira, when
compared to the lower Holocene (up to a factor 10).
Such an enrichment could reflect an enhanced aridity
on the continent, as already suggested by Diester-Haas
(1976). However, their abundance is very similar
nowadays and at the LGM. Finally, if aridity was
predominant, time-series might display a precession
variability (23 ky) and if northern glaciations were
the dominant controlling factor, time-series might
be more likely to display an obliquity variability
(41 ky). Matthewson et al., (1995) who studied a core
from the Cape Verde Terrace (at roughly 20N20W)
observed only the precession frequency by carrying
out a cross spectral analysis on the Zr/Rb ratio,
a grain-size proxy, and concluded that aridity was the
governing factor. Thus, considering these drawbacks,
we have to envisage other simultaneous forcing para-
meters.
An alternative (but not mutually exclusive) explanation
could be an increase in the wind velocity
Increased winds should transport coarser particles
(Rea, 1994). However, the grain-size distributions of
our samples (Fig. 2) do not show any strong grain-size
increase at the LGM: most of the present-day and
LGM samples display an eolian mode between 10 and
40 lm. This is typically what has been found in a series
of sediment traps moored at &500 km off the Mauri-
tanian coasts, in which the present-day lithogenic frac-
tion reaches more than 50% of the total flux and is
largely composed of quartz grains of &1050 lm size
(Wefer and Fischer, 1993). At the LGM the coarsest
sediments are certainly observed between 10 and 20N.
For example, in core VM22-196 (Fig. 1), the LGM
mode ranges from &20 to &60 lm (see Fig. 2b).
Although Saharan sands and aerosols from central
Sahara would display a uni-modal distribution cen-
tered around &4050 lm (Schutz, 1980), we have
observed much coarser grains (around &60100 lm)
in the southern Algeria sand dunes and the Senegal
continental shelf (Fig. 2a). Increased winds could have
brought these coarse particles to the ocean. We cannot
be sure, however, that this coarse mode reflects only an
increased wind-speed, as these cores are the closest to
the margin and thus could be suspected of contamina-
tion by hemipelagic inputs (Fabre, 1995)
Increased winds should also transport heavier par-
ticles. In cores K02 and CV2 (Fig. 1), we have observed
a significant increase in the Ti/Al ratios in the LGM
levels (&0.06) compared to the present-day ratios
406 Quaternary Science Reviews: Volume 17
(&0.04), this increase being correlated with an increase
in the coarse fraction (Bertrand et al., 1996). Volcanic
rocks from western Sahara and the lateritic formation
of the Sahelian zone are particularly enriched in ilme-
nite (Dumon, 1977). Titanium is known to be preferen-
tially concentrated in the coarse fraction, as heavy
minerals (ilmenite density &4.72). Thus, at the LGM,
these coarse particles were much heavier than today.
Therefore, a high Ti/Al ratio could reflect intensified
wind transport, as previously suggested for dust fluxes
(Boyle, 1983). Good correlations between Ti/Al and the
aluminosilicate fluxes, and even with the quartz con-
tent (Kolla et al., 1979) have already been attributed to
both more arid source regions and increased intensity
(Boyle, 1983). It is interesting to point out that Boyle
(1983) studied a core located in the same latitudinal
band, but off the Peru coast: this coherence could
therefore reflect synchronous climate variations in
different oceans.
Another wind-speed proxy can be considered: the
Zr/Rb ratio indicates an increase in grain-size (Mat-
thewson et al., 1995) and grain density at the LGM,
and thus could be considered as a wind velocity proxy.
Thus, the wind speed had to be significantly intensified
at LGM. Finally, the southwesterly imprint of the dust
fallout in both glacial and interglacial periods identi-
fied in this study could, however, be presumably caused
by stronger (Ruddiman, 1997) or longer (Boyle, 1983)
winter transport. Indeed, geographical patterns dis-
played on Fig. 1 roughly fit that previously observed
for aerosols collected exclusively in March and April
(Grousset et al., 1988), and with the winter and spring
patterns simulations produced in model (Moulin et al.,
1997). Due to the fact that one-centimetre thick sedi-
ment core samples integrate a few centuries, it may not
be possible, however, to identify any short term varia-
tion, either the seasonal waning and waxing of the
ITCZ or any decadal trends of dust exportation such
as the one driven nowadays by the North Atlantic
oscillation (Moulin et al., 1997).
This last explanation, strong winter winds, is the
hypothesis which best explains most of the data. How-
ever, as airborne particle fluxes were also much higher
than today, an increase in the aridification of the
source area cannot be ruled out and we must conclude
that both increases in source-area aridity and in wind
velocity occurred together during the LGM. On a glo-
bal scale, this conclusion is consistent with the fact that
LGM dust fluxes are enriched by factors 10-to-20 in
Greenland and Antarctic ice-cores (Thompson and
Mosley-Thompson, 1981; Petit et al., 1981; Biscaye
et al., 1997), which implies not only a general aridifica-
tion of the desert areas, but also a more intense atmo-
spheric circulation (Joussaume, 1993). Our data allow
us to propose that both processes were enhanced
simultaneously at the LGM, which is an adequate way
of reconciling the increased aridity advocates (Kolla
et al., 1979; Rea, 1994; Matthewson et al., 1996) with
the increased wind strength advocates (Sarnthein et al.,
1981; Boyle, 1983; Ruddiman, 1997).
Finally, arguments advanced for increased glacial
aridity are not very strong, but the lack of much change
in grain-sizes is an argument against increased wind
strength. Thus, a last possible explanation could be
that the season of generally strong winds lengthened,
carrying more dust of about the same size. This would
mean that there was an increase, not only in wind
strength, but also in glacial winter regime duration
(Ruddiman, pers. com.).
Implications for upwellings
It has been suggested that in the southern Ocean,
aerosols could have a fertilizing influence on the sur-
face waters (Martin, 1990) and could have enhanced
the biological productivity by a factor +5 at the
LGM in the Southern Atlantic (Kumar et al., 1995).
The possible influence of the dust input has not been
investigated so far in this area. From the data they
obtained with sediment traps moored at 20N and
20W, Wefer and Fischer (1993) concluded that in the
boreal summer, high eolian inputs coincided with en-
hanced biological productivity. The idea of increased
fertilization by windblown nutrients has also been en-
visaged by Ruddiman (1997) in the tropical eastern
Atlantic. On the other hand, the high productivity
characterizing this region can be also due to the strong
upwelling activity. In the hypothesis of Lezine et al.
(1995), the NESW marine trade winds would pre-
dominantly generate coastal upwellings. At the LGM,
African aerosols transported westward (mostly by the
SAL winds) across the Atlantic ocean, could have
strongly influenced the intensity of biological produc-
tion in the upwelling zone (Sarnthein et al., 1981),
triggering a strong enhancement of the carbon fluxes
(Muller and Suess, 1979). However, such a systematic
enhancement of carbon fluxes at the LGM has to be
reconsidered, as in some cores from the Mauritanian
margin (e.g. K11), we observed a decrease in carbon
fluxes at the LGM (Bertrand et al., 1996; Martinez
et al., 1996). Thus, we cannot easily link wind and
upwelling patterns. The dust distribution that we ob-
served (Fig. 3) could, however, be explained by both
processes. Further work needs to be done if we are
to address fully the short scale variability of this
upwelling system.
CONCLUSIONS
Along the NW African margin, the eolian input of
the oceanic sediments is mostly concentrated in the
1040 lm grain-size range. In the eolian fraction of the
sediments deposited between the Canary Islands and
the equator, both Sr and Nd isotopic tracers reveal the
same major northwestern origin (Mauritania, Mali,
southern Algeria and Morocco). The Archaean forma-
tions of the western Saharan shield could supply the
very unradiogenic Nd ratios characterizing this frac-
tion off Africa. The more southern regions (Senegal,
 F.E. Grousset et al.: Saharan wind regimes
Guinea) act only as secondary sources. A similar pat-
tern is observed for the Last Glacial Maximum.
Nowadays, the isotopic composition of oceanic sedi-
ments reveals that lithic particles are transported by
both Trade and SAL winds, along an average NESW
axis, linking roughly Dakar to the northeastern tip of
Brazil. The same main transport direction has also
been identified by looking at airmass trajectories
(Chiapello, 1996). This main feature matches the south-
ern plume, characterizing the dust transport observed
during winter.
No significant latitudinal shift of the wind belts is
observed between the LGM and today; the sole major
difference between these two periods is that, at the
LGM, the dust fluxes were 24 times higher than
today, leading to a more Archaean-type imprint in the
deposits. Thus, if the winds are the major upwelling
driving force, the latitudinal variability of the upwell-
ing systems identified in this region at the LGM
(Bertrand et al., 1996), cannot be explained by simple
latitudinal shifts of the major wind systems.
Many arguments (isotopic tracers, geographic pat-
terns, dust fluxes, grain-size distribution, particle den-
sity proxies) tend to demonstrate that, at the LGM,
both enhanced aridity on the continent and increased
wind speed occurred together over the western tropical
Africa and confirm that transports were enhanced
mostly during winter, as recently proposed by Ruddi-
man (1997).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank the officers and crew of the the R/V Le
Suroit who helped us to recover sediment cores during
the Sedorqua cruise (March 1994). We thank all the
colleagues who provided us with aerosols (R. Chester,
J. Prospero), loess (G. Coude-Gaussen, P. Rognon),
powdered soils (G. Bergametti, G. Berliet, T. Biscaye,
G. Coude-Gaussen, P. Rognon) or marine sediment
samples (G. Shimmield, I.N. McCave) from various
potential source areas of northwestern Africa and the
L-DEO Deep-Sea Sample Repository, and its curator,
Rusty Lotti, who kindly provided us with sediment
samples from the 0-to-15N latitudinal band (support
for the curating facilities of the L-DEO Deep-Sea
Sample Repository is provided by the NSF through
grant OCE94-02150 and the Office of Naval Research
through grant N00014-96-I-0186). Special thanks to
G. Berliet, who collected soil samples at each stage
bivouac, during the 1996 Paris-Dakar car rally!
Thanks are due to A. Matthewson (Univ. of Edin-
burgh, U.K.) who provided the d18O stratigraphy on
BOFS cores. We are grateful to P. Pedemay and to A.
Kelly and V. Gallagher, for their help in the Sr-Nd
chemistry carried out at University Bordeaux
I (France) and at the SURRC, respectively. We are
also grateful to M. Roy-Barman for access to the
mass spectrometer at the University Paul Sabatier
(Toulouse, France). We thank P. Buat-Menard, W.
407
Ruddiman and M. Sarnthein for their very helpful and
pertinent reviews, C. Jeandel for fruitful discussions
and A. Gonialves who polished up the English lan-
guage. Aloys Borys research was funded by the Euro-
pean Commission as part of a Community Training
Project. This work was mostly funded by the French
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.
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