Mechanics, Materials Science & Engineering Journal Vol 2

Mechanics, Materials Science & Engineering, January 2016 ISSN 2412-5954
MMSE Journal. Open Access www.mmse.xyz

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Sankt Lorenzen 36, 8715, Sankt Lorenzen, Austria
Mechanics, Materials Science & Engineering Journal
January 2016
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Mechanics, Materials Sciences & Engineering Journal, Austria, Sankt Lorenzen, 2015
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CONTENT
I. MATERIALS SCIENCE ................................................................................................ 5
THE CARBON-FLUORINE ADDITIVES FOR WELDING FLUXES ......................................... 5
INFLUENCE VOLTAGE PULSE ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE IN THE WATER AT THE

ENDURANCE FATIGUE OF CARBON STEEL ................................................................... 15
ALUMINUM COMPOSITES WITH SMALL NANOPARTICLES ADDITIONS: CORROSION

RESISTANCE.................................................................................................................. 25
II. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING & PHYSICS ............................................................. 31
PERFORMANCE OPTIMIZATION OF A GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT BASED ON ENERGY

AND EXERGY ANALYSIS .............................................................................................. 31
CERTAIN SOLUTIONS OF SHOCK-WAVES IN NON-IDEAL GASES .................................. 44
ANALYTICAL MODELING OF TRANSIENT PROCESS IN TERMS OF ONE-DIMENSIONAL

PROBLEM OF DYNAMICS WITH KINEMATIC ACTION .................................................... 57
ON INFLUENCE OF DESIGN PARAMETERS OF MINING RAIL TRANSPORT ON SAFETY

INDICATORS ................................................................................................................. 62
VIII. Information Technologies .............................................................................. 70
THE ASSESSMENT OF THE STABILITY OF THE ELECTRONICS INDUSTRY FACILITY IN THE

MAN-MADE EMERGENCIES WITH THE USE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY .............. 70
X. Philosophy of Research and Education .............................................................. 78
TEACHING REITLINGER CYCLES TO IMPROVE STUDENTS KNOWLEDGE AND

COMPREHENSION OF THERMODYNAMICS .................................................................... 78
MULTIMEDIA TUTORIAL IN PHYSICS FOR FOREIGN STUDENTS OF THE ENGINEERING

FACULTY PREPARATORY DEPARTMENT ....................................................................... 84
PETRUS PEREGRINUS OF MARICOURT AND THE MEDIEVAL MAGNETISM ..................... 90
DEPLETION GILDING: AN ANCIENT METHOD FOR SURFACE
ENRICHMENT OF GOLD ALLOYS .................................................................................. 98

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I. Materials Science
The Carbon-Fluorine Additives For Welding Fluxes
R.. Kryukov1, O.. Kozyreva1,a, N.. Kozyrev1,b
1 Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education Siberian State Industrial
University, Research and Development Center Welding Processes and Technologies, 654007, Russia,
Novokuznetsk, 42, Kirov str.
a kozireva-oa@yandex.ru
b kozyrev_na@mtsp.sibsiu.ru
Keywords: welding, flux, metal, slag, gas-forming compounds.
ABSTRACT. Is carried out the thermodynamic estimation of the probability of the flow of the processes of the removal
of hydrogen from the weld with the welding in the fluorine-bearing flux in the standard states in the range of
temperatures 1700 2200 K. In this case, as the standard states for the substances of reagents they were selected:
Na3AlF6L, SiO2L, SiF4g, NaAlO2s, Na2SiO3l, CaF2l, CaSiO3l, H2g, SiF2g, HFg, O2g, SiFg, Hg. As a result the calculations of
standard energy of Gibbs and equilibrium constants of reactions it is determined, that from the reactions of the direct
interaction of ftoragentov of slag with hydrogen and oxygen of the metal most probable appears the reaction with the
cryolite. In the mechanism of more complex interaction with the participation in the reaction, besides ftoragentov, silica
of slag and by the possible formation of the intermediate product of SiF 4g more probable is the process with fluorite.
Calculations showed the expediency of using the connection Na3AlF6 together with fluorite for the removal of hydrogen
with the submerged welding. The carried out calculations became the basis of the development of the compositions of
the new flux- additives, protected by patents RF.
Introduction. The issue of new fluxes and their additives development has been attracting much
attention currently, as well as research into their influence on welding and technological characteristics
of a weld and on the concentration of oxygen and non-metallic impurities in a weld [1-5].
Submerged arc welding is attended by intensive mass transfer of liquid molten metal and slag,
forming from welding flux. Reactions of oxidation and deoxidation of manganese, ferrum, and
silicon, i.d. exchange processes involving oxygen are typical for this process. The most grades of
domestically produced fluxes, which are applied for welding low-alloyed steels are oxidizing ones
and ground on silicon-manganese oxidation-reduction processes. Here, the products of these
reactions are oxide compounds of silicon, manganese, ferrum, aluminum etc., which often cant
surface and assimilate to slag, forming from welding flux, the level of impurity of weld metal by
non-metallic admixtures increases consequently; as the result, the complex of physical and
mechanical characteristics deteriorates. Apparently, restoratives, which form gaseous products of
reactions, are advisable to apply in order to avoid impurity of weld metal. It is carbon that can be a
restorative of this kind, and forms gaseous compounds CO2 and CO when reacting with oxidizers.

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Materials and methods of research. Shielding is usually provided through pushing atmospheric
gases aside from weld zone by forming gases CO2 (CO); that helps to reduce or even exclude the
probability of molten metal saturation with oxygen, nitrogen or hydrogen from atmosphere. Gas-
forming compounds of carbonates like CaCO3, MgCO3, FeCO3, MnCO3 and their derivatives are
usually used for this purpose. Gas shielding is possible due to CO2 as high-temperature
decomposition of carbonates takes place according to the following reactions and temperatures [6]:
CaCO3 CaO + CO2 (900-1200 C), (1)

MgCO3 MgO + CO2 (>650 C), (2)
FeCO3 FeO + CO2 (280-490 C), (3)
MnCO3 MnO + CO2 (330-500 C) (4)
According to stoichiometric calculations the results of decomposition are as follows: 1 kg CaCO3

0.224 m3 CO2, 1 kg MgCO3 0.267 m3, 1 kg FeCO3 0.192 m3, 1 kg MnCO3 0.194 m3.
Without taking into account the costs of carbonates decomposition, MgCO3 and CaCO3 are the most
optimal components, which help to get most CO2 when decomposing 1 kg of material, succeeded
by MnCO3 FeCO3.
Furthermore, when decomposing CaCO3 and MgCO3 basic oxides CaO and MgO are formed and
improve basicity of welding flux, and that of a forming slag, respectively, whereas, when MnCO 3
and FeCO3 decomposing oxides FeO and MnO are formed, which raise the degree of oxidation in
slag systems and oxygen concentration in a weld. The latter causes all negative consequences
increasing level of impurity by non-metallic oxide components in a weld and deterioration of
mechanical properties.
Having followed all mentioned pre-conditions we have developed a flux ANK additive, protected
it by a patent of the Russian Federation and applied in production process at Open Joint Stock
Company Novokuznetsk Plant of Reservoir Metalware named after N.E. Kryukov [7]. For its
manufacturing ferrosilicon FS75 (GOST 1415-78), marble 92- 97 (GOST 4416-73 (92-97%
3)), and liquid glass (GOST 13078-81) were used. Production technology was as follows.
Marble and ferrosilicon were grinded to less than 1 mm fraction. Grinded marble and silicon were
mixed in 50 to 50% mass proportion. It was dried at temperature 100-200 0 for 10 - 20 minutes,
succeeded by grinding and size grading to 2.5 mm. 3-5% of additive was introduced into fluxes.
Before a flux with an additive is used its 40 60 minutes annealing in the furnace is recommended
at temperature 250-350 0.
This additive is used for roll welding of tanks. The technology involves assembling, welding,
controlling and rolling plates of tanks walls, all the processes are performed on special roll facilities
with upper and down rolling. Two-side submerged arc welding of butt joints of wall plates is
applied in the process, first on the upper tier, then on the lower one, after the plate is rolled. An
additive helped to avoid pore formation and improve quality of welds.
However, shielding gases CO and CO2 can form due to carbon, added to the flux, according to the
reactions:
(C) + [O2] = {CO2}, (6)

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(C) + [O2] = {CO} (7)
Here 1.863 m3 CO2 and 1.864 m3 CO release per each kg of carbon (in normal conditions).
The second important issue is that of weld metal dehydrogenization. As a rule, it is carried out by
introducing fluorine-containing additives (fluorite or cryolite), hydrogen combines with fluorine
and is further removed as a compound HF.
The following chemical transformations can be considered as probable reactions of removal:
1/2 (CaF2)+ [H]+ 1/2 [O] = 1/2(CaO) + HFg, (8)

1/6(Na3AlF6)+ [H]+ 1/2 [O] = 1/6NaAlO2 s+ HFg + 1/6(Na2O), (9)
As well as reactions:
2(CaF2) + 3(SiO2) = 2CaSiO3 s + SiF4g, (10)

2/3(Na3AlF6) + 5/3(SiO2) = SiF4g + 2/3NaAlO2 s + 2/3 (Na2SiO3), (11)
succeeded by reactions of dehydrogenization with SiF4:
1/2 SiF4g + [H] = 1/2SiF2 g+ HFg (12)

1/4 SiF4g + [H]+ 1/2 [O] = 1/4 (Si2) + HFg (13)
1/3 SiF4g + [H] = 1/3SiFg + HFg (14)
1/2 SiF4g + [H] = 1/2 SiF2g + HFg (15)
Thermodynamical characteristics in standard conditions [r(), rS(), rG()] needed to

assess reaction probability were calculated by well-known methods [8] in the temperature range of
welding processes 1700 2200 [9] in terms of thermodynamic properties of reagents [[()-
(298,15 K)], S(), fH(298,15 K)] [10,11]. Here, chemical states Na3AlF6l, SiO2l, SiF4g,
NaAlO2 s,Na2SiO3l, CaF2l , CaSiO3 s, H2, SiF2g, HFg, 2g, SiFg, Hg were selected as standard ones
for substances reagents in the range 1700 2200 according to fact aggregate states of phases in
the system under consideration.
The results of calculations are provided in the Table 1.
Table 1 demonstrates that reaction (9) is thermodynamically the most probable (cryolite
dehydrogenization), the second one is reaction (8) (fluorite dehydrogenization), followed by
reactions (10, 11), where silicon tetrafluoride is formed as an intermediate product of further
reactions (12) - (15); the latter result in formation of gaseous compound HF. Here, reaction (13) is
thermodynamically the most probable (SiF4 combines with hydrogen and oxygen). The
stoichiometric reactions (15), (12), (14) are the least probable ones.

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Table 1. Standard Gibbs energy of reactions (8) (15) and reaction equilibrium constants
according to temperature
rG(), kJ
Reaction ()
1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200
-16,22 -18,61 -20,93 -23,17 -25,36 -27,47
8
3,2 3,5 3,8 4,0 4,3 4,5
-32,32 -33,82 -35,20 -36,46 -37,62 -38,68
9
9,8 9,6 9,3 9,0 8,6 8,3
41,80 35,98 30,62 25,71 21,22 17,18
10
0,05 0,09 0,14 0,21 0,30 0,39
82,41 76,11 70,40 65,22 60,56 56,38
11
0,003 0,006 0,012 0,020 0,031 0,046
86,62 78,13 69,68 61,27 52,90 44,57
12
0,002 0,005 0,012 0,025 0,048 0,087
-90,16 -89,83 -89,51 -89,21 -88,91 -88,63
13
589,5 404,5 289,1 213,8 162,8 127,2
113,04 104,93 96,86 88,82 80,80 72,82
14
0,0003 0,0009 0,0022 0,0048 0,0098 0,0187
-38,07 -40,60 -43,08 -45,49 -47,84 -50,14
15
14,78 15,08 15,29 15,42 15,49 15,51
Therefore, Na3AlF6 is the most reasonable to use for dehydrogenization when submerged arc
welding as if compared with fluorite.
Having taken into account the aforementioned preconditions, we have developed a technology of
submerged arc welding with carbonaceous additives. As the basis of carbon and fluorine containing
additive we took metallurgical production wastes. It was dust with the following chemical
composition (mass %): Al2O3 = 21 46.23; F = 18 27; Na2O = 8 15; 2O = 0.4 6; CaO = 0.7
2.3; SiO2 = 0.5 2.48; Fe2O3 = 2.1 3.27; C = 12.5 30.2; MnO = 0.07 0.9; MgO = 0.06 0.9; S
= 0.09 0.19; P = 0.1 0.18. Mineralogical makeup of dust was determined according to the data
of X-ray structural analysis made by difractometer DRON-2 in the mode: Fe K radiation,
voltage 26 kV, electrical current 30 mA.
The research into the dust of electrostatic precipitators revealed that the material consisted of bi-
dimensionally ordered carbon (d0O2=3.47, Lc=45.8), X-ray amorphous substance, cryolite,
corundum, hyolithe, and various admixtures. Diffraction patterns of roasted at 700 material
demonstrate no indication of graphite, that is caused by nearly complete burning out of carbon-
containing mass in this temperature range, as well as significant curve flattering on the diffraction
pattern, and decrease in X-ray amorphous substance. The reason of the latter is probably chemical

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composition of X-ray amorphous substance, which carbon compounds are main components of. At
700 the change in indication intensity of mineralizing components (cryolite, corundum, X-ray
amorphous substance, fluorite, hematite and various admixtures) was recorded.
From the theoretical point of view the additive makes possible: 1) dehydrogenization by fluorine-
containing compounds (like Na3AlF6,), decomposing at the temperatures of welding processes and
isolating fluorine, which combines with dissolved in steel hydrogen and forms gaseous HF; 2)
intensive carbon boiling due to forming CO and CO2, when fluoric carbon CFx (1 x>0)
combines with dissolved in steel oxygen, here, as carbon is in a bound state steel carbonization is
hardly possible; 3) improvement of arc stability due to potassium and sodium, facilitating ionization
in arc column.
To make an additive to flux carbon and fluorine containing substance was mixed with liquid glass,
then this mixture was dried, cooled down and grinded. Afterwards this additive was mixed with flux
in a special mixer according to a definite, strictly determined proportion. N-348, N-60, N-67
fluxes were taken as basic ones and their mixtures with flux-additives.
The experiments were carried out on 200 500 mm 09Mn2Si steel samples 16 mm in thickness.
Fay welding of butt joints was made on two sides, as when welding wall plates of tanks on roll
facility. Sv-08Mn wire 5 mm in diameter was used as a filler metal.
Submerged arc welding of samples was made in similar modes. The samples were cut of welded
plates and subject to the following tests: X-ray spectral analysis of weld metal chemical
composition, metallographic tests of welds; total concentration of oxygen in welds, mechanical
properties, strength of joint welds and impact strength of welds were determined at temperatures -
20 and -40. Concentration of carbon, sulphur, phosphorus was determined in chemical
composition of weld metal by chemical methods in terms of GOST 12344-2003, GOST 12345-
2001, and GOST 12347-77, respectively. Concentration of alloying elements in weld metal; that of
calcium oxide, silicon, manganese, aluminum, magnesium, ferrum, potassium, sodium and fluorine-
compounds in fluxes with additives and slag, obtained after welding was determined by
SHIMADZU roentgen-fluorescent spectrometer XRF-1800.
The experiments demonstrated that maximum 6% carbon and fluorine containing additive provided
carbon concentration in weld similar to its concentration in original metal (Figure 1), whereas
concentration of oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen dropped (Figures 2, 3, 4).
Fig. 1. Influence of carbon and fluorine containing additive on carbon concentration in a weld
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Metallographic research into polished sections of joint welds was carried out by optical microscope
OLYMPUS GX-51 in bright field and zooming 100, 500. The microstructure of metal was found
out by etching in 4 % HNO3 solution in ethanol. The structure of base metal in all samples consists
of ferrite grains and lamellar pearlite (4-5 m). In base to added metal zone a fine-grain
structure occurs (1-2 m), which was formed as the result of re-crystallizing when heating in course
of welding. In the microstructure of a weld there are ferrite grains stretched towards heat rejection
because of heating and speeded up cooling down. Structures of welds didnt differ much
irrespectively of used fluxes. The level of impurity by non-metallic substances decreased in
samples, which were welded with fluxing agents, containing carbon and fluorine additives; it was
caused by reduction of total oxygen concentration.
Fig. 2. The change in oxygen in dependence on carbon and fluoride containing additive concentration
Fig. 3. The change in hydrogen in dependence on carbon and fluorine containing additive
The research into mechanical properties (yield point, strength, modulus of elongation, impact
strength at temperatures below zero) carried out on cut according to GOST 6996-66 samples,
demonstrated that the level of properties went beyond the values required in GOST 31385-2008 and

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increased as the concentration of carbon and fluorine containing additive rose. Increasing impact
strength KCV and KCU at temperatures -20 and -40, respectively (Figures 5, 6) is worth
mentioning. Flux-additives, which were developed, have been protected by the Russian Federation
patents [12, 13].
Fig. 4. The change in nitrogen in dependence on carbon and fluorine containing additive
Fig. 5. The change in impact strength KCV at temperature -20 in dependence on carbon and
fluorine containing additive.
Summary. 1. On the ground of made calculations and carried out experiments we can conclude that carbon
containing additives to welding fluxes are possible and promising ones in order to improve welding and
technological characteristics of welded metalware.
2. The probability of dehydrogenization of a weld in fluorine containing submerged arc welding has
been assessed thermodynamically in the temperature range 1700 2200 . Here, Na3AlF6l, SiO2l,
SiF4g, NaAlO2s, Na2SiO3l, CaF2l, CaSiO3 s, H2, SiF2g, HFg, 2g, SiFg, Hg. were selected as standard
states for substances - reagents. In terms of calculation of standard Gibbs energy reactions it has
been found out that the reaction of gaseous hydrogen fluorine direct formation by cryolite is
thermodynamically the most probable one, the second probable is the group of reactions resulting in

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formation of silicon tetrafluoride as an intermediate product for further HF formation. In this group
the most thermodynamically probable reaction is that of SiF4 with hydrogen and oxygen. In terms
of calculations Na3AlF6 is more reasonable to use for dehydrogenization when submerged arc
welding in comparison to fluorite.
Fig. 6. The change in impact strength KCV at temperature -40 in dependence on carbon and
fluorine containing additive
3. Introduction of developed carbon and fluorine containing additive into fluxes N-348, N-60
and N-67 reduces gas content of a weld, the level of impurity by oxide non-metallic substances,
and improves required mechanical properties and impact strength (at temperatures below zero,
especially).
References
[1] Study of the relationship between the composition of a fused flux and its structure and
properties/ Amado Cruz Crespoa, Rafael Quintana Puchola, Lorenzo Perdomo Gonzleza, Carlos R.
Gmez Preza, Gilma Castellanosa, Eduardo Daz Cedra & Tamara Ortza / Welding International.
2009. - Volume 23. - 2. - p. 120-131
[2] Using a new general-purpose ceramic flux SFM-101 in welding of beams/ Yu. S. Volobueva, O.
S. Volobueva, A. G. Parkhomenko, E. I. Dobrozhelac & O. S. Klimenchuk // Welding
International. 2012.- Volume 26. - 8. - p. 649-653
[3] Special features of agglomerated (ceramic) fluxes in welding / V. V. Golovko & N. N.
Potapov // Welding International. 2011.- Volume 25. - 11. - p. 889 - 893.
[4] The influence of the air occluded in the deposition layer of flux during automatic welding: a
technological aspect to consider in the quality of the bead / Rafael Quintana Puchola, Jeily
Rodrguez Blancoa, Lorenzo Perdomo Gonzaleza, Gilma Castellanos Hernndeza & Carlos Rene
Gmez Preza // Welding International. 2009.- Volume 23. - 2. - p. 132-140.
[5] Obtaining a submerged arc welding flux of the MnOSiO2CaOAl2O3 CaF2 system by
fusion / A.C. Crespoa, R.Q. Puchola, L.P. Goncaleza, L.G. Sanchezb, C.R. Gomez Pereza, E.D.

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Cedrea, T.O. Mendeza & J.A. Pozola//Welding International. 2007.- Volume 21. - 7. - p. 502-
511.
[6] Reaction of non-organic substances / R.. Lidin, V.. Molochko, L.L. Andreeva .: Drofa,
2007. 637 p.
[7] Manufacture of vertical bulk oil storage tanks for northern climates using special welding
materials/ Kryukov N.E., Koval'skii I.N., Kozyrev N.A., Igushev V.F., Kryukov R.E.// Steel in
Translation. -2012. - . 42. - 2.-P. 118-120.
[8] Thermodynamical properties of substances: Reference book. V.1. Issue 1 / Edited by V.P.
Glushko, L.V. Gurvich et al. M.: Nauka, 1978. pp. 22.
[9] Welding materials for arc welding: Reference book in 2 volumes. V. 1. Shielding gases and
welding fluxes: Konishchev B.P., Kurlanov S.., Potapov N.N. et al. / Edited by Potapov N.N. -
.: Machinebuilding, 1989 pp. 104.
[10] John L. Haas, Jr., Gilpin R. Robinson, Jr., and Bruse S. Hemingway // J. Phys. Chem. Ref.
Data. 1981. Vol. 10. 3. P. 575 669.
[11] NIST-JANAF Thermochemical Tables 1985. Version 1.0 [Electronic resource] : data compiled
and evaluated by M.W. Chase, Jr., C.A. Davies, J.R. Dawney, Jr., D.J. Frurip, R.A. Mc Donald, and
A.N. Syvernd. Available at: http://kinetics.nist.gov/janaf.
[12] Patent 2467853 RF, P 8 V23 35/362 Ceramic flux-additive / Kryukov N.., Kovalsky
I.N., Kozyrev N.., Igushev V.F., Krykov R..; Open Joint Stock Company Novokuznetsk
Plant of Reservoir Metalware named after N.E. Kryukov.- 201112341602/02(034654),
Application 08.06.2011.
[13] Patent 2484936 PF, P 8 V23 35/362 Ceramic flux-additive / Kozyrev N.., Igushev V.F.,
Kryukov R.., Goldun S.V.; FSBEI HPE Siberian State Industrial University.-
2012104939/02(007484), Application 13.02.2012.

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Influence Voltage Pulse Electrical Discharge In The Water at the Endurance

Fatigue Of Carbon Steel
I.A. Vakulenko1, a, A.G. Lisnyak2, b
1 Department of Materials Technology, Dnepropetrovsk National University of Railway Transport named after
Academician V. Lazarian. Street. Lazarian, 2, Dnepropetrovsk, Ukraine, 49010, Tel. 38 (056) 373 15 56, ORCID 0000-
0002-7353-1916
2 Department "The technology of mining machinery" Dnepropetrovsk National Mining University, pr. Karl Marx, 19,
Dnepropetrovsk, Ukraine, 49027, Tel. 38 (0562) 46 99 81, ORCID 0000-0001-6701-5504
a dnuzt_texmat@ukr.net
b aleklisn@gmail.com
Keywords: hardness, distribution, impuls pressures, electric digit, limited endurance
ABSTRACT. Effect of pulses of electrical discharge in the water at the magnitude of the limited endurance under
cyclic loading thermally hardened carbon steel was investigated. Observed increase stamina during cyclic loading a
corresponding increase in the number of accumulated dislocations on the fracture surface. Using the equation of Cofino-
Manson has revealed a decrease of strain loading cycle after treatment discharges. For field-cycle fatigue as a result of
processing the voltage pulses carbon steel structure improvement, followed by growth of limited endurance decrease
per cycle of deformation. With increasing amplitude of the voltage loop gain stamina effect on metal processing voltage
pulses is reduced. The results can be used to extend the life of parts that are subject to cyclic loading.
Introduction. In the process of cyclic loading of carbon steel, the extent, to which the cycle
amplitude exceeds fatigue limit, affects the character of structural change considerably [2]. For this
reason, the rate of increase in the number of crystalline defects, and evenness of their distribution in
the metallic matrix are the determinants of the conditions of the fatigue damage sites formation in
metals and alloys [14]. Considering that, dislocations are basic carrier units of plastic deformation
[3], the possibility of purposeful control over the process of their growth and redistribution under
the fatigue loading can be considered a promising direction of development of the measures on
improvement of the finite life. The information on the use of electric pulse effects [6, 10] in the
carbon steel after a certain degree of plastic deformation can serve as example. As a result, there
was such a change in the internal structure of a metallic material, which was required to achieve a
desired set of properties.
Status of the problem. At the certain stage of the development of metal materials processing
technology, in the production of complex shapes, especially of plate stock of considerable size, they
detected certain difficulties in the implementation of the technical solutions. One of the ways to solve
this problem was the proposal to use the shock wave resulted by an electric discharge in liquid [4].
Based on numerous studies [48], it was found that this technology allows not only the
manufacturing of products by the formation of a complex deformed state but also managing a range
of properties. Based on this, we can confidently assume that the value of the energy of pulse
loading, its momentum distribution [7, 13] may significantly change the result to be achieved.
Considering the existence of a certain threshold dependence of the impulse of voltage being formed,
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it is possible to obtain the result of different quality, ranging from the reinforcing effect to the metal
weakening [4, 11, 12]. In most cases, the effect of hydraulic shock caused by the electric discharge
in liquid for many metallic materials has reinforcing nature [4, 5], which is supposed to be followed
by the change in the number of accumulated dislocations. Thus, if the effect has reinforcing nature,
the increase in the dislocation density may be expected. Considering that the result depends on a
large number of individual factors, the cumulative effect often leads to qualitatively opposite
results. For example, the rise of the stress wave amplitude increases the number of dislocations [4].
On the other hand, the pulse length largely determines the conditions for the movement of the
dislocation structures. Most of the known experimental data concerns the study of the influence of
the electric discharge shock waves in liquid on the properties of metallic materials under static
loading [5]. Based on this, we can confidently assume that the assessment of the impact of this
effect on the behavior of the metal under the fatigue is quite an important issue.
Purpose. Assessment of the impact of voltage impulses of the electric discharge in liquid on the
behavior pattern of carbon steel under fatigue loading.
Methodology. The carbon steel of the railway wheel pair axle with 0.45% carbon content was the
material under research. The content of other chemical elements corresponded to the grade
composition. The samples for alternating bending test under symmetric loading cycle were metal
sheets of 1 mm thick, 15 mm wide and 180 mm length. The samples were subjected to martensite
quenching and tempering at 300C, for 1h. The analysis of the fracture surfaces was performed
using a scanning electron microscope and fractography techniques; the dislocation density was
evaluated by X-ray methods [1].
Metal fatigue testing was performed under alternating bending under symmetric loading cycle by
means of the ten-station test machine Saturn-10. Electrical discharge impulse action on the
samples of steel in water was performed by the Iskra-23, with the amplitude of the voltage to a
maximum of 2 GPa. The total number of pulses was about 10 4 , at the frequency of 2-3 Gts.
Results. Selection of the structural state of steel after martensite quenching and subsequent
tempering at 300C was driven by the possibility of achieving, under the high density of
dislocations, enhanced values of fatigue resistance of a metal under cyclic loading. From the
analysis of the internal structure of the metal, it follows that after quenching and tempering at
300C, there the stages occur in the process of dispersed carbide particles liberation at the
dislocations, both in the middle and at the boundaries of martensite laths. Besides, as follows from
the results of studies [9], the development of dislocation recombination processes resulting in a
decrease in their total amount should always result in the lowering of their mobility. Therefore, we
can confidently assume that most of the dislocations that have appeared in the metal as a result of
mentioned thermal treatment are immobile to different extents.
The analysis of the shock stress treatment effect on the fatigue behavior of a metal was carried out
in a particular sequence. Fatigue curve was build first, for the samples that had undergone the
thermal treatment (Fig. 1, curve 1), by which the finite life of the metal was determined. Further, the
newly prepared samples were loaded, under the corresponding amplitudes of the cycle to the level
of 0.60.7 of the value of the finite life. Then they were subjected to the shock stress. Further, the
cyclic loading continued until the final destruction of the samples. Finite life value is the total
number of cycles including the number of cycles before the shock stress treatment and after it, up to
the final destruction of the sample (Fig. 1, curve 2).
The analysis of fatigue curves shows the expected difference in the evolution of the fine crystalline
structure of the metal depending on the treatment applied. Indeed, for the similar amplitudes of
loading there is a clear increase in the fatigue resistance of the metal that has been subjected to the
shock wave impulse.

15
a,
2; 0,2; 120
1; 0,2; 110
2; 0,25; 100
2
1; 0,25; 93
2; 0,35; 90
2; 0,7; 80
1;10,35; 75
1; 0,7; 60
N i 10 6 cycle.
Fig. 1. The diagrams of cyclic loading steel 45 after tempering and annealing at 300 C () and
after treatment of SS ().(Stress straik).
To explain the observed increase in the finite life of the metal, the dislocation density was estimated
by the interference (110) and (211) on the fracture surfaces of the samples.
Regardless of the treatment (before and after the shock stress), the decrease in the amplitude of the
cycle is followed by the accumulation of the amount of dislocations in the volume of metal under
plane-strain loading. The absolute values of (hkl) are of great interest. Thus, during cyclic loading
at high amplitude the absolute values of the dislocation density at the fracture surface of the samples
are almost the same. It can be explained by the fact that under high cyclic overstress the formation
of elementary shifts within the structural element of steel causes significant plastic deformations
localization, simultaneously with the rapid transition of the metal to the plane-strain condition.
Further, during the subsequent decrease of a the increase in the accumulated number of
dislocations occurs, with the rate of increase 211 that is significantly higher than the corresponding
value 110 (Fig. 2, a).
The nature of the changes of 211 and 110 (Fig. 2, a) corresponds to the known experimental data
for metal loading under unidirectional static and cyclic loading [2].
By treatment of the metal that had been subjected to the preliminary cyclic loading (up to 0.6-0.7 of
the value of the finite life with certain a ) by shock wave impulses, we have received the
qualitative differences in the nature of the change of the dislocation density on the investigated
interference (Fig. 2, b). The received level of absolute values: 211 is less than 110 , and their
change rate with the decrease of a appeared quite unexpected.
In order to explain the nature of the observed effect of the shock stress on the finite life under cyclic
loading, we analyzed the fracture surface of the samples.

16
( hkl), 1010 2
a ,
)
( hkl), 1010 2
1; 80; 21
1; 90; 15
2; 80; 14
1; 120; 13
2; 90; 11
1; 100; 10
2; 2; 120; 10
a ,
b)
Fig.2. The change of dislocations density, estimated on interferences (110) - and (211) -
depending on amplitude of cyclic loading and preliminary treatment: without SS (a) and after SS
(b).
The general analysis of fracture pattern in the samples after 256 10 3 cycles with the amplitude of
950 MPa (Fig. 3) shows that the surface of fracture was formed by a mixed mechanism. It is
indicated by the presence of chips inside grains (Fig. 3, A) and formation of the faceted surfaces of
intergranular fracture (Fig. 3, B) at the fracture surface.
The mechanism of formation of the chips inside grains is associated with the high overload along
the cycle. The first phase of structural changes caused by the emergence of elementary shifts within

17
the individual grains due to the movement of the unevenly distributed dislocations. Randomly
oriented shifts lead to the rapid partition of the grain into pieces, the boundaries of which are the
series of microcavities. The fatigue microcracks appear and extend along the specified boundaries
due to the local low resistance of the metal [15]. In the case of discrepancy of surfaces of the
simultaneously growing microcracks, in the places where they meet, a step or another boundary
appears that separates the other fragments (light lines in Fig. 3).
Fig.3. Fractographic investigation of the sample after the 260x. 10 3 cycles at an amplitude of
950 MPa.
Formation of the facets of intergranular fracture has a different mechanism. Instead of the chip
within the grain, due to the reduction of the cyclic overload in individual grains, the microcavities
appear near the angle boundaries, which reduces the bond between individual grains in the metal.
Moreover, the movement of dislocations near the large angular boundaries for several
crystallographic systems results in a series of vacancies. Under the influence of cyclically varying
loads in the metal, the areas accumulating the vacancies near the grain boundaries turn into volumes
with high concentrations of microcavities, along which the fatigue crack grows. The more detailed
analysis shows additional features, which indicate the participation of other failure mechanisms in
the formation of the fracture. In fact, there are dimples ( F ) on the fracture surface. These elements
of the structure of the fracture surface explain the emergence of a significant number of microcracks
( E ), which grow mostly at the ferrite grain boundaries. Based on this, it can be assumed that the
sample loading conditions with an amplitude of 950 MPa correspond to low-cycle fatigue, with the
finite life of 256 thousand of cycles.
The reduction of the amplitude to 750 MPa is followed by the expected prolongation of finite life
(up to 350 thousand of cycles). The analysis of the fracture surface (Fig. 4) testifies to the mixed
mechanism of fracture just as under higher amplitude of loading. While under 950 MPa, the fracture

18
surface is formed mainly due to the chips inside grains and formation of the faceted surfaces of
intergranular fracture, under 750 MPa the chips inside grains do not appear (Fig. 4, , A label).
Fig.4. Fractographic investigation of the sample after 370 x10 3 cycle at an amplitude of 750 MPa.
The formation of the separation areas with the crests, which look like the light lines (Fig. 4,
A label), and the intergranular fracture facets (B label) with a significant dispersion should be
considered the dominating mechanism of the fracture surface formation. The sign that confirms the
fatigue resistance improvement is the fewer number of decompositions and microcracks. At the
same time, the number of pits of different sizes and shapes increased; this indicates an increase in
the number of microcavities in the plane of the growing crack. Moreover, on the surface of the
fracture, the occurrence of the sites with an equidistant arrangement of lines can be observed. The
lines have external characteristics similar to fatigue striations (C label). Based on the analysis of the
fracture it can be assumed that under the loading amplitude of 750 MPa the behavior of the sample
corresponds to the conditions of low-cycle fatigue with the signs explaining the increase in the
number of cycles to failure.
After the shock stress processing of the samples, the fracture surfaces have a slightly different
structure (Fig. 5).
According to the external characteristics, the elements of the fracture surface (Fig. 5) has been
formed by the mixed mechanism with almost the same range of particle dimensions as compared
to the sample that has not undergone the shock stress (Fig. 3). The fracture pattern analysis
(Fig. 5) shows the absence of the signs indicating the chip formation within the grains, which was
observed in Fig. 3. At the same time, a considerable part of the fracture surface is occupied by the
facets of intergranular fracture (Fig. 5, A label). There is approximately the same number of
micro-cracks as in the sample that has not undergone the shock stress (Fig. 3), which are located
along the grain boundaries (Fig. 5, B label), decompositions (C), separation areas with the crests
(D) and dimples (F).

19
Fig. 5. The fracture surface of the sample with an amplitude 1000 MPa, after the total number of
260 x10 3 cycle with UN interim treatment.
As for the presence of the fatigue striations as in the case of the sample shown in Fig. 3, it is quite
difficult to determine uniquely, although there are similar sections (E). By means of the
comparative analysis of the fracture surfaces and the obtained level of finite life, it is quite difficult
to determine the influence of shock stress for the high-stress low-cycle region. On the other hand, it
is known that in proportion to the degree of cyclical overload the influence of the static component
on the development of fatigue phenomena increases. The static component that determines the
effect of the deformation and precipitation hardening treatment on the structural changes, in fact,
can mask the effect of the shock stress treatment. The confirmation of the above explanations may
be received under the lower degree of the cyclic overload.
Fig. 6 presents the fracture pattern of the sample that survived 370 thousand cycles at an amplitude
of 900 MPa, which has undergone the intermediate shock stress processing. In comparison to the
sample with the same number of cycles to failure but without shock stress treatment (Fig. 4), the
degree of dispersion of the fracture elements that has undergone the shock stress is higher. Firstly,
the facets formed on the fracture surface have a more equiaxial shape (Fig. 6, a, A label). Compared
to the fracture surface of the sample shown in Fig. 4, there are large areas with very small dimples
(Fig. 6, b, B label); their formation mechanism is based on the coagulation of microcavities [2]. At
the same time, there is a certain number of facets with crests of separation (C) and equidistant
arrangement of the metal decomposition (D), with a low number of the facets of intergranular
fracture (E). In the case of reduction of the test results to the equal cycle amplitude, the finite life of
the metal after the shock stress treatment increases by about 30 %.
Summary. The voltage impulse treatment of metal produced by the electric discharge in water
contributes to the increase of finite life of the carbon steel under cyclic loading. With the rise of the
cycle amplitude, the gain in fatigue resistance resulted by the shock stress declines.

20
b)
Fig. 6. The fracture surface of the sample with an amplitude of 900 MPa, after the total number of
370 x103 cycle with UN interim treatment.
References
[1] Gine A. Rentgenografiya kristallov [Roentgenography of crystals]. Moscow, Gosudarstvennoye
izdatelstvo fiziko-matematicheskoy literatury Publ., 1961, 604 p.

21
[2] Nott Dzh.F. Osnovy mekhaniki razrusheniya [Fundamentals of fracture mechanics]. Moscow,
MetallurgiyaPubl., 1978. 256 p.
[3] Yefremenko V.G., Murashkin A.V., Ivanchenko Ye.P. Sovershenstvovaniye sostava i
termicheskoy obrabotki staley dlya nozhey kholodnoy rezki listovogo prokata [Improvement of
composition and heat treatment of steels for knives for cold cutting of sheet metal]. Stal Steel,
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[4] Meyers M.A., Murr L.B. Udarnyye volny i yavleniya vysokoskorostnoy deformatsii metallov
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hydraulic processing of engineering materials]. Minsk, Nauka i tekhnika Publ., 1978. 184 p. [In
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AIN films deposited by dc magnetron sputtering and high power impulse magnetron sputtering at
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5093(00)00780-2.
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aluminum alloy.Nauka ta prohres transportu. Visnyk Dnipropetrovskoho natsionalnoho
universytetu zaliznychnoho transportu Science and Transport Progress. Bulletin of Dnipropetrovsk
National University of Railway Transport,2013, no. 4 (46), pp. 73-82. doi:10.15802/stp2013/16584.
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[12] Morgan W.L., Rosocha L.A. Surface electrical discharges and plasma formation on electrolyte
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22
Aluminum Composites With Small Nanoparticles Additions: Corrosion

Resistance
L.E. Agureev1a, V.I. Kostikov2, Zh.V. Eremeeva2, A.A. Barmin3, S.V.Savushkina4, B.S. Ivanov5
1 Researcher, Department of Nanotechnology, Keldysh Research Center, Russia

2 Doctor of Science, Associate Professor, Moscow State University of Steel and Alloys, Russia
3 Ph.D., Leading Researcher, Department of Nanotechnology, Keldysh Research Center, Russia
4 Ph. D., Senior Researcher, Department of Nanotechnology, Keldysh Research Center, Russia
5 Engineer, Department of Nanotechnology, Keldysh Research Center, Russia
a trynano@gmail.com
Keywords: nanometric particles, aluminum composites, PM method, corrosion resistance. corrosion rate
ABSTRACT. Research of corrosion resistance of the aluminum powder composites containing microadditives (0.01
0.15% is executed about.) zirconium oxide nanoparticles. Extreme dependence of speed of corrosion of aluminum
composites in 10-% solutions of sulfuric and nitric acid from the maintenance of nanoadditives is shown. It has been
shown the dynamics of mass loss of aluminum composites with nanoparticles of ZrO 2 during corrosion tests in acids
solutions. The lowest corrosion rate of 3.36 mm/a of nitric acid was observed in the sample containing ZrO2 0.01 vol.%
nanoparticles. For the case of sulfuric acid with the best result of 2.21 mm/a showed the material with 0.05 vol.% nano-
additive.
Introduction. Nanotechnologies allow to create the strong and lightweight materials steady against
various aggressive influences. Influence of nanoparticles on structure of material is caused by high
superficial energy. There is a huge number of the works devoted to creation of composite materials,
both with metal, and with a ceramic matrix, the nanoparticles strengthened by various concentration
[1-7]. The light and strong materials, like aluminum alloys, for creation of various bearing designs
of spacecraft have high value For astronautics [8-11]. In many works, the researchers conducted the
development of aluminum composites containing nanoparticles of different nature in concentrations
of more than 5 vol.%. It is rarely possible to find work devoted to low concentrations of nano-
additives in aluminum [12-18]. This work is dedicated to the creation of aluminum composites with
small amounts (0.01-0.15 %vol.) of nano-oxide ZrO2 by powder metallurgy techniques.
Attention to small concentrations of the nanoparticles was based on the following provisions:
high surface energy of nanoparticles;
ease of uniform distribution of small amounts of nanoparticles and their disaggregation within the
matrix;
high impact of nanoparticles on the structure and properties of interfacial layers (matrix-MFS-
nanoparticle).
The theory of irreversible processes and catastrophe theory say that small changes of operating
parameters can jump the most important characteristics of the system [19,20]. Nanoparticles
possessing high superficial energy, brings it in material and to interphase layer, influencing
23
functional characteristics of composite in one direction or another. In this regard, a researcher

separate issue is the determination of threshold effects of nanoparticles on the material and the
search for the optimal technology of its receipt, depending on performance requirements.
The objective of the work was creation of aluminum composites, hardened with small additions of
metal oxide nanoparticles like ZrO2, and determination of its corrosion resistance in acids solutions.
According to ideas of a number of famous scientists on the structure and properties of an interphase
layer in solids nanoparticles having a high surface energy and making changes to structure of a
matrix, even at very small concentration at the level of 0.001-0,. about. % can cardinally change
characteristics of material [21-24]. In tab. 1 influence of nanoparticles on properties of materials is
briefly explained.
1. Experimental procedure. The charge used: as a matrix - aluminum powder with mean diameter
of 4 m (ASD-4, "SUAL", Russia), as reinforcer - nanopowder of zirconia (dav = 50 nm, Ssp = 32
m2/g), Keldysh Research Center, Russia). The technology of preparation of composites consisted in
the following. At the beginning aluminum powder was sieved through a sieve with a cell of 14
microns, then mixed with alcohol in a ratio of 1:4. Then, placed in an ultrasonic bath while stirring
the mixture by rotary stirrer. Nanoparticles dispersed in ultrasound, after which the dispersion was
added to the stirred alumina powder in alcohol. Quantity of nanoadditives varied from 0.01 to 1.5
vol.% Mixing lasted for 20-40 min. Drying of suspensions took place on air at a temperature of 60
C within 24 hours. The resulting blend compressed into a cylindrical mold with a pressure of 400
MPa. Next, sintering was performed in forevacuum at 640 C during 120-180 minutes.
The corrosion resistance was measured as follows. The total exposure time of samples was 15
hours. Samples were weighed prior to the experiment and during the measurements on scales up to
4-th sign. Samples were immersed in 10% solution acid (nitric acid or sulfuric acid). The difference
in mass (primary - to experiment and obtained by checkweighing) was determined by mass loss of
samples and plotted on it. At each check weighing and date recorded.
By results of tests of samples of aluminum composites for corrosion resistance values of speed of
corrosion () on a formula were calculated [25]:
x 365 24
, mm/a,
1000
where x1 mass loss rate, g/(m2h);

density of material, g/cm3.
2. Results and discussions. The results are shown in Fig. 1-4. Particularly interesting is the results
on corrosion resistance in a solution of nitric acid. The lowest rate of mass loss of 3.36 mm/a was
observed in the sample containing nanoparticles of ZrO2 0.01 vol.% . For the case of sulfuric acid
with the best result of 2.21 mm/a showed the material with 0.05 vol.% of the nano-additive.
The worst level of resistance in H2SO4 showed a sample with 0.15 vol.% of nanoparticles. Perhaps
this is due to the number and size of the brought defects (cavities) by mixing aluminum powder
with nano-additives . Nevertheless, it should be noted that all of the samples in comparison with
pure aluminum sintered showed considerably greater resistance to corrosion in both acid solutions.
While first (pure aluminum) at all dissolved in nitric acid after 15 hours and in sulfuric through 10.

24
Fig. 1. The dependence of the aluminum composites corrosion rate of the content nanoparticles
ZrO2 (test in a 10-% nitric acid solution).
Fig. 2. Composites mass loss over time in a solution of nitric acid.
Summary. Samples of aluminum composites with ZrO2 nanoparticles were examined for corrosion
resistance in 10-% solutions of nitric acid and sulfuric acid. The lowest corrosion rate of 3.36 mm/a
of nitric acid was observed in the sample containing ZrO2 0.01 vol.% nanoparticles. For the case of
sulfuric acid with the best result of 2.21 mm/a showed the material with 0.05 vol.% nano-additive.
Acknowledgements. Authors thank collectives NITU "MISIS" and Keldysh Research Center for
the help in development of aluminum composites.

25
Fig. 3. The dependence of the aluminum composites corrosion rate of the content nanoparticles
ZrO2 (test in a 10-% sulfuric acid solution)
Fig. 4. Composites mass loss over time in a solution of sulfuric acid.
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28
II. Mechanical Engineering & Physics
Performance Optimization of a Gas Turbine Power Plant Based on Energy and

Exergy Analysis
Ghamami M.1, a, Fayazi Barjin A.1, Behbahani S.1
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Isfahan University Technology, Isfahan, Iran

a Mghamazi@ut.ac.ir
Keywords: Gas turbine, Exergy, Multi-objective, optimization, Fireflies algorithm, thermoflow.
ABSTRACT. The purpose of this study is energetic and exergetic analysis of combined cycle power plant, study of the
variables that affect the efficiency and performance and provide a solution to improve the efficiency and performance of
the gas turbine. Therefore, after modeling gas cycle, the impact of environmental conditions and performance of gas
turbine cycle will be checked, eventually we achieve two objective optimization of gas cycle that optimized by firefly
algorithm in six cold months of the year. The objective functions are exergy efficiency and cost of the gas cycle
maintenance, fuel cost and destroyed exergy cost. The proposed optimized result show increase in net output power of
the gas cycle, energy and exergy efficiency and decrease in air pollution amount.
Introduction. Gas turbine is one of the power generating machines that have been widely used in
various industries such as power plants, refineries and oil and gas industries. Since a high
percentage of the power requirements of the country, is provided in the gas power plants and due to
the fact that fossil fuels are the energy requirements of these power plants, thus the performance
improvement of these power plants is very important. From about 70 years before gas turbines have
been used to generate electricity, in the last twenty years the production of these type of turbines
has increased by twenty times. Thermodynamic Simulator of gas cycle and combined cycle, is a
useful tool to predict the behavior of each components of the cycle, by which the basic parameters
of the processes in the cycle can be obtained. Exergy analysis is a good way to evaluate the quality
of the energy with the aid of laws of conservation of mass and the first law of thermodynamics, and
is on the basis of the second law of thermodynamics. The tool is used for design, analysis and
optimization of thermal systems. The main objective of exergy analysis, finding solutions to
eliminate or reduce thermodynamic defects in the processes. We can reduced exergy destruction by
identifying the irreversibility factors and situation. Many studies have been done in this field,
research done in this field can be mentioned the following:
Siddiqui et al. [1] In their article they simulated a 100 MW gas cycle of one of the power plants in
Iran is hot and dry regions ,by thermoflow software ,and investigated the effect of steam injection
into the combustion chamber based on the exergy concept in order to improving gas turbine cycle.
Sadeghi et al. [2] they studied and simulated the effects of light and heavy fuel on operational
parameters of the gas turbine and combined cycle in Kazeroon power plant.
Kim and Hwang [3] examined the performance of a gas turbine with recovery in half-load situation,
by considering and comparing different mechanisms to control the turbine. Salary et al. [4] have
studied exergy analysis of 112 MW Power Plant in Ahvaz Zergan. They optimized the cycle by
29
increasing the turbine inlet temperature in terms of energy and exergy. Abdul Khaliq [5], used
exergy method to analyze gas turbine cycle with inlet air cooling and has shown that most exergy
destruction occurs in the combustion chamber, he also showed that by use of cooling the
compressor inlet air, energy efficiency and the cycle Exergy will be increased. Ehyaei et al. [6] at
the same time studied exergic, economic and enviromental analysis affected by Fog cooling system
in the gas cycle of Rajayee power plant. Sanaye and Jafari [7] work in optimizing field, they have
examined effect of inlet air cooling in gas turbine cycle by absorption refrigeration. The two-
objective optimization of the system is done by the genetic algorithm. kaviri et al. [8] have done
thermodynamic modeling and two-objective optimization of a combined cycle power plant. Ahmadi
[9] study on thermodynamic analysis of a gas cycle power plant and obtained best design
parameters by using multi-objective optimization.
In this study, energetic and exergetic analysis of gas turbine power plants have done and solutions
to improve efficiency and performance of gas turbine are suggested. Factors affecting the efficiency
of power plants have been studied and finally variables to improve the efficiency of power plants
have been selected.
Exergy (or ability to perform work). The maximum work that a system may do during a
reversible process from initial state to reach a dead end is called exergy. Exergy of a system in a
given state depends on environmental conditions and system properties, and for a control volume,
its equal to or reversible work with a dead end. Exergy has potential, physical and chemical
components. For the steady flow devices, kinetic and potential exergy can be assumed to be zero.
The sum of physical and chemical exergy, is called thermal exergy [10].
ex ex Ph ex Ch (1)
Physical exergy is defined by Equation 2.
ex Ph (h ho ) To (s so ) (2)
Chemical exergy of mixtures is obtained from equation (3) [11].
( ) ( ), (3)

(4)
Exergy analysis by using of the first and second laws of thermodynamics on the components of a
system, makes it possible to identify the place and production of irreversibility and unfavorable
thermodynamic process of the system, In this way, in addition to evaluate the different components
of thermodynamic cycle, approaches to increase efficiency and output are identified [13].
Efficiency of Thermodynamic Second Law (Exergic efficiency). The first law efficiency is
defined by an ideal isentropic process that never happens in practice. It makes no mention of the
best case, and isn't sufficient to measure the actual system performance alone. To assess the
deviation from the best possible processes, second law efficiency is defined. The second law
efficiency determines how much work ability or potential used in a process [11]. In fact, it
determines how much of exergy given to the system, by a process is achieved and how much of it is
wasted in the form of irreversibility. The second law efficiency is defined the ratio of useful exergy
30
to exergy input and output intensity of irreversibility is defined as (5) the difference between output
exergy and input exergy [13].

(5)
(6)
Thermodynamic Modeling of gas cycle and power plant. Thermodynamic modeling of gas cycle
power plant have been done by using thermodynamic relations. Plant that studied in this paper,
included 4 gas unit manufactured by Mitsubishi Japan MW-701D models with nominal capacity of
each is 128.5 MW and in total 514 megawatts. By installation of 4 retriever boilers and two steam
turbo generator that each has nominal capacity of 100 MW, power plant Transformed to combined
cycle power plant. In order to simulate the combined cycle power plant, we set the data related to
environmental conditions (Table 1).
Table 1. Environmental condition in power plant

Environmental condition Value
Temperature 31 centigrade
Pressure 0.8964 bar
Relative humidity RH=29%
Above sea level 1022 meter
Thermoflow software is one of the most powerful software in design and analysis of power plant
cycles, which is capable to model various stages of the power plant, including thermodynamic
analysis, engineering design and simulating equipment. Combined cycle block consists of two gas
turbines, two recovery boilers and a steam turbine. By choosing Siemens W701 D engine which is
available in the software engines, combined cycle block is simulated in normal loads and in
software. Table 2 shows the software output.
Table 2. Power plant output in normal times (90%)
Type of gaseous fuel cycle Natural gas Gas oil
Net power output of the plant

526576 520844
(kW)
Plant heat rate (kJ/kWh) 7894 7948
Plant thermal efficiency (%) 45.6 45.3
In order to verify the results of the software simulation, the values obtained from the simulation and
actual data are compared in Table 3.
Figure 3 shows the flow of incoming and outgoing energy to one block in combined cycle of power
plant, also, it shows where the input fuel energy is intended in terms of heat value of fuel. Input
energy consists of latent and sensible energy of air and chemical energy of fuel. Most thermal losses
is related to the condenser, because discharges the heat taken from the cooling water to the
environment. After condenser most heat losses is related to the exhaust flue gas that is at about 118
Celsius degrees, which enters too much heat into the environment without using them.
31
Fig. 1. Operating parameters plant in case of 90% load
Fig. 2. Performance and placement components of HRSG plant in case of 90% load
In tables 3, net output power is expressed in kilowatts (kW) scale and heat rate is expressed in kJ /
kWh scale. The rate is expressed on a scale of kilograms per second (kg/s). By comparing the study
results provided by the simulation and power plant results it can be seen that there is a good
adaption between the results. In six cold months (October to the end of April), due to a dramatic
reduction in household electricity consumption compared with six warm months of the years, the
demand for electricity from power plants in the country declined. The main priority in the six cold
months, is increase in exergy efficiency of gas cycle and reduce the annual cost.

32
Fig. 3. Diagram of Energy flow (input and output plant power)
Table 3. Data comparing of power plant in case of 90% load

Software Power
Parameter Error )%(
simulation plant
+1.08
Net power output 532250 526576
Heat Rate 7883 7894 -0.14
Thermal efficiency (%) 45.67 45.6 +0.15
Fuel flow 6.361 6.35 +0.11
Air flow 339.1 338 0.11
The compressor pressure ratio 12.27 12.2 0.57
Turbine pressure ratio 11.29 11.2 0.8
Turbine inlet gas temperature (K) 1387.9 1385 0.21
With the increase in air temperature, the gas turbine and the compressor's power reduces, due to the
more steep decline of power in gas turbine compared with the compressor, the net output power of
the gas cycle is reduced. With the increase in air temperature, mass flow of gas turbine exhaust
gases reduces, less steam is produced in the recovery boiler and there will be a total loss in power of
steam turbine. By reducing the power of steam-gas cycle, the net output of power plant appear with
declined more sharply. For one degree Celsius rise in ambient air temperature, pure output power of
the gas cycle, steam turbine and power plant will averagely reduce 0.63 and 0.27 and 0.53,
respectively. Comparison between output powers with respect to temperature is shown in Figure 4.

33
365
Mass flow rate of air entering

360
the compressor [kg/s]

355
350
345
340
335
330
325
320
315
5 8,5 12 15,5 19 22,5 26 29,5 33 36,5 40
Environment temperature [C]
Fig. 4. Special compressor pressure ratio and can shift with ambient temperature
Optimization. After reviewing the parameters affecting the performance of plants, defining
optimization problem based on target functions and parameters can be done. Optimization problem
in finding answers or solutions on a set of possible options aimed at improving the standard or
standards of the issue. Multi-objective optimization problem arise from the decision-making
methods in the real world that one decision maker faces a set of contradictory and conflicting
objectives and criteria. In these types of issues, unlike the single-objective optimization problems
and because of the multi-purpose (often conflicting), rather than just a solution optimized set of
questions arises.
In the multi-objective optimization, after the introduction of design variables and determine the
objective functions, optimal points are determined and the impact of design on objective functions
are provided. Many factors affect the performance of gas turbine, therefore, gas turbine cycle has
many ways to improve the performance of the industry. Each of these methods has different effects
on output power, efficiency and specific consumption of fuel. The selection of a particular method
according to plant type, climatic conditions, work area, how it affects the performance of the project
cycle, and measures will be considered. Some of the most important factors affecting the operation
of the gas turbine are:
Pressure ratio
Compressor inlet temperature
Compressor efficiency
The compressor intake
Turbine inlet temperature
Turbine efficiency
Output power of turbine
Fuel air ratio
Mass flow rate
As can be seen in Figure 5, with increasing ambient air temperature, compressor pressure ratio
reduces. As well as the temperature increases, air density decreases, resulting in a greater volume of
air should be particularly dense, and the special power of compressor will increase.

34
Pressure ratio Special power

13,2 380
13 375
Special power compressors

Compressor pressure ratio
12,8 370
12,6 365
[kW / kg / s]
360
12,4
355
12,2
350
12 345
11,8 340
11,6 335
11,4 330
5 8,5 12 15,5 19 22,5 26 29,5 33 36,5 40
Fig. 5. Change in net output power cycle gas and steam turbine power plants with ambient
temperature
For one degree Celsius increase in temperature, compressor pressure ratio and special averaged
power increases 0.24 percent and 0.25 percent respectively. Gas turbine is power generation system
at constant volume. By increasing the ambient air temperature and constant air pressure in a fixed
volume, density and mass flow rate of air flow is reduced, resulting in reduced compressor inlet
mass. Figure 6 shows the compressor inlet air mass flow changes to show the changes in ambient
temperature. For one degree Celsius rise in temperature, compressor inlet air flow is reduced by an
average of 0.24 per cent.
TIT TET
1119 550 Exhaust turbine gas temperature [C]

Turbine inlet gas temperature [C]
1118 548
1117 546
544
1116
542
1115
540
1114
538
1113
536
1112 534
1111 532
1110 530
5 8,5 12 15,5 19 22,5 26 29,5 33 36,5 40
Fig. 6. Chart compressor inlet air mass flow changes with temperature
With the increase in air temperature, gas turbine inlet gas temperature increases due to the reduced
amount of fuel and increase in air to fuel ratio. With increasing temperature due to increased
temperature of the exhaust gases from the gas turbine inlet air temperature for cooling turbine
blades increases. For one degree Celsius rise in temperature ambient air, intake and exhaust gas
35
temperature of the turbine by an average of 0.4 degrees Celsius, respectively 0.17 C decrease and
increase. Figure 7 shows the change in gas turbine inlet and outlet gas temperature than the ambient
temperature shows.
Plant Net Power GT GrossPower ST Gross Power
111
310 108
Net power output (GT-ST)

Net power output (Plant)
105
300
102
290 99
96
MW
MW
280
93
270 90
87
260 84
81
250
78
240 75
5 8,5 12 15,5 19 22,5 26 29,5 33 36,5 40
Fig. 7. Gas turbine exhaust gas temperature changes graph input and ambient temperature
Differences between the energy and exergy system can be expressed as follows [12].
1. Energy just relates to the system condition and the mass flow but exergy in addition to those
conditions is dependent on environmental conditions.
2. The amount of energy in the dead system may also have an amount, but the exergy in a dead
system is always zero.
3. Energy for all the processes are subject to the law of survival, and is stated in the form of the first
law of thermodynamics but exergy is subject to survival only in reversible processes. In irreversible
processes, always exergy a destroyed. Exergy, applies a combination of the first and second laws of
thermodynamics to the review process.
4. Energy is only a quantitative measure for evaluating processes but exergy is both quantitative and
qualitative measure.
5. Energy can be calculated with respect to each case assumptions but exergy basis mode is
determined by environmental conditions.
After reading the parameters and variables on power plant performance optimization, optimization
process takes place. Because of the simultaneous search of multiple points, no need for an explicit
mathematical relationship between objective functions, the need for direct measurement and
mathematical calculations needed to optimize the methods of analysis and generalization of random
search algorithms, optimization of problem is done by random search algorithms.
The objective function. To compare the achieved considerable optimization problems we need to
have a selection criterion. Such a measure, which plan is optimized and is a function of design
variables, standard function, is called advantage function or objective function. In this study, the
objective functions, exergy efficiency and costs related to gas cycle, and the optimal points
represent the highest efficiency and lowest costs. Relation 6 and 7 show the first and second
objective function, respectively.

36

OF1:Max
(7)
OF2: Min (8)

( ) (9)
(10)
Net Output power of the gas cycle can be obtained as above.

Decision variables. Thermodynamic modeling inputs are decision variables and numbers represent
degrees of freedom of the system. Decision variables change during the optimization process, but
the parameters are fixed, but some parameters, are dependent parameters which is determined on
the amount of basis of the decision variables. The variables which are specified in Table 4, are
selected as the decision variables. In order to stay in the recovery boiler circuit, the gas turbine load
is considered higher than 55%. Using thermoflow and EES software and range change in
environmental conditions, according to the decision of the six variables in Table 1 and also taking
into account the load percentage of the gas turbine in the range of 55 to 100% has been obtained.
Firefly algorithm. Firefly optimization algorithm or FA for short is inspired of the natural behavior
of fireflies which live together in large collections, and was introduced for the first time in late 2008
by Xin-She Yang [14], this multi-agent algorithms can be a solution of hard optimization problem
and it is a very efficient algorithm for solving combinatorial optimization problems.
In summary, the performance of the algorithm is that the number of artificial fireflies (initial
population) are randomly distributed in the range and then emits light of a firefly which intensity is
proportional to the amount of optimality point Firefly is that it is located. The light intensity of each
firefly regularly intensity compared to other fireflies and fireflies brighter too faint to be absorbed.
At the same time the brightest fireflies also aims to increase the chances of finding the optimal
solution is the global accidentally move. In this algorithm, exchange information with each other
through the light emission occurs. The composition of this combined action makes the overall trend
towards a more efficient is fireflies.
Table 4. Optimization variables and their ranges
Variable interval Variable
Compressor pressure ratio
Isentropic efficiency turbine
Isentropic efficiency compressor
Compressor inlet mass flow rate (kg/s)

The output of the gas turbine
combustion pressure (bar)
Gas turbine inlet temperature (K) ( )
Optimization Results. Given the equations required optimization objective functions according to
the decision made and the six variables in MATLAB fireflies algorithm code was used to optimize

37
the objective function. The primary population for the first generation is considered 200. In the
multi-objective optimization instead of an optimal point, we have an optimal solution that is
optimized to the famous pareto point and the set of these points are called pareto front. Figure 8
shows the pareto front of the optimization objective functions, including optimal points. As can be
seen by increasing the efficiency of the gas cycle exergy, it also increases annual costs.
6,8
6,6
6,4 C
(Millions of dollars) costs
6,2
6
5,8
5,6
5,4 B
5,2
5
A
4,8
4,6
4,4
4,2
4
0,26 0,27 0,28 0,29 0,3 0,31 0,32 0,33 0,34 0,35
Exergy efficiency (%)
Fig. 8. Pareto Front of the first objective functions (cost) for six months
Selection the desired optimization of energy systems based on multi-objective optimization

decision-making ideas happen after the search. Each individual decision-maker may be due to
considerations in mind, their own scenario is to select the optimal point. Pareto front of the
optimization objective function shows that the costs for the six months is considered. The results,
show minimal costs during the year should be paid for a certain exergy efficiency, and most exergy
efficiency that can be achieved for a certain fee during the year. Figure 9 shows the net profit for the
six months according to exergy efficiency. Net profit, the difference between the proceeds from the
sale of electricity and the cost of the cycle ( CTot ) is obtained. The price of electricity purchased from
power plants 0.15 Dollar/kWh is considered [13]. Pareto front of net profit of the previous stage
results are plotted in Figure 9.
In Figure 10, the net profit in the six months according to exergy efficiency has been showed in gas
cycle power plant. The price of electricity purchased from power plants is intended 0.3 Dollar/kWh.
Table 5 Three optimal point A, B and C compared with each other. Given the priority of each
objective function optimal point can be selected.
In table 5, net output power and destroyed exergy are in megawatts scale (MW) and amounted net
profit is expressed in millions of dollars scale for both 0.15 and 0.3 dollar per Kilowatt hours
(dollar/kWh) of generated electricity.
Summary. The main goal of this study was to evaluate and improve the performance of gas cycle
power plant in different environmental conditions. The analysis results show that the greatest
destruction exergy of gas cycle power plant is happening in the combustion chamber. That reason is
high temperature difference between the temperature of the flame and fluid. Much of this
destruction exergy is inevitable that cannot be reduced, so exergy efficiency of power plants has
been studied and other ways use to reduce the exergy destruction.
38
1,2
B
(Millions of dollars) net profit

1
0,8 C
0,6
0,4
A
0,2
0
0,26 0,27 0,28 0,29 0,3 0,31 0,32 0,33 0,34 0,35
Fig. 9. The change in net profit with electricity prices 0.15 Dollar/kWh
10
(Millions of dollars) net profit
9 C
8 B
6 A
3
0,26 0,27 0,28 0,29 0,3 0,31 0,32 0,33 0,34 0,35
Fig. 10. The change in net profit with electricity prices 0.3 Dollar/kWh
Table 5. Comparison of the optimum

Point A Point B Point C
Exergy efficiency (%) 26.7 31.3 34.5
Efficiency (%) 27.5 32.5 34.9
Net output power 68 90.7 114
Price Six months (millions of dollars) 4.3 4.9 6.4
Exergy destroyed 104 120 141
Net profit price of electricity: 0.3 0.05 0.9 0.9
Net profit price of electricity: 0.15 4.4 6.7 8.3

39
Firefly algorithm has been optimization algorithm in gas cycle power plant. Objective functions are
exergy efficiency and cost, cost include the gas cycle maintenance costs, fuel cost and the cost of
exergy demolition, highest efficiency exergy and lowest cost are requirements. The results show
that by increasing the efficiency of the gas cycle exergy, its cost also increased. Lower temperature
reduces emissions and steam quality in the recovery boiler and steam turbine power output is
reduced as a result. To remedy this problem, the use of gas turbine exhaust duct burner is
recommended. In this case, the temperature of the exhaust gas from the turbine should exceed the
temperature of HRSG design.
The study achievements can be cite to use of meta-heuristic algorithm in large search space, non-
linear variables and objective functions such as firefly algorithm. Because that limited studies have
been done for examine ability and capabilities of this algorithms, this study is an opportunity to
investigate the algorithm and its ability. Multi-objective optimization process has its own challenges
and advantages. In the multi-objective optimization not only efficiency but also exergy cycle costs,
including the cost of repair and maintenance, the cost of fuel and the cost of destruction exergy have
been studied. Time-consuming optimization process is very important. Less computational time and
iteration means less computational cost, by using of the optimal response of optimization algorithm,
the net power output of the gas cycle power plants by as much as 11.15 and 8.08 percent, energy
efficiency and exergy cycle gas 3.64 and 3.61 respectively percent and air emissions, 0.77 percent
decrease. This study also examines changes in environmental conditions and levels of load on the
gas cycle power plant, Technical and economic assessment, energy and exergy analysis using the
first and second law of thermodynamics can be mentioned. As well as alternative ways to reduce
destruction exergy and increase exergy efficiency are reviewed.
Thermoflow Software can calculate the pollutions of the turbine gas output. It is suggested that the
impact of changing load levels and the effect of cooling system of air entering to compressor will be
investigated in order to predict exhaust pollutions of gas turbines.
Reference
[1] Siddiqi H, Bayati Gh,Tvakoli A, Fotoohi D, "simulated cycle 100 MW gas and steam injection
into the combustion chamber 'exergetic analysis and energetic", conferences energy efficiency,
conferences Institute of Technology, Tehran, (2010).
[2] Sadeghi H, Haghighi khoshkhor V, Tanasan M, Moosavian M, "Simulation of the
thermodynamic effects of non-gaseous fuels on the performance and efficiency of combined cycle
power plant", the twenty-seventh International Conference on Electric Power Research Institute,
Inc. Tavanir, Tehran, (2012).
[3] Kim T, Hwang S.H, Part load performance analysis of recuperated gas turbines considering
engine configuration and operation strategy, J.of.Energy, 31, pp. 260-277, (2006),
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[4] Salari M, Hashemi Sh, Zayer noori M, "Exergy and Exergy Economic Analysis Zargan Gas
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40
[7] Sanaye S, Jafari s, "Optimizing the objective cycle gas turbine inlet air cooling by absorption
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objective optimization of a gas turbine power plant, J.of.Applied Thermal Engineering, 31, pp.
2529-2540, (2011), doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2011.04.018
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41
Certain Solutions Of Shock-Waves In Non-Ideal Gases
Kanti Pandey1, a & Kiran Singh1
1 Department of Mathematics & Astronomy, Lucknow University, Lucknow, 226007, India

a pandey_kanti@yahoo.co.in
Keywords: Shock waves, Non-ideal medium, AMS Classification
ABSTRACT. In present paper non similar solutions for plane, cylindrical and spherical unsteady flows of non-ideal gas
behind shock wave of arbitrary strength initiated by the instantaneous release of finite energy and propagating in a non-
ideal gas is investigated. Asymptotic analysis is applied to obtain a solution up to second order. Solution for numerical
calculation Runga-Kutta method of fourth order is applied and is concluded that for non-ideal case there is a decrease in
velocity, pressure and density for 0th and II-nd order in comparison to ideal gas but a increasing tendency in velocity,
pressure and density for Ist order in comparison to ideal gas. The energy of explosion J0 for ideal gas is greater in
comparison to non-ideal gas for plane, cylindrical and spherical waves.
1. Introduction. The assumption that the medium is an ideal gas is no more valid when the flow
takes place in extreme conditions. Anisimov & Spiner [1] studied a problem of point explosion in
low density non ideal gas by taking the equation of state in a simplified form which describes the
behaviour of medium satisfactorily. Roberts & Wu [2] studied the gas that obeys a simplified
Vander Waals equation of state.
Vishwakarma et al. [3] have investigated the one dimensional unsteady self-similar flow behind a
strong shock, driven out by a cylindrical or spherical piston in a medium which is assumed to be
non-ideal and which obey the simplified Vander-Waals equation of state as considered by Roberts
& Wu [2]. However, they have assumed that the piston is moving with time according to law given
by Steiner & Hirschler [4]. Madhumita & Sharma [5] have considered the model equation for a low
density gas, which describes the behavior of the medium satisfactorily for implosion problems
where the temperature for implosion problems were the temperature attained by the gas motion in
the strong shock limit is very high. Pandey & Pathak [6] have discussed growth and decay of sonic
waves in non-ideal gases. In present paper using asymptotic expansion an attempt is made to obtain
non-self similar solution of shock-waves in non-ideal gas. For numerical calculation Runge Kutta
method is applied .In preparation of graphs Origin 7.5 is used.
2. Basic Equations
The basic equations describing a cylindrically symmetric (= 1) or a spherically symmetric ( = 2)
motion of a non-ideal gas can be written as:
(u ) u
0, (2.1)
t r r
u u 1 p
u 0
t r r , (2.2)
(r E ) {r u ( E p)}
0
t r , (2.3)
42
where is the gas density, u is the fluid velocity, p is the pressure and
u2
E e , (2.4)
2
is the total energy density with e being the internal energy density, the independent variables are the
space co-ordinate r and time t: The equation of state characterizing the non-ideal medium is taken to
be of the form
RT
p ,
(1 b )
where b is the internal volume of the gas molecules which is known in terms of the molecular
interaction potential in high temperature gases, it is a constant with b << 1. The gas constant R
and the temperature T are assumed to obey the thermodynamic relations R C p CV and e CV T ,
R
where CV is the specific heat at constant volume and is the ratio of specific heats. Thus
( 1)
in view of these thermodynamic relations, the equation of state can be written as
e( 1)
p . (2.5)
(1 b )
Expression for E, in view of equation (2.5) assumes the form
p(1 b ) u 2
E .
( 1) 2
Using above value of E in equation (2.3), we have
p p p u u
u 0. (2.6)
t r (1 b ) r r
Here =0,1,2 corresponds to planar, cylindrical and spherical geometries respectively. The
assumption of the instantaneous release of constant energy E0 at time t = 0 yields the energy
balance equation:
u2 p(1 b ) p0 (1 b 0 )
S
1
E0 K { } r dr ,
0
2 ( 1) 0

43
where K= 2, 2, 4 for = 0, 1, 2 and S represents the shock radius which is assumed to be zero at
t = 0.
S 1
S
From Lagrangian equation of continuity we have 0 0 r dr
( 1)
. Thus energy balance
equation transform into:
S u 2 p(1 b ) K S 1 p0 (1 b 0 )
E0 K r dr . (2.7)
0 2 ( 1) ( 1)( 1)
The conservation relations across the shock for the present problem can be written as:
0U 1 (U u1 ) , (2.8)
p0 0U 2 p1 1 (U u1 )2 , (2.9)
p0 p0 (1 b 0 ) U 2 p1 p1 (1 b 1 ) (U u1 ) 2
, (2.10)
0 0 ( 1) 2 1 1 ( 1) 2
where subscripts 1 and 0 refer to values immediately behind and ahead of the shock respectively
and represents the shock velocity.
dS
U ,
dt
In following section we introduce the dimension less variables.

3. Transformation of Fundamental Equations in Non-Dimensional Form
To transform fundamental equations, we consider principal of similarity & introduces new variables
x and y in place of r and t as defined by Sakurai7
r
x (3.1)
S
2
0
y, (3.2)
U2
u=Uf(x ,y ), (3.3)
0U 2
p (1 b 0 ) g ( x, y ) , (3.4)

0 h( x, y) , (3.5)
where

44
p0
02 , r Sx dr Sdx . (3.6)
0 (1 b 0 )
Thus
1
, (3.7)
r S x
D U
( f x) y , (3.8)
Dt S x y
where
dy

S dS (3.9)
y

and is a function of y alone.

Substituting equations (3.1) to (3.8) in to fundamental equations (2.1), (2.2), (2.6), (2.7) and
boundary conditions (2.8, 2.9, 2.10), equations (2.1), (2.2), (2.6) become
h h f f
( f x) y h , (3.10)
x y x x
f f f (1 b 0 ) g
h ( f x) y , (3.11)
x y 2 x
g g g f f
g ( f x ) y
x y (1 b 0 h) x x . (3.12)
Equation (2.7) now become
1
S
1
hf 2 g (1 b 0 h)(1 b 0 ) (1 b 0 )2 y
y 0 x dx , (3.13)
S 0
2 ( 1) ( 1)( 1)
where
1
E0 1
S0 2
. (3.14)
0 K 0
Equations (2.8), (2.9), (2.10) now become as

45
1
h(1, y) , (3.15)
1 2b 0 2 y(1 b 0 )
h(1, y ) 1
f (1, y ) , (3.16)
h(1, y)
(1 b 0 ) y
g (1, y ) f (1, y ) . (3.17)
(1 b 0 )
Differentiating equation (3.11) with respect to y and using expression,
1
hf 2 g (1 b 0 h)(1 b 0 )
0 2 ( 1) x dx J ,

(3.18)
defined in equation (3.9) is given by
(1 b 0 ) 2 y
J ( 1)
( 1)
. (3.19)
dJ
J y
dy
4. Construction of Solution in Power series of y. While the shock waves are strong, the velocity
U is large and y can be considered as small there, so that the quantities f; g; h can be expanded in
rapidly convergent series of powers of y in following manner:
f f (0) yf (1) y 2 f (2) ........... (4.1)
g g (0) yg (1) y 2 g (2) ........... (4.2)
h h(0) yh(1) y 2 h(2) .......... (4.3)
where f (i ) , g (i ) , h(i ) , (i = 0,1, 2,) are all functions of x only . Inserting equations (4.1, 4.2,
4.3) in the expression (3.18), we have
J J 0 1 y1 y 2 ..... , (4.4)
where

46
h(0) f ( 0) (1 b 0 ) g (0) (1 b 0 )b 0 h(0) g (0)

2
1
J0 x dx , (4.5)

0
2 ( 1) ( 1)

1
(1) (0)
h f g (1 b 0 ) b 0 h g (1 b 0 ) b 0 h g (1 b 0 )
(1) (0) (1) (1) (0)
1 J 0 h(0) f (0) f (1) x dx (4.6)
0 2 ( 1) ( 1) ( 1)
(1 b 0 ) (2)

1
2 J0 [
1
2h(0) f (0) f (2) h(0) f (1) 2 f (0) f (1) h(1) f (0) h(2)
g b 0 h(0) g (2) b 0 g (1) h (1) b 0 g (0) h (2) ]x dx (4.7)
2 2
0
2 ( 1)
Using equation (4.4),the equation (3.13)becomes
1
S (1 b 0 )2
y 0 J 0 1 1 y 2 y ... ,
2
(4.8)
S ( 1)( 1) J 0
Or in view of (3.1)
1
0 S0
2
(1 b 0 )2 0
2
0
4

U S J 0 1 1 . (4.9)
( 1)( 1) J 0 U 2 .....
U
Equation (4.9) is in form of power series in 0 , which gives a relation between propagation
U
velocity U and the position of shock front S. If J 0 and i are known can be expanded in
following form
(1 b 0 ) 2
( 1) 1 y 1 2 2 y .... .
2
(4.10)
J 0 ( 1)( 1)
If we use, for simplicity , the expressions
(1 b 0 )2
1 , (4.11)
J 0 ( 1)( 1) 1
2 2 2 . (4.12)
Equation(4.10)can be written as
( 1)(1 1 y 2 y 2 .....) . (4.13)

47
Now, substituting equations (4.1, 4.2. 4.3) and (4.13) in equation (3.10, 3.11, 3.12) and Comparing
the Coefficients of the same powers of y on both sides of (3.10), ( 3.11), (3.12) we get the following
system in equations:
For zero-th power of y (Ist Approximation)
f g (1 b 0 ) ( 1) (0) (0)
(0) (0)
h (0)
(f (0)
x) f h , (4.14)
x x 2
f h
(0) (0)
(0)
h (f (0)
x) f (0) h(0) , (4.15)
x x x
f g
(0) (0)
g (0) ( f (0) x) (1 b 0 h(0) ) ( 1)b 0 g (0) h(0) ( 1) g (0) f (0) g (0) , (4.16)
x x x
For the first power of y (IInd Approximation)
( 1) f (0) (0) (1) ( 1) (0)

(1) (1) ( 0)
f g (1 b 0 ) f ( 1) (0) (0) , (4.17)

( f (0) x)h(0) h f f ( f (0) x) h(1) f h 1

x
x 2

x 2 x 2
f
(1)
h
(1)
h (0) h(0) (1) f (0) f (0)
h (0)
(f (0)
x) f ( 1) h(1) , (4.18)
x x x x x x
g
(1)
g
(0)
1 (0) f
(1)
(1) f
(0)
g (0) f (1) f (0) g (1) g
(0)

( 1)1 g (0) ( f (0) x) f (1) g g ( f (0) x)b 0 h(1) ( 1)b 0 g (0) h(1)
x x (1 b 0 h ) (0)
x x x x x
f f f f f f f f f
(2) (1) (0) (2) (1) (0) (0) (0) (1)
h(0) f (0) h(0) f (1) h(0) f (2)

2
h(0) x h(1) f (0) h(1) f (1) h(2) f (0) h( 2) x h (1) x (4.19)
x x x x x x x x x
( 1) (0) (2) ( 1) (1) (1) ( 1) (2) (0) (1 b 0 ) g
(2)
2( 1) f (2) h(0) 1 ( 1) f (1) h(0) ( 1) f (1) h(1) h f h f h f

2 2 2 x
For the second power of y (IIIrd Approximation)
f f (0) 2 (2) f f f f
(2) (1) (0) (2) (1) (0)
h (0)
f (0)
h (0)
f (1)
h f h x
(0)
h f (1) (0)
h f
(1) (1)

x x x x x x
f ( 1) (2) (0) ( 1) (1) (1)
(0)
h(2) x 2( 1) f (2) h(0) 1 ( 1) f (1) h(0) ( 1) f (1) h(1) f h f h

, (4.20)
x 2 2
( 1) (0) (2) (1 b 0 ) g
(2)
f h
2 x
h h h h f
(2) (1) (0) (2) (2)
f (0) f (1) f (2) x 2( 1)h(2) ( 1)1h(1) h(0)

x x x x x , (4.21)
f f h f h f h
(1) (0) (0) (2) (1) (1) (2) (0)
f
h(1) h(2)
x x x 2 x

48
g g g g g
(0) (1) (0) (0) (2)
b 0 f (0) h(2) b 0 f (0) h(1) b 0 f (1) h(1) b 0 xh(2) f (0)

x
x x x x
g
(2)
x2 b 0 ( 1)h(2) b 0 ( 1)h(1) g (1) b 0 ( 1)1h(1) g (0) b 0 ( 1)h(1) g (1) 2( 1) g (2) (4.22)

x
f f f
(2) (1) (0)
1 ( 1) g (1)
g (0)
g g (2)
(1)
x x x
In similar manner substituting equations (4.1, 4.2, 4.3) into equations (3.15, 3.16, 3.17), we have
2(1 b 0 ) 2 1
f (0) (1) , g (0) (1) , h (0) (1) , (4.23)
1 1 1 2b0
2(1 b 0 ) 1 2( 1)(1 b 0 )
f (1) (1) , g (1) (1) , h (1) (1) , (4.24)
1 1 ( 1 2b 0 )2
4( 1)(1 b 0 ) 2
f (2)
(1) 0, g (1) 0 , h (1)
(2) (2)
, (4.25)
( 1 2b 0 )3
If we take b=0, equations (4.14 4.16) with condition (4.23) coincides with the results obtained by
Sakurai [7].
Fig. 1. Variation of velocity for zeroth order solution (plane wave)

49
Fig. 2. Variation of velocity for zeroth order solution (cylindrical case)
Fig. 3. Variation of velocity for zeroth order (Spherical case)

50
Fig. 4. Variation of pressure for zeroth order solution (plane case)
Fig. 5. Variation of pressure for zeroth order solution (cylindrical case)

51
Fig. 6. Variation of pressure for zeroth order (spherical case)
Fig. 7. Variation of density for zeroth order

52
Fig. 8. Variation of velocity for the first order solution
Fig. 9. Variation of pressure for the first order solution

53
Fig. 10. Variation of density for the first order solution
Fig. 11. Variation of velocity for the second order solution
5. Result and Conclusion

1. For constant solutions, velocity, pressure and density varies linearly and for non-ideal case there
is a decrease in comparison to ideal gas.

54
Fig. 12. Variation of pressure for the second order solution
Fig. 13. Variation of density for the second order solution
2. For first order solution velocity, pressure density all varies linearly, but as value of m (= b0)
increases they are increasing in comparison to ideal gas.
3. For second order solution variation of velocity is linear. In plane case it is same for ideal as well
as non-ideal case but as m increases there is a slight decrease for cylindrical and spherical case.

55
4. The energy of explosion J0 for ideal gas is greater in comparison to non ideal gas for plane,
cylindrical and spherical wave.
Fig. 14. Variation of energy of explosion
References
[1] S. I. Anisimov and O. M. Spiner, Motion of an almost ideal gas in the presence of a strong point
explosion, J. Applied Maths, Vol.36(No.5) (1972), pp.883-887.
[2] P. H. Robert and C.C. Wu, Shock wave propagation in a sonolu-minescing gas bubble, The
American physical Society, Vol. 70 (No. 22) (1933), pp.3424-3427.
[3] J. P. Vishwakarma, Self-similar solution of a shock propagation in a non ideal gas. Int. J. of
Applied Mech and Engineering, Vol. 12 (No.3) (2007), pp.813-829.
[4] H. Steiner and T. Hirschler, A self similar solution of a shock propagation in a dusty gas, Eur. J.
Mech. B/Fluids, Vol. 21 (No.3) (2002), pp.371-380.
[5] Madhumita and Sharma, Imploding cylindrical and spherical shock waves in a non-ideal
medium, Journ. of Hyperbolic dif. eq., Vol. 1(No.3) (2004), pp.521-530.
[6] K. Pandey and P. P. Pathak, Growth and Decay of sonic waves in non-ideal gases
(Communicated for publication).
[7] A. Sakurai, On the propagation and structure of the Blast wave I, Journal of the Physical Society
of Japan, Vol. 8 (No.5) (1953), pp.662-669.

56
Analytical Modeling of Transient Process In Terms of One-Dimensional

Problem of Dynamics With Kinematic Action
V.Kravets1a, K.Bas1, T.Kravets2 & L. Tokar1
1 State Higher Educational Institution National Mining University, Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine

2 Dnipropetrovsk National University of Railway Transport, Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine
a prof.w.kravets@gmail.com
Keywords: material system, kinematics action, mathematical model, analytical solution, characteristic equation,
dynamic design
ABSTRACT. One-dimensional dynamic design of a component characterized by inertia coefficient, elastic coefficient,
and coefficient of energy dispersion. The component is affected by external action in the form of time-independent
initial kinematic disturbances and varying ones. Mathematical model of component dynamics as well as a new form of
analytical representation of transient in terms of one-dimensional problem of kinematic effect is provided. Dynamic
design of a component is being carried out according to a theory of modal control.
Introduction. Analytical modeling is the essential stage of technical system dynamic design
followed by computational and full-scale experiment [0, 0]. Analytical modeling of dynamic
systems is based upon traditional mathematical methods of solutions of differential equation
systems [0], theory of modal control [0], root-locus technique [0], and root-locus method [0].
Free motion dynamics of one-dimensional mechanical system experiences analytical study in a
work by Kravets [0]; forced motion dynamics in terms of external dynamic effect was considered in
a work by Kravets [0]. The paper models forced motion dynamics in terms of external kinematic
effect.
Formulation of the problem. Fig.1 demonstrates dynamic scheme of one-dimensional mechanical
system.
Fig. 1. Dynamic scheme of kinematic effect problem
Here and m are interacting masses, is coefficient of elasticity, is damping coefficient.

It is assumed that M>>m. m mass is finite and specified. ( ) motion of m mass cannot effect a(t)
motion of mass. Notion of mass is supposed as specified function of ( ) time. For example:
( ) = V0t where V0 is mass velocity.

57
It is required to develop ( ) analytical solution modeling stable transient and determining steady
motion of m mass depending upon such running design parameters of mechanical system as and
c.
Mathematical model. Continuous dynamic model with single degree of freedom is described with
the help of following matrix differential equation:
( )
( )
(1)
where ( ) ; ( ).
For mechanical system under consideration, the equation coefficients are determined as follows:
=- , =- , (2)
= 1, =0.
Power function for kinematic effect is identified in the form of:
( ) ( ) ( ) (3)
f2(t) = 0 .
Analytical solution. Following normalized form for analytical solution x(t) determining motion of
mass m is as follows:
( ) ( )
( )= | |+ ( ) ( ) (4)
( ) ( )
| | ( ) ( ) .
Here analytical solution is represented in the form of dependence on the roots of characteristic
equation: ; specified initial disturbances ; specified external power effect within the
initial time period f(0) and current one f(t).
Analytical modeling. If external kinematic effect is specified as: ( ) then considering
( ) that both function and its derivatives are:
f(t) = V0 + V0t , f(0) = V0 , (5)
(t) = V0 , (0) = V0 ,
(t) = 0 , ( ).
Hence:
( ) ( )
( ) ; ( ) ; (6)

58
( ) ( )
( ) ( ); ( ) ( ).
Substituting the results into general formula and performing simple transformations we obtain
laconic analytical representation of transient:
( )= + (V0 ) + V0t . (7)
In case of complex roots of characteristic equation: 1,2 = i transient is modeled by means of

following function:

( ) = [| | ] t . (8)
According to the given different forms of transient records, following particular cases of root
distribution are being modeled:
1. , = 0;
2. = ,
3. =i , = 0.
In the context of particular case one, transient is modeled as:
( ) ( - V0) + (V0 - + x0) + V0t. (9)
In the context of particular case two assuming 1 2 or 0, i.. 0 and considering

that:
(10)
We obtain following transient:
( ) = et[( ) ] (11)
Assuming that 0 , i.. 1= 2= and considering that:
(12)
We obtain transient in its equivalent record:

59

( ) = [| | ]+ t. (13)
In the context of case three transient is described with the help of following time function:

( )=[| | ] t. (14)
Analytical design. Dynamic design of mechanical systems is to select running design parameters
depending upon required transient quality: aperiodic transient or vibration one; degree of stability;
oscillation frequency and amplitude; control time etc. Transient performance depends on
distribution of characteristic equation roots within complex plane. Adequate distribution of
characteristic equation roots is achieved by selection of running parameters of mechanical system.
For linear dynamic systems analytical selection is possible.
Characteristic equation of one-dimensional dynamic system is:
11 12
0 (15)
21 22
Roots of characteristic equations depend on coefficients of differential equations as follows:
= + , =| |. (16)
For the involved mechanical system running parameters are directly determined by the formulas:
( ) (17)
In terms of complex roots we obtain:
c ( ) (18)
where is degree of stability; and is factor of natural frequency.

In the context of particular case one we determine:
c=0, (19)
i.. elastic element is not available in the mechanical system.

In the context of particular case two we determine:

60
(20)
or
(21)
In the context of particular case three we determine:
= 0, = m2, (22)
i.. damping component is not available in the mechanical system.
Summary. New record of analytical solutions of linear differential equations in harmonic form is
proposed. The form is applied for analytical modeling and design of one-dimensional dynamic
system in terms of kinematic effect. Qualitatively different forms of transients within one-
dimensional mechanical system as well adequate running design parameters of elastic and damping
elements have been obtained.
References
[1] Khachaturov, A.A. 1976. Dynamics of a road-railcar-driver system (in Russian). Moscow:
Mechanical Engineering, 535 P.
[2] Hubka, W. 1987. Theory of technical systems (translation from German language). Moscow:
Mir, 208 P.
[3] Smirnov, V.I. 1974. A course of higher mathematics (in Russian). Moscow: Nauka V.2, 656 P.
[4] Kuzovkov, N.T. 1976. Modal control and monitoring facilities (in Russian). Moscow:
Mechanical Engineering, P. 184.
[5] Udermann, E.. 1972. Root-locus method in the theory of automatic systems (in Russian).
Moscow: Nauka, 448 P.
[6] Kravets, V.V. 1978. Dynamics of solid bodies system in the context of complex control (in
Russian). Kyiv: Applied Mechanics, Issue 7, P. 125-128.
[7] Kravets, V.V.., Bas .., Kravets, Vl.V. 2012. Dynamic design of the simplest vehicle
component (in Russian). Sevastopol: Messenger of SebNTU, Issue 135, P. 188-191.
[8] Kravets, V.V.., Bas .., Kravets, Vl.V., Burov, V.S. 2014. Analytical method of the simplest
vehicle component dynamic design in terms of external effect (in Russian). Sevastopol: Scientific
Messenger of the First Ukrainian Marine Institute, Issue 1, P. 79-82.

61
On Influence Of Design Parameters Of Mining Rail Transport On Safety

Indicators
Ziborov Kirill1, Protsiv Volodimir2a, Fedoriachenko Serhii3b, Verner Illya4
1 Associated professor, Head of the Machinery Design Fundamentals Department, National Mining University,
Ukraine.
2 Professor, Head of the Mining Engineering Department, National Mining University, Ukraine.
3 Associated professor, Machinery Design Fundamentals Department, National Mining University, Ukraine.
4 Head of the Computational Engineering Laboratory, Machinery Design Fundamentals Department, National Mining
University, Ukraine.
a protsiv@ukr.net
b serg.fedoryachenko@gmail.com
Keywords: tractive effort, safety, mining locomotive, rolling stock, hard rock, mathematical simulation, principal
scheme
ABSTRACT. The influence of design parameters of mining rail transport on safety indicators is defined in the paper.
The mining locomotive -10 is studied. Substantiated, that during constant locomotive speed V, variation of the
tangential component Qx occurs when the increment speed of the boundary layers of friction pair materials V leads to
energy loss in the contact area. This provokes unstable state of the electromechanical system. To increase stability and
safety, reduce the load on the bogie, as well as on the rail track, additional movability of the kinematic connection of its
links can be used. Basing on the thrust forces equations subject to adhesion and permissible power for definite
conditions, we can determine the values of engine voltage Uc as a function of the locomotive speed.
Introduction. The large tonnage hard rock mines, either coal or copper etc., use underground rail.
South and Central America, Canada, China, South Africa, Ukraine these are may be the biggest
regions using mining rail transport [0]. Almost each region has its own suppliers of mining
locomotives and rolling stock. There is a tendency, that mining rolling stock suppliers focusing on
the locomotive rebuilds and refurbishment of old locomotives and rolling stock [0]. However, the
economical conditions of the mining regions are different and the development of a new locomotive
has its own strategy from region to region.
The Ukrainian locomotive -10, that has been developed by the team of scientists from
National Mining University, has a lot of specific features, which allows using this loco worldwide
from mine to mine.
This happens due to comprehensive mathematical models and usage of sophisticated 3D simulation.
Research results. During the rock mass and coal transportation by the mining rail transport along
the mining shafts, the rails functions are not only carrying static loads, but to transmit the
dynamical stress and bogie mass to the rail track structure as well. The interaction area between
wheel and rail facilitates transmitting braking and tractive forces. In order to increase the
productivity of the mining rolling stock, an adhesion weight of the modern mining locomotives
increases either and now achieves 10-28 tons. This mass allows hauling heavier mining tub with
significantly increased static loads on the rail track on the steeper slopes. Due to the fact, that
existing mining rail tracks have been designed for much lower locomotives weight, increased axial
loading on the rail track elements rocketed up to 1,5-2,5 times and for mining tub 7 times more.

62
However, increased adhesive weight did not solve the problem insufficient friction properties of
rolling stock that caused unreasonable energy loss, reduction of its exploitation characteristics.
Exploitation indexes of railway transport show, that to overcome friction up to 30 % of all
consuming energy is necessary, and loss of material of friction pair amounts 15 % of producing
metal [0].
Each of mining drifts has its own climate environment, rail track profile and plan, bending radii,
track incline, admissible haulage speed and braking distance etc. All these factors dependence on
both economic and exploitation indexes, and on transport system reliability in general. Thus, study
of the rail, wheel and their interaction surface as a standalone system elements, wheel-rail
interaction control, allow optimizing their work during difficult motion regime.
Modern design methods [0], which base on the scientific simulation and research approaches,
facilitate definition of the location and character of arising dynamical loading and prevent their
growth during forming within the mining vehicle chassis.
This prevents the following dynamical load transfer on the bolster structure. Thus, the structure
selection and selection of mining machines parameters, which bases on the detailed analysis of
running processes, might be an essential part of energy-mechanical system and its scheme
development during development [0].
The purpose of the paper is to define the influence of design parameters of mining rolling stock on
the rational tractive regimes with high exploitation indexes and low energy loss.
As it is known, the frictional surfaces move across the interaction area with tangential velocities V1
and V2. The bodies have the components of angular rotation velocity relatively to the base tangent
to the surface. Different relations of the wheel set line speed V1 and speed of rotational motion V2 is
characterized by the sliding velocity V .
After each wheels turn on the interaction area resilient and plastic deformations arise. As a result,
the friction elements wheel-rail start negotiate through the finite size area. Taking into account
existing rail track imperfections and imperfections of contact area, let assume nominal and real
contact areas. All force interactions of frictional pair wheel-rail are carrying within the real contact
area. Therefore, the tangent reaction Qxy is formed with elementary forces Q xyi , which act on each
i-th point of the real contact area (fig. 1). Thus, during analytical research we need to proceed from
the elementary contacting area of the interacting bodies.
The wheel, moving along the rail, can be either in free (Qxy= 0), tractive (Qxy> 0) or braking (Qxy<
0) regimes (fig. 2, b).
Fig. 1. Real contact areas of interacting bodies
These forces are directed opposite to the sliding velocity of i-th point Vi in the contact area (fig.
2) in dependence on motion regime. The total force, in the case when doesnt independent on

63
Vi direction, acts in the direction opposite to the wheels slipping velocity, and their scalar
product QxyV defines the power of dissipative forces in the contact area.
Thus:
k
Qxy Qzi cos i (1)
i 1
where k amount of the contact points in the slipping area;

coefficient of friction limit.
During mining locomotive motion along the mining drifts, the wheel contacts rolls both on the inner
and outer rails, which have different curvature and gage width. This fact induces the lateral
displacement of the contact area though its width. The worn wheel tread profile represents the total
envelope profile of all rails that are contacting with tread [0]. The tread areas, which contact with
rails most often, expose to intensive sliding, high contact stress and significant wear in comparison
to other tread areas. Mine drifts with big amount of straight track segments lead to wear
concentration on the rolling area at the center of the wheel tread. In this case the wear of the flange
is minimal. Otherwise, motion on the curvilinear rail track segments (most often case for coalmines)
causes significant flange wear.
a) b)
Fig. 2. The calculation scheme of forces and velocities. ) tractive regime (Qxy> 0); b) braking
regime (Qxy< 0)
As a result, of frictional interaction of the wheel and rail, a clearance between contact surfaces forms.
Uncontrollable growth of the clearances provokes additional dynamical forces, acting on the bogie
and track, that reduce the exploitation characteristics of the machine.
However, there is possible to revise the machine design and additional kinematical movability either
to reduce the duration of nonstationary motion regime. This is essential for mining conditions, which
is marked by lots of unfavorable factors [4]. To provide the smooth wear of coupled kinematical
members a coupling with local movability can be applied [4].

64
For example, locomotive of the module scheme, that includes a few sections. It allows for
development of the vehicle with different trailing weight, energy supply system and necessary
exploitation indexes. The distinguish feature of such locomotives is kinematical coupling between
bogie and tractive section (Fig. 3).
Such connection provides necessary relative movability and transmits vertical loading from frame
to bogie, horizontal lateral forces centrifugal force, reaction of overrunning rail, which has
geometrical imperfections in all surfaces. Movability around the vertical axis is necessary for
tractive bogie turn and in order to avoid odd couplings, because the pin does not carry the chassis
weight; around lateral axis for correct weight distribution between locomotive axles and reduction
influence on the rail track; longitudinal movability is absent because the tractive effort transmits in
this direction.
a) b)
Fig. 3. Pin joint locomotive (a); Locomotive joint (b)
In order to define relations between kinematical and dynamical characteristics of mine rollingstock
we need to provide the analysis of rail and wheel interaction, and to evaluate locomotives tractive
and safety properties.
The obtained data allows for assessment of the safety index, which is used to describe by safety
coefficient [0]:
tg Q z
1
SF (2)
1 tg Q y

where angle of wheel flange;

friction coefficient;
Q z normal rail reaction under ongoing wheel, N;
Q y guiding force on the ongoing wheel, N.
Local and regular rail imperfections lead to additional growth of guiding force Q y that can cause
the derailment at some certain critical value (Fig. 4, 5, b). Reduction of guiding force can improve
stability and predict derailment (Fig. 4, 5, a).

65
The most complex motion regime is driving through curvilinear rail track with wheel flange climbing
by both rear and front axles. This induces the rotation of tractive bogie in relation to mass center (Fig.
4, 5). Simultaneously, the middle section rotates around pin joint. At axial displacement of the wheels,
a reaction force arises at the point of flange contact, which acts flatwise to motion direction. A sudden
growth of these forces appears while wheel misalignment. To reduce reactive forces an additional local
movability of kinematical pair coupling is necessary.
a) b)
Fig. 4. The forces on the wheel flange while straight motion (a) and along bend rail segment (b)
) b)
Fig. 5. The creep forces between rail and wheel during straight motion (a) and in the bend rail
segment (b)
The usage of mathematical simulation facilitates the designing and dynamical interconnection of
mine rolling stock. The study of mining vehicle dynamics is provided via developed system of
differential equations.
Thus, we have obtained several relations of dynamic forces and safety factor (SF) indexes (Fig. 7).
As mentioned above, the characteristics of contact surfaces, and the pressing force define friction
properties at the contact point. When the position of the wheel set in the rail track cannot be
achieved through the friction forces, there is a two-point contact appears and lateral forces on the

66
flange, which protects the wheel set from derailment (Fig. 4 , b). At the same time, an additional
resistance force arises. However, the forces on the flange are connected with frictional components,
which may lead to force reduction in the contact area. Thereby it facilitates the wheel climbing on
the rail, especially on curved track sections of small radius.
Fig. 6. General scheme of tractive bogie rotation in relation to mass center during wheel climbing
(1- tractive bogie; 2 middle section; 3 pin joint)
To enhance the stability and safety, reduce load on the vehicles chassis and the track and to reduce
motion resistance become possible while the usage of a new kinematical design where the
kinematical pairs will have an additional local movability. Thus, it will reduce the number of
redundant links with shortage of the unnecessary weight. To determine the appropriate value of
mobility, providing the necessary performance, we can use modern means of computer simulation
interoperability of mine transport and track.
Fig.7. Safety factor relation to track curvature subject to structural scheme. V=4 m/s - - - -
sectional pin-joint locomotive; conventional locomotive
Taking into account the denoted above approach of wheel and rail interaction evaluation, the motor torque,
reduced to the wheel set with rigid connection between the wheels, as a function of absolute motion
velocity V and relative velocity of the boundary layers Vi of the frictional pair wheel-rail, defines as
N
M Q xyi R . The value Qxyi for each wheel calculates according to [4]. Each point of the grip
i 1
characteristics is corresponded by its distinguish energy state of interaction process of the pair wheel-rail.
Thus, alteration of the grip accompanies by a change of the state. At a constant locomotive speed V
alteration of the tangent component Qxy takes place during increase of the boundary layer displacement of
frictional pair material Vi , which leads to energy loss in the contact area and unstable state of the
67
eletromechanical system. Such combination of adverse factors can evoke skidding (during tractive regime)
or blocking wheels (during braking).
The critical velocity can be determined by equating the limit values for traction grip and power to each
other. The maximum permissible torque, at which there will be no grip disruption, can be defined from the
expression of M . after substitution the relative velocity V [4]. Using the relation between torque and
angular velocity of tractive motor, we can determine the voltage U C as a function of the speed V for these
conditions and formulate requirements for tractive motor (braking) control algorithm.
However, the operator of the loco can lose the driving control in hard mining environment. As a result the
wheels can be slipping or skidding, which will significantly increase the braking distance (especially on
the 50 slopes). As a result, the necessity of automated control ABS (anti-block system) system
appeared.
The main purpose of the ABS is to predict the wheel blocking and skidding adjusting tractive and braking
characteristics of the locomotive [7]. The ABS must connect to different systems: electromechanical
power-train and braking hydraulic systems. The principal electrical-hydraulic ABS system has been
developed subject to [8] and is depicted on the fig. 8.
Fig. 8. The general electric-hydraulic scheme of automated control system against skidding and wheel
blocking of mining pin-joint loco.
Summary. While constant locomotive speed V variation of the tangential component Qx occurs
when the increment speed of the boundary layers of friction pair materials V leads to energy loss in
the contact area and the unstable state of the electromechanical system. To increase stability and
safety, reduce the load on the vehicle and chassis, as well as on the rail track, additional movability
of the kinematic connection of its members can be used. Basing on the thrust forces equations
subject to adhesion and permissible power for definite conditions we can determine the values of
engine voltage Uc as a function of the locomotive speed. To improve tractive and braking
68
characteristics of mining pin-joint locomotive a special ABS system has been developed and
described in the paper.
References
[1] Moore P. (2012), Mine locomotion, International Mining, Vol. 3, pp. 88-96.
[2] Isaev I.P., Lujhnov Ju., (1985), Problems of locomotives traction grip, Mashinostroenije, 238 P.
[3] Ziborov K.A., Protsiv V.V., Fedoriachenko S.A. (2013), Application of computer simulation
while designing mechanical systems of mining rolling stock, Scientific Bulletin of NMU, 6, pp.
55-59.
[4] Ziborov K.A., Fedoriachenko S.A. (2014), The frictional work in pair wheel-rail in case of
different structural scheme of mining rolling stock, Progressive technologies of coal, coalbed
methane and ores mining, Netherlands, pp. 517 - 521., doi: 10.1201/b17547-87
[5] Ziborov K.A. (2014), Characteristics of Friction Pair "WheelRail" of Mining Locomotive
with Kinematical and Power Imperfections, mining Equipment and Electromechanics, 3 (100),
pp.26-32.
[6] Garg V.K., Dukkipaty R.V. (1988), Dynamics of rail transport, New-York, 391 P.
[7] Protsiv V.V., Gonchar O.Ye. (2010), . . On the usage of automated system,
prevented wheel blocking and skidding of mining pin-joint locomotive, Mining electro-mechanics
and automatics, Vol. 84, pp. 116 125.
[8] Protsiv V.V. Indicators of arising skid during braking with limited frictional force on the wheel,
Scientific bulletin of NMU, Vol. 5, pp.106 112.

69
VIII. Information Technologies
The Assessment of the Stability Of the Electronics Industry Facility In the Man-
Made Emergencies With the Use Of Information Technology
Hancharyk A.V.1 and Kizimenko V.V.1
1 Belarusian State University of Informatics and Radioelectronics, Minsk, Belarus
Keywords: evaluation method, system sustainability, electronic industry object, hazard prediction, mathematical model,
risk.
ABSTRACT. The object of study is the enterprise (object) of the electronics industry. By industrial object means
engineering-technical complex, which includes buildings, structures, power systems, equipment, automated systems,
equipment, tools, etc. By the stability of the industrial object we mean ability to produce specified types of products in
required quantities in a case of variety of emergency situations, as well as the willingness to self-repairing in if the
object proves in the affected area of weak or medium damages. For the stable operation of the facility, in addition to the
stability of the object, the security of workers and employees must be ensured, as well as individual and collective
protection equipment have to be provided. One of the important indicators for assessing the sustainability of industrial
facilities in emergencies is an evaluation of the probability of occurrence of internal and external emergencies and their
impact on the operability of the industrial facility. The estimation of probability of occurrence internal and external
emergency situation is characterized by a measure of the risk. By the risk means a value, which includes both the
probability of accidents and damage from them [1]. The development of criteria for evaluating the stability of the object
in the man-made disaster is often identified with the risk. The stability of the facility's operation in the man-made
disaster is estimated by the highest acceptable risk. There are the following methods for determining the risk: statistical,
model, expert and sociological. Currently, the software SKEVIA has been developed, which allows estimating the
damage caused by man-made emergencies for a particular industrial facility. Scientific novelty lies in the development
of new criteria for sustainable operation of the enterprises of electronic industry. The practical significance lies in the
implementation of software SKEVIA at the enterprises of electronic industry of Belarus.
Introduction: In this paper, we will consider the work of the facilities of electronic industry in
emergency situations. To ensure stable operation of the facility in emergency situations it becomes
necessary to increase the level and effectiveness of preventive measures to reduce the scale and
impact of disasters. Until recently, the highest priority in solving the problems of protection of the
population and territories from emergency situations was paid to eliminate the consequences of
accidents, i.e. rapid response to emergencies. However, as time has shown, it is economically
feasible to direct limited resources to reduce probability of occurrence of emergencies and to ensure
human security, rather than to pay huge costs for covering damage caused by emergencies.
Carrying out activities to identify hazards and the monitoring the probabilities of disaster on the
potentially dangerous facilities will prevent the growth and magnitude of the consequences of
natural and man-made disasters. The implementation of the complex preventive measures will
reduce the cost of the emergency response by 10-15 times in comparison with the avoided damage,
and in some cases - to completely avoid them. [2]
A rapid change of the conditions of emergency situations significantly complicates quick reaction
and the development of adequate measures to eliminate their consequences. Therefore urgent task is
70
a minimization the amount of raw data and the development of a rapid method of predicting not
only the areas of contamination and damages with a minimum number of parameters, but also
assessment of the risks, which can lead to complete loss of the stability of the facility in the
situation of man-made disaster [3].
In order to reduce and optimize the processing time to predict the impact of sources of emergency
on the production staff and processes, and for development of measures to prevent man-made
disaster (and in case of emergency - in order to minimize the damage) is needed to create a software
product for operational use by the head of safety department of the facility.
Analysis of recent publications and researches in this area. A great contribution to the
development and introduction of methods of assessment of emergency situations have made
Akimov V.A., Bariev E.R., Belov P.G., Vetoshkin A.G., Ermin V.G., Mikhnyuk T.F., Kozlachkov
V.I., Kukin G.Sh., Safronov A.G., Frolov A.B., Shadsky I.P. and others.
As it was previously mentioned, the criteria for assessing the sustainability of the enterprise are
associated with the risk indicator. Currently, there are following methods for determining the risk
[1]:
Statistical: based on the statistical analysis of data on accidents;
Model: model of the impact of harmful factors on the production staff, the process and the
environment of the facility is built. Such models can describe as a normal mode of operation of
the enterprise, as well as damage from an accident on it;
Expert: the risk of accidents, the connection between them and the consequences are determined
not by calculation, but by the results of the survey of experienced experts;
Sociological: the danger level is determined by the results of sociological surveys of various
large groups of people, which work on the facility.
The probabilities of events, calculated on the basis of information accumulated over a certain period
of time in the past can be extrapolated to the future using the law of distribution of random variables
in time.
The random variable i, which distribution function corresponds to the probability of occurrence of
z-th accident scenario, has a compound distribution, calculated by the formula (1):
i=i+i+i, (1)
where i random variable distributed according to an exponential law and is responsible for the
probability of failure due to technical problems;
i random variable which is responsible for the accident as a result of natural disasters;
i random variable is responsible for accidents involving the "human factor".
Distribution of the last two variables is established empirically.
Known methods for evaluating the sustainability of enterprises in emergency situations can be
divided into some main approaches.
By the first approach the assessment is made using as a criterion the generalized criteria which
includes certain indicators. The difficulty and complexity of the application of these methods of
assessment lies in the fact that the number of indicators and their significance of these methods are
significantly different for different authors, in addition, given values of parameters are not
supported by the regulatory documents.

71
The second approach is to identify the most vulnerable links in the system, and evaluation of
stability for these links, which will be the assessment of the stability of the whole system.
The third approach is to identify and develop integral evaluation criterion the stability of the
facility. Moreover, this approach can be divided into two groups. The first group includes methods
of evaluation using the generalized criterion on the basis of partial indicators. The second group
involves the development or the search for a universal integral criterion, which will replace partial
ones.
Analysis of information sources has showed that the most promising methods of evaluating and
predicting the sustainability of facilities in a man-made disaster are methods which use criteria
Multiple-discriminant analysis based on the use of multifactor criteria.
It should be noted that there are several problems in application of known methods in practice, and
the main of them is the mismatch in the specificity of the functioning and development of certain
industries and their facilities.
Forecasting technological disaster is based on an assessment of the technical state of the object, its
equipment and the assessment of the human factor and the environment. The result of the prediction
of any man-made disaster is the determination of the risk of its occurrence, which depends on many
factors. Let us consider accounting these factors on the example of an estimation of industrial
structures and technological equipment, the accident on which usually can led to the disaster. [4].
The essence of the research
The following main features were used in research:
The technogenic hazard is considered to be the main hazard;
All hazards are probabilistic by the inherently;
All sources of technogenic hazards, leading to emergencies, are divided into three classes by the
nature of occurrence: 1) the human factor; 2) Technical (technological) factor; 3) factor of the
environment;
Risk is a measure of hazard. It simultaneously takes into account the possibility of a disaster and
an estimate of the risk;
The stability of control system is interpreted as ability to to perform specified functions, not only
in normal conditions but also in emergency situations.
The risk of death in the industry is estimated at 10-6 or less per person per year [5]. Thus, during the
process of design the operation of technical devices the risk at the level 10-6 per person per year can
be accepted valid when the following requirements for risk analysis are provided: the problem of
the risk was analysed; i.e. probability of occurrence of adverse events and the probability of it
escalating into a emergency was estimated; all factors affecting emergency were considered, etc.
Analysis carried out before making a decision and confirmed by the available data in a certain
time interval;
Analysis and conclusion about the risk, obtained on the basis of the available data do not change
after the occurrence of an adverse event;
Analysis and the results of control all the time show that the threat cannot be reduced at the cost
of acquitted costs.
As a result of research the algorithm for estimating the stability of the industrial facility in the
emergency was considered. (see Fig.1). [3]
Estimation of the stability of the object is provided consistently in relation to the effects of each
striking factor that may have a significant damaging effect on one or another element. The
sustainability of object's element is characterized by the practical value of a factor, when the
72
element is not broken and does not fail. However, in order to be able to predict the stability of the
facility in the man-made disaster, it is required to calculate the risk of damaging factor and compare
it to an acceptable risk.
In this paper we focus on the development of the block "Assessment of probability of occurrence
internal and external emergencies and their impact on the working process of the facility."
A special software product SKEVIA has been developed (the developers are Alena Hancharyk
and Viacheslav Kizimenko) in order to reduce and optimize processing time for the prediction of
effect of emergency sources on production personnel and technological process. SKEVIA has a
very simple and convenient user interface.[2]
Estimation of the stability of

the object
Estimation of the probability

of internal and external
disaster and its impact on the
performance of the enterprise

Estimation of protection of
facility's personnel
Estimation of the control

system stability
Estimation of the physical

stability of the buildings, and
other systems
Estimation of the stability of

the logistics and industrial
links
Estimation of the
readiness object to the
restoration of impaired
production
Fig. 1. Algorithm for estimating the sustainability of the industrial facility in emergency situations

73
SKEVIA is designed for predicting possible consequences of man-made emergencies on the basis
of a single industrial enterprise for one personal work place; it does not presuppose work via the
Internet or LAN. This condition is required due to the protection of confidential information of the
industrial enterprise. For the image of the program, see Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. The image of SKEVIA
The application deals with two possible ways of emergency development. The first way of
emergency development is the explosion of a tank with propane at the railway station near the
object (see Fig.3).
Fig. 3. Damage area

74
Damage areas are displayed as concentric circles where the centre is in the explosion point. They
show the geographic position of the points that are affected by various values of manometric
pressure (heavy damage 0,4 kg/sm2 = 39,24 kPa within a radius of 306 m, average damage
0,3 kg/sm2 = 29,43 kPa, light damage 0,2 kg/sm2 = 169,6 kPa). Calculation results are shown in
Fig. 3-4.
Fig. 4. Zones of gas-air mixture explosion base
The second way is the emission of the chemically hazardous substance (ammonia) at the processing
industry object that is situated nearby (see Fig.5).
Fig. 5. Zones of chemical contamination

75
It is possible to estimate death toll after exposure to poisonous substances. After entering the
number of the staff of the enterprise, the total number of victims as well as the number of people
with minor and moderate injury and the number of the dead is calculated. Graphic construction is
made on the cartographic basis loaded by the user. For user convenience it is possible to press any
two points of the map and see the distance in meters below the map. All the objects the location of
which is considered in the program as well as the distance between them are displayed on the map
after clicking Objects. Saving of the maps that contain the data of calculations is done by clicking
Save that creates a temporary file with the extension .bmp in the work directory of the PC. The
program is undemanding towards the processor resources, it is easy to use as it does not require
special skills apart from Windows interface basic work skills.
Thus, we have developed the system that significantly facilitates the work of an expert who deals
with safety of industrial enterprise personnel. Output graphic information allows to imagine the
scale of consequences after man-made catastrophes and to take rapid measures that are necessary
for peoples safety.
Currently, with the development of information technologies software SKEVIA is being
upgraded, which will provide more detailed development of the block algorithm, the stability of the
industrial facility in an emergency (Fig. 1) "The evaluation of the probability of internal and
external emergencies and their impact on the working process of the facility".
The following risks of man-made disaster will be analyzed:
1. The risk of unacceptable physical stability of buildings and structures;
2. The risk of failure of process equipment;
3. The risk of error in the work of administrative and management personnel and engineers;
4. The risk of errors in the work of service personnel;
5. The risk of failure of power supply systems;
6. The risk of unpreparedness of logistics;
7. Risk of influence of negative factors and working environment;
8. The risk of errors in the work of main production staff;
9. The risk of failure in the management systems;
10. The risk of failure in the systems of telecommunications.
All of these risks affect on the occurrence of man-made disaster at the facilities of electronic
industry. If the values of three criteria are higher than acceptable risk, the calculation of the rest can
be ignored. These criteria are: the limit of resistance to the shock wave, the limit of resistance to
light radiation, as well as the limit of stability to the electromagnetic field (EMF). The novelty is a
new criterion for the stability limit to EMF. If it exceeds the limit, then the entire electronic
apparatus fails, control systems, which consist of electronic devices, will be denied, as well as
technologies and equipment, i.e. the risk will exceed the permissible, therefore further payment
other risks impractical.
In case the risk values are within an acceptable risk, we calculate the remaining risks. The worst
option of these is selected, and its value will be the criterion for assessing the stability of the object
of electronic industry.
Currently, the program units to the software SKEVIA are developed, taking into account all
described risks, but there are practical difficulties in debugging these additions, as the majority of
facilities of electronic industry in Belarus today are not able to conduct testing and debugging this
changes.

76
References
[1] Kolodkina, V.M. (2001) Quantitative risk assessment of chemical accidents / V.M. Kolodkin,
Murin A.V., Petrov A.K., Gorsky V.G. / Izhevsk: Publishing House "Udmurtia University", 2001 -
228 p. ISBN 5-7029-0260-2
[2] Levkevich, V.E. (2004) Environmental risk - patterns of development, forecasting and
monitoring. Minsk.
[3] Dorozhko, S.V. (2008) Protecting the population and facilities in an emergency. Radiation
safety: manual. Part 1. Emergency situations and their prevention/ Dorozhko S.V., Rolewicz I.V.,
Poustovit V.T. / 2nd ed. - Minsk, 2008. - 284 p.
[4] Dorozhko, S.V. (2008) Protecting the population and facilities in an emergency. Radiation
safety: manual. In 3 hours. Part 2. The system of survival of the population and territories protection
in emergencies / Dorozhko S.V., Poustovit V.T., Morzak G.I., Murashko V.F. /2nd ed., - Minsk,
2008. - 400 p.
[5] Medvedev, V.T. (2002) Environmental Engineering / Ed. by V.T. Medvedev. M., 2002.

77
X. Philosophy of Research and Education
Teaching Reitlinger Cycles To Improve Students Knowledge And

Comprehension Of Thermodynamics
Amelia Carolina Sparavigna1
1 Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, Torino, Italy
Keywords: Thermodynamics, Thermodynamic cycles, Regenerative cycles, Thermal efficiency.
ABSTRACT. The second law of thermodynamics puts a limit on the thermal efficiency of heat engines. This limit
value is the efficiency of the ideal reversible engine represented by the Carnot cycle. During the lectures on physics, the
emphasis on this cycle is generally so strong that students could be induced to consider the Carnot cycle as the only
cycle having the best thermal efficiency. In fact, an entire class of cycles exists possessing the same maximum
efficiency: this class is that of the regenerative Reitlinger cycles. Here we propose to teach also these cycles to the
engineering students of physics classes, to improve their knowledge and comprehension of thermodynamics.
Introduction: Generally, the Carnot cycle is the only thermodynamic cycle that, during the lectures
on physics, is discussed as having the maximum possible thermal efficiency. This happens because
Carnot cycle is directly connected to the second law of thermodynamics, which puts a limit on the
thermal efficiency of heat engines. This limit value is the efficiency of the ideal reversible engine
cycle represented by the Carnot cycle. Sometimes, an approach considering only Carnot engines
with emphasis on their efficiency, could yield the following result: it is unknown that an entire class
of cycles exists, having a thermal efficiency which is the same of that of Carnot cycle. This is the
class of the regenerative Reitlinger cycles. Of course, since a large part of engineering students will
be required as engineers to deal with relatively simple thermodynamic problems, a discussion of
Reitlinger cycles could appear as unnecessary. However, it is unquestionable that a proper
knowledge of the fundamentals of thermodynamics is necessary for engineers as well as for
scientists in general. For this reason, in the following discussion, we will propose some notes
suitable for teaching these cycles to students of physics classes, to improve their knowledge and
comprehension of thermodynamics.
Reitlinger cycles. The Reitlinger cycles consist of two isothermal and two polytropic processes of
the same kind [1,2], so that the heat which is absorbed during a polytropic, is exactly the same that
it is rejected on the other polytropic process. Therefore, if we have a perfect regeneration of heat, by
means of which the heat rejected during the polytropic is transferred to a thermal storage (the
regenerator) and then transferred back to the working fluid, the thermal efficiency of the Reitlinger
cycle equals that of the Carnot cycle (in fact, it is a Reitlinger cycle too).
Of all the Reitlinger cycles, the Carnot cycle is unique in requiring the least regeneration, namely,
none at all because its polytropics are adiabatics [1]. Let us note that the mechanical work of the
Carnot cycle is not the best we can obtain between extremal states. We can easily evidence this fact
from the diagram in Figure 1, which is comparing Carnot and Stirling cycles, having the same
temperature and volume extremes [1]. In the Figure 2, we can see how, in general, a Reitlinger
78
cycle can be different from a Carnot cycle, in a p-V diagram. Working between the same
isothermals, with the same thermal efficiency, a regenerative Reitlinger cycle can give more work
or less work, depending on the polytropic process the cycle is performing between the same
extremal states.
Fig. 1. The figure (adapted from Ref.1) shows a Carnot cycle inscribed in a Stirling cycle in a p-V
diagram. The optimum constant buffer pressure is also shown. The work of the Stirling cycle ABCD
is greater than the work of Carnot cycle ABCD
Let us note that the ideal Stirling cycle is also a Reitlinger cycle, having as polytropics two
isochoric segments. It is the most popular example of a cycle having the same thermodynamic
eciency of the Carnot cycle; however, to attain this result, the Stirling cycle makes quite heavy
demands on the process of regeneration [3].
Fig. 2. The figure shows how a Reitlinger cycle can be different from a Carnot cycle, in a p-V
diagram. Working between the same isothermals, with the same thermal efficiency, a regenerative
Reitlinger cycle ABCD can give more work or less work, depending on the polytropic process
the cycle is performing between the same extremal states
As observed in [6], there are ten elementary power cycles which follow from the combinations of
five typical thermodynamic changes of state. In the Figure 3, we can see them and the names of
their inventors (for other cycles, see [7]). In [6], Carnot, Ericsson and Stirling cycles are
distinguished from the Reitlinger cycles, which have the most general form in idealized cycles

79
[4,5], because they have a specific importance in thermodynamics. In these cycles we have, besides
the two isothermal processes, the two polytropic regenerative processes realized by adiabatics,
isochoric and isobaric processes, respectively.
Fig. 3. The elementary thermodynamic cycles (figure adapted from [6])
Thermal Efficiency: For any thermodynamic cycle, reversible or irreversible, after one cycle, the
working fluid is again in its initial state and thus the change of its internal energy is zero. In this
manner, the first principle of thermodynamics tells us that the mechanical work produced by the cycle
is the difference of input heat energy Qin minus the energy dissipated in waste heat Qout. Heat engines
transform thermal energy into mechanical energy or work, W, so that W = Qin Qout. We can calculate
the thermal efficiency of the cycle as the dimensionless performance measure of the use of thermal
energy. The thermal efficiency of a heat engine is the percentage of heat energy which is transformed
into work, so that:
W
(1)
Qin
For a Carnot engine, it is = 1TC/TH, where TH,TC are the temperatures of the furnace and of the
cold sink, respectively. Let us discuss the thermal efficiency of the Stirling cycle. Using a p-V
diagram, the cycle appears as in the Figure 4. In the same figure, the Ericsson cycle and Reitlinger
cycle are also shown.
Fig. 4. Stirling, Ericsson and Reitlinger cycles in p-V diagrams.

80
The work can be easily calculated as:

V
W nRT1 T2 ln B (2)
VA
In (2), n is the number of moles and R the universal gas constant. Heat is gained by the
thermodynamic system from the reversible isochoric transformation from D to A and during the
isothermal path AB. During isochoric process, heat gained is: Qisoc nCV T1 T2 . CV is the molar
specific heat for an isochoric process. During isothermal process, the heat gained is
Qisot nRT1 ln (VB / V A ) .
Let us note that, during the isochoric process, the fluid is obtaining heat from an infinite number of
thermal reservoirs [8]. This same amount of heat is lost during the isochoric cooling process, with a
thermal exchange with the same reservoirs. Then, for each of the infinite thermal reservoirs that we
meet during the isochoric reversible process, it happens what we see in the Figure 5. In this figure,
we have two thermal machines that must have the same efficiency, to satisfy the second principle of
thermodynamics. Let us suppose the efficiency of the right machine larger than that of the left one.
Let us consider the same work W produced by the two machines, and operate the machine on the
left in reversed manner. It is easy to see that, if we consider the net result of these two machines
operating together, we have that some heat is transferred from the low temperature reservoir to the
high temperature reservoir, violating the Clausius statement of the second principle of
thermodynamics. We have the same result if we consider the efficiency of the left machine larger
than that of the right one, and operate this last machine in reversed manner.
Fig. 5. The two reversible cycles in the figure have the same efficiency. If it were not so, we should
violate the second principle of thermodynamics. Let us suppose the efficiency of the right machine
larger than that of the left one. Let us consider the same work W produced by the two machines,
and operate the machine on the left in reversed manner. It is easy to see that the net result of these
two machines operating together is that of transferring some heat from the low temperature
reservoir to the high temperature reservoir, violating the Clausius statement of the second principle
of thermodynamics. We have the same result, supposing the efficiency of the left machine larger
than that of the right machine
Calculating efficiency of working fluid with regeneration: If we consider a regenerative Stirling

cycle from an engineering perspective, we have in it the regenerator which is storing the heat.
Therefore the abovementioned thermal reservoirs are not involved. Consequently, considering the
system made of working fluid and regenerator, the thermal efficiency is:

81
nRT1 T2 ln B
V
W VA T
1 2 (3)
Q V T1
nRT1 ln B
VA
In (3), Q is the heat the system receives during the high temperature isothermal process, because the
heat received from the regenerator is that lost by the fluid during cooling isochoric process. This
efficiency is equal to that of a Carnot cycle which is working between the same two isothermal
processes. We can repeat the calculation for the Ericsson cycle. The work is:
V V
W nC P (T1 T2 ) nRT1 ln B nC P (T1 T2 ) nRT2 ln D
VA VC
V nRT2 p D V p
nRT1 ln B nRT2 ln nRT1 ln B nRT2 ln A (4)
VA pC nRT2 VA pB
V nRT1V B V V
nRT1 ln B nRT2 ln nRT1 ln B nRT2 ln B
VA V A nRT1 VA VA
In (4), Cp is the molar specific heat at constant pressure. It is clear that the heat lost and gained
during the two isobaric processes is the same. Therefore, the thermal efficiency, in the case of a
perfect regeneration, is given by:
nRT1 T2 ln
VB
W VA T2
1 (5)
Q V T1
nRT1 ln B
VA
In (5), Q is the heat the system receives during the high temperature isothermal process. Let us
conclude with a Reitling cycle, where polytropics are given by equations pV const and
TV 1 const . The molar specific heat of such polytropic process is C. Let us note that from
polytropic equation we have (see Figure 4):
T1V A 1 T2V D 1
(6)
T1V B 1 T2VC 1
Therefore, we have:
V A 1 V 1 V V
D A D (7)
V B 1 VC 1 V B VC
Then:
V V
W nC (T1 T2 ) nRT1 ln B nC (T1 T2 ) nRT2 ln D
VA VC
(8)
V V
nRT1 ln B nRT2 ln B
VA VA

82
Again, we find a thermal efficiency of the system (fluid and regenerator), which is equal to that of
the Carnot engine. Therefore, since the polytropic index can have any value, we have an infinite
number of thermodynamic cycles that have the same value of thermal efficiency, equal to that of the
Carnot cycle when operating between the same two isothermal processes. Let us stress that these
cycles incorporate a regenerative heat transfer process, in place of adiabatic compression and
expansion of the Carnot cycle [5], or, if preferred, an infinite number of mono-thermal processes,
not influencing the efficiency of the cycle. Moreover, during lectures, it is better to remark that the
fact of possessing the same thermal efficiency does not mean that the same work is obtained from
different reversible cycles, when they are operating between the same extremal states.
References
[1] J.R. Senft, Mechanical Efficiency of Heat Engines, Cambridge University Press, 2007.
[2] I. Kolin, The Evolution of the Heat Engine, Longman, 1972.
[3] J.R. Senft, An Introduction to Stirling Engines, Moriya Press, 1993.
[4] J. Reitlinger, Uber Kreisprozesse zwischen zwei isothermen. Z. Ost. Ing. Arch. Ver. 1876.
[5] G. Walker, Cryocoolers, Part 1: Fundamentals, Plenum Press 1983.
[6] I. Kolin, S. Koscak-Kolin, M. Golub, Geothermal Electricity Production by means of the Low
Temperature Difference Stirling Engine, Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2000, Kyushu -
Tohoku, Japan, May 28 - June 10, 2000 , 3199-3203.
[7] J.Selwin Rajadurai, Thermodynamics and Thermal Engineering, New Age International, 2003.
[8] P. Mazzoldi, M. Nigro, C. Voci, Fisica, S.E.S. 1991.

83
Multimedia Tutorial In Physics

For Foreign Students Of the Engineering Faculty Preparatory Department
P. G. Matukhin1a, S. L. Elsgolts1b, E. V.Pevnitskaya1c, O. A. Gracheva1d, E. A. Provotorova1e
1 Peoples Friendship University of Russia

a m-pg@mail.ru
b selsg@live.ru
c pevrudn@rambler.ru
d nafnaf_08@mail.ru
e provelar@yandex.ru
Keywords: engineering education, multimedia tutorial, foreign students, manual, presentation, tests, OneDrive
ABSTRACT. Foreign students study physics and Russian as a foreign language at the preparatory Department. They
are to be trained to study different courses. During only one year the teachers of physics and Russian should help
students from Asia, Africa and Latin America to get ready to study in the university. To help students in a short time to
learn physical terms, to understand physics by ear, to read and write, teachers are developing the online multimedia
tutorial. It is placed on the cloud OneDrive. Tutorial includes the main themes in the Mechanics. They are physical
processes and phenomena, units, physical quantities, kinematics, laws of mechanics and others. The Power Point
presentation slides contain information on the topics. These slides help students learn to read Russian texts on physics.
There are hyperlinks to sound files on slides. Listening to those recordings, students gain the skills of physical texts
listening. After each module we placed the test. Students can prepare for it using the simulator. Tests and exercise
equipment made in the form of EXCEL spreadsheets. We provide our students the opportunity to view, read and listen,
the tutorial files via their own mobile devices. Thus they can study physics in Russian in the classroom, or at home, but
in the library, in the Park etc. Also they have access to it when they are not in Russia, and in their native countries. The
tutorial presented seems to be considered as the first attempt to develop the online multimedia aimed to assist foreign
students to get success in their efforts to study physics in Russian. It helps our students to learn physics in Russian faster
and better. Determined are the directions of further development and improvement of the tutorial.
Introduction. The elements and the structure of the online multimedia manual in physics are the
basics for the organization of educational communication in natural and engineering sciences with
elements of smart and BYOD technologies and webinars at the preparatory Department of the
University. Here we observe a number of the main prospects of the MS OneDrive Internet resource
as an IT platform to support the complex solution of the tasks of the formation and development of
basic competences of foreign students in Russian language of physics as a foreign language, in
physics and in modern information technologies for education including mobile access.
Foreign students come to the preparatory faculty of the University to get the Pre-university training
to enter at the faculties with increased demands on natural-scientific disciplines. Its goal is to build
a solid educational competent scope as the profile of science and in the language sector of the
educational and professional communication. Teachers of physics develop advanced smart
multimedia learning tools complex in collaboration with colleagues of the Russian language as a
foreign language (RFL) department and IT experts. Compressed terms of training and the need to
ensure wide access to the complex and its components faced developers the necessity to use
Internet technologies. It is supposed to use the elements of smart technologies, webinars and mobile
access. The vast opportunities of cloud Internet resources, such as MS OneDrive, make them

84
adjustable for use as an IT environment for preparation, loading, storage, access and application of
interactive tools to support learning in online mode. Simultaneously the problem of the increase of
IT competency of all participants of educational communication was solving.
Components Of the Multimedia Tools Complex For Enhanced Training Of Foreign Students
In Physics. One of the main items for future engineering-ditch of any specialty is physics. Teachers
in physics on the preparatory level at the Russian Language and Basic Education Department
dealing with foreign students coming to study at PFUR face a very complex problem. Despite the
fact that foreign students already have some basic education in physics, their earlier knowledge
needs to be adjusted to Russian educational standards. At the same time they are undergoing
intensive training in Russian of science as a foreign language. Thus, the task of training at the
preparatory faculty is not only bringing in accelerated mode of level of preparation of students on
the subject in compliance with the standards of the Russian Federation on secondary education
taking into account, that the level of knowledge of students from different countries varies greatly.
It is also attended by teachers of profile disciplines in the formation of the basic professional
educational competences of students in the Russian as a foreign language for scientific and physical
purposes and in the sector of application of information technologies in natural science education.
The aim of such an integrated approach is to achieve a level of preparation of students adjusted to
enter the University and to study physics, and other engineering disciplines in Russian language as a
foreign language of science based on modern means of in-formation technologies successfully
along with native Russian students.
One of the ways to achieve these goals is to use modern information technologies in the educational
and professional communication [3-5]. In particular, their application creates interactive electronic
training manuals, intended for the use not only offline, but also Internet-resources based. This will
allow us to include in the program of training a set of smart elements of online communication [6],
such as students self-training, including the self-test, mobile access, or conducting exercises with
elements of webinars.
It is the ambitious idea to develop the project of multimedia manual complex in physics for foreign
students, focused on special training on Russian language of physics as a foreign language. The
basis for elaboration includes the principle of providing the wide access to and open use of
components of the complex in different modes, including offline, on-line system with Internet
access and in mo-bile mode. Multifunctional use of the complex presupposes how to work with the
audience and for the students self-work. It also provides for the classroom and outdoor control of
the level of training and learning of students. Mediacomplex includes audited presentation
correlated with the adopted textbook [1] and applications for this tutorial [2] and a set of test tools
for the preparation and monitoring of the level of training.
Test system consists of the set of the issues in physics (300 questions) and Russian language of
physics as a foreign language (200 items), computer simulators, and tests. Elements of the set are
performed in the mode of the table processor Excel files [7] and web pages designed under the
specialized training tests environment Hot Potatoes [8].
Audited presentation on the course of Physics for for-eign students of the preparatory Department
forms is the basis of the mediacomplex. It is intended for training on the topics in mechanics. Slides
of the presentation are designed to suit the requirements of the existing educational standards and in
accordance with the level of education and language training of foreign students. Each slide
contains the header, illustrations, definitions, physical formula. Audio records associated with slides
allow students to listen fragments of the manual in Russian language. To increase the efficiency of
media complex as a mean to support the training process the presentation is equipped with built-in
elements of self-control. These mini tests are designed in the form of interactive web pages, which
are prepared under the tests constructor HOT POTATOES environment. They contain the question,
variants of the answer and the field to point the correct answer. They have a built-in check module
and the test result display. Mini tests are embedded in a presentation after each section. They serve

85
as training elements for self control in personal studies. Assembly of different HP tests can be used
both as training engines as well as means of the periodical and remote control in the online mode,
including for self teaching on physics and for webinar studies. This is covered further in [5].
Computer training tools are included in the media complex formed as Excel tables are intended for
self control in the process of the presentation study and for preliminary training, as well as for
official testing procedures. Training tools are developed not only to be built-in the individual
paragraphs, but also for practical topics of the course Physics for foreign students. Files of tests
simulators are placed on the MS OneDrive network share. Hyperlinks on the test modules are
available in its final part of each section of the presentation. They can be used by students
themselves outside-taken in person and on the lessons in the computer class.
Using the test generator and the set of questions, everyone can create an unlimited number of
control issues. They can include a number of questions for the control of both the audience and
extracurricular. Possibilities and information about the IT support of the media complex built-in
testing subsystem are presented in the papers [5-8].
Multimedia Manuals On Rlfs In the Physical Education Of Foreign Students. The need of the
development of the broad access online media complex to support preparation for the application of
foreign students of engineering and scientific areas, chosen their degree mastering in Russian
language, was highlighted by the way of understanding of teachers of Russian language, Physics
and Informatics of the difficulties faced by foreign students who participate in the core disciplines
in parallel with beginning studies of the Russian as a foreign language and a language of the
physical science at a basic level.
The problems in the grammar of Russian language are well-known. This is first of all specific
syntax and its implementation with flexible word order, distinctive design, character of links
between words in a sentence, case-case system of nouns and adjectives.
Modern realities in the language of engineering and natural Sciences compared with common
language have their own specific features in terms of grammar, and in terms of vocabulary, which
requires for elaboration of special technologies for correct educational content presentation and
fastening. Therefore the main task of the media complex in conjunction with the apparatus of built-
in tests on Russian language of physics as a foreign language is to create a foreign language
students framework on the subject of Physics. To solve the problem, the developers of media
tutorial focused on the implementation of the following linguistic tasks:
1) Development of lexical physical terms compatibility;
2) Development of the case system and verbal forms in a scientific context;
3) Development of syntactic structures and their implementations in scientific language.
Implementation of these tasks was following by the tests of number of types:
1) Tests for approval kind and number of adjectives and nouns;
2) Tests on the use of prepositions, participating together with the endings in the formation of case
grammatical values;
3) Tests to determine the cases of nouns in the syntactic context;
4) Tests for the presence of the verbal word form;
5) Run on understanding the functioning of words and word collocations on Basic concepts in
mechanics.
To support the solution of the above described tasks of teaching foreign students on Russian as a
foreign language of science media complex includes interactive elements for training and
monitoring of the achieved level of mastering the current language-acoustic material. It is

86
completing the mini tests embedded in slides, simulators, tests on the topics of the manual and sets
options for mid-term and final testing.
Language mini tests are included in the presentation in parallel with tests in physics. Their presence
allows us to combine the specialist training with the language in the mode of unity. This approach
through is quite important for teaching of the contingent of foreign students of the preparatory
faculty. And it allows provide the synergy effect from combination of two educational directions
study of physics and language training.
EXCEL kits of tests for the preparation, organization and holding of the computer training and
testing on scientific language of physics at the level of Russian as a foreign strange similar to those
described above sets of test in physics. Base of 200 questions is also the basis of the simulator and
test generator. Using these tools, a set of options with a given number of issues, and embedded
environments tools verification is to be designed. Sets of test tools on scientific language of physics
are de-signed in such a way that they could be posted online. They may be downloaded and used in
standalone mode or when placing on Internet services such as MS-OneDrive, apply for webinars
and self-control, including mobile access. These tests are extremely important and useful for
training in Russian language because foreign students translate grammatical phenomena from their
language into Russian language, making countless mistakes. The instructor provides tests which
help to reorient the foreign students from grammar realities of their native language to realities of
Russian language. So online tests seem to be indispensable for providing foreign students the
necessary time to reflect specific grammar of Russian language and give the opportunity of constant
training at a convenient mode, including removed access. Therefore, the advantage of the system of
allocation and access for the media complex and built-in tests on the Internet resource MS
OneDrive is the fact that it can be used as taken in personal and outside of the classroom, self study
language training of foreign students.
The means of IT support of training, similar to that described above, and their components may be
effectively used in achieving the goal of preparing foreign students for the core disciplines,
combined with enhanced language training under such conditions as the maximum availability and
functionality. Solution of such tasks faces a number of certain difficulties.
The first and foremost is the problem of IT competence of the developers. Usually they are
extremely well-educated experts in their field of knowledge and have extensive experience with a
contingent of foreign students in pre-University stage. But they should not always be considered to
be professionals in the field of information technologies, although master them at a level above the
advanced computer user level. Thus, one of the tasks of the development and application of
informational and methodological support of training is the best free choice of software tools and
platforms for placement of their products, educational purpose. On the one hand, the instrument
used should provide effective solution of these problems; on the other hand, they should not require
significant time and effort on their study.
In the course of analysis of modern network resources and software tools, the aim was to choose the
most appropriate subject to the following requirements indicated:
Accessibility;
Reliability;
Easy to use;
Functionality;
Compatibility;
Prospects and some others.
Several different platforms including corporate net-work of the University, some of Internet hosting
and cloud services were explored. Most appropriate up-to-day tools taking into account the above
87
requirements in our opinion is the Internet-resource MS OneDrive, which is a subsystem of the

portal service provided by the Microsoft Company [9].
The structure of catalogues for placing the media complex components based on this resource was
created, including test simulators and sets of option tests. Methods of organizing the system of
storage simplicity, its identity to the standard file system of Windows allowed developers of the
tutorial in short terms to configure the main directory and file management operations under the
OneDrive environment control. The Built-in component of the MS OFFICE-online package enables
them to create and edit the elements of the complex using the collective mode of remote access. The
advantage of the OneDrive resource is availability of developing the access control system. It
provides the ability to assign different rights to different groups of users. Developers have the
highest access level. They have the right to place components of the complex in the directory, edit
them and provide access to users. Users have the right to view the available files and copy them to
their computer or mobile device.
The OneDrive performs the function of file storage. This store is a reliable transmission element of
educational information in computer mediated communication among teachers and students. Active
resource options allow us to organize the direct communication and feedback in this process. The
training materials and tests move in the for-ward direction from the teacher to the students. In the
opposite direction filled tests and results of their processing come toward a teacher. Thus, the
OneDrive tools provide the opportunity to organize interaction without the chronotop restrictions of
the communication. Apparatus for short links makes it possible to organize conveniently hypertext
links to various components of the complex together in many different ways. For example, the
developers of the complex took advantage of this opportunity to insert hyperlinks on tests and
simulators directly in the presentation slides, on the pages of the training group in the office of a
teacher on the portal of the University etc. Thus, the MS OneDrive been a part of a resolution of the
main tasks effectively used as a medium for improving the IT competence of developers in the
mode of self-education.
We particularly should note that the usage of this resource is very high, taking into account its
dynamic. For example, recently some instruments were significantly developed. In particular, the
functions of the embedded spreadsheet tool SURVEY. It allows us to design the on-line tests of all
types with automatic collection of the results and their processing in real time. Currently the
possibilities to use the programs for the application in the media complex are under investigation.
Summary. Discussed in the paper results on the development of media complex in physics for
foreign students of the preparatory Department and organization of accommodation and access to
its components based on Internet resource MS OneDrive and experiences of the network elements
of the educational system allows to make a conclusion about the effectiveness of, and prospects for
the selected configuration of its tools and to identify areas for further development.
References
[1] Yefremov A.P., Pevnitskaya E.V., Kutuzov Yu.A. and others. Mechanics. RUDN. 2008.
[2] Gracheva O.A., Elsgolts S.L., Pevnitskaya E.V. Studying Physics in Russian. P.1-3. RUDN.
2011-13.
[3] Rhuzhentseva T.S., Matukhin P.G. Structure and methodical aspects of the use of professionally
- oriented electronic English language Manuals//Bulletin of the PFUR. Series: Russian and foreign
languages and methods of their teaching. 2004. 1. P. 136-145.
[4] Titova E.P., Matukhin P.G., Provotorova E.A., Zabolotnaya I.M. Development of a complex of
electronic means of distant study of the course Anatomy for foreign medical students of pre-
university training period based on the Microsoft SkyDrive cloud technologies // Natural and
technical Sciences. 2013. 5. P. 299-305
88
[5] Gracheva O.A., Elsgolts S.L., Matukhin P.G. Interdisciplinary IT Projects in The Development
of Electronic Manuals and Test Systems on Russian as a Foreign Language of Physics// Bulletin of
the People Friendship University of Russia. Series: Information Technologies in Education. 2013.
4. P. 27-39.
[6] Gerasimenko T.L., Grubinin I.V., Gulaja T.M., Zhidkov, O., Romanova S.A. Development of
the language competence of students at a non-language University using smart technologies// UMO
Bulletin. Series: Economics, Statistics and Informatics. M: Publishing house: Moscow state
University of Economics, Statistics and Informatics, no: 1, 2013 - P: 3-6
[7] Gracheva O.A., Elsgolts S.L., Matukhin P.G., Pevnitskaya E.V., Matyash, G.A. Base of
questions, test simulator, generator of tests and set options for the Mechanics section of the
introductory physics course for foreign students. EXCEL tables// Moscow, Database of OFERNIO
INIM RAO, 2013. - 9 P.
[8] Gerasimova A.V. Gracheva O.A., Zavadskaya O.A. Kuznetsova YU.V., Matukhin P.G.,
Pevnitskaya E.V. Tkachenko D.I., Elsgolts S.L., Introduction to the course of Physics. Set of tests
on Russian as a foreign language (the language of physics)// Register of algorithms and programs
VNTIC. - M: the Certificate of registration of the electronic resource 50201350724; Appl.
04.07.2013 ; publ. 09.07.2013.
[9] Hill D. News About Microsoft Skydrive, Windows IT Pro/ RE. 2012. 8. P. 64.

89
Petrus Peregrinus of Maricourt and the Medieval Magnetism
Amelia Carolina Sparavigna
Keywords: History of Science, History of Magnetism.
ABSTRACT. Petrus Peregrinus of Maricourt, a 13th-century French scholar and engineer, wrote what we can consider
as the first extant treatise on magnetism of Europe. This treatise is in the form of a letter, probably composed during the
siege of Lucera in Italy, in 1269, where Peregrinus worked to fortify the camp and built engines for projecting stones
and fireballs into the besieged town. Peregrinus letter consists of two parts. The first is discussing the properties of
magnets, describing also the methods for determining their north and south poles. The second part of the letter
describes some instruments that utilize the properties of magnets, ending with the Peregrinus art of making a wheel of
perpetual motion. In this paper, we discuss the first part of the letter and the related medieval knowledge of magnetism.
Introduction: Petrus Peregrinus of Maricourt was a 13th-century French scholar and engineer, that
conducted and reported several experiments on magnetism. His abilities as an experimenter were
well-known in that period and highly praised by one of his contemporaries, the English philosopher
and Franciscan friar Roger Bacon. Peregrinus wrote what we can consider as the first extant treatise
on magnets of Europe. This treatise is in the form of a letter, and it is entitled Epistola Petri
Peregrini de Maricourt ad Sygerum de Foucaucourt, Militem, de Magnete, Letter of Peter
Peregrinus of Maricourt to Sygerus of Foucaucourt, Soldier, on the Magnet. In one of the surviving
manuscript copies, it is told that the letter was composed during the siege of Lucera in Italy, dated 8
August 1269. Probably, Petrus Peregrinus was in the army of Charles I, duke of Anjou and king of
Sicily, who was besieging Lucera in a crusade sanctioned by the pope.
Peregrinus Letter on the magnet consists of two parts. The first treats the properties of the
lodestone (magnetite), providing a description of the polarity of magnets and methods for
determining their north and south poles. In the first part, Peregrinus describes also the effects of
attraction and repulsion between poles. The second parts of the Letter describes instruments that
utilize the properties of magnets, in particular the floating compass, and proposes a new pivoted
compass in some detail. The Letter ends with the Peregrinus art of making a wheel of perpetual
motion.
As we will see in the following discussion, some observations about magnets were existing in the
medieval cultural environment. However, Peregrinus was able organizing the whole into a text that
formed the basis of the science of magnetism. The Letter is generally considered as one of the great
works of medieval experimental research, and, the methods exposed in it as precursors of modern
scientific methodology [1]. We can find the Letter in the text entitled Petrus Peregrinus on the
Magnet, A.D. 1269 [2], translated from Latin by Brother Arnold (Joseph Charles Mertens [3]),
Principal of La Salle Institute in Troy. The Letter was introduced by a discussion of Brother
Potamian (Michael Francis O Reilly [4]), professor of Physics at Manhattan College of New York.
Magnetism in classic antiquity and middle ages: In the classic antiquity and in the medieval
period, we can find several descriptions of the attraction which lodestone manifests for iron. In his
introduction to Peregrinus Letter [2], Brother Potamian writes that Lucretius (99-55 BC) gave a
poetical dissertation on the magnet in his De Rerum Natura, Book VI. Lucretius recognized

90
magnetic repulsion, magnetic induction, and, according to Potamian, to some extent the magnetic
field with its lines of force. The poet Claudian (365-408 AD) wrote a short idyll on the attractive
virtue of the lodestone and its symbolism; Saint Augustine (354-430 AD), in his work De Civitate
Dei, wrote that a lodestone, held under a silver plate, draws after it a scrap of iron lying on the
plate [2,5]. It is also interesting to note that the Augustinian Abbot Alexander of Neckam (1157-
1217) was distinguishing between the properties of the two ends of the lodestone. In his De
Utensilibus, Neckam provides what is perhaps the earliest reference to the mariner's compass in
the Western Europe. In the world, it was a Chinese encyclopedist author, Shen Kuo, who gave the
first known account of suspended magnetic compasses, a hundred years earlier, in 1088 AD, in the
book entitled Meng Xi Bi Tan (Dream Pool Essays) [6].
The Dominican friar and bishop Albertus Magnus (1193-1280), in his treatise De Mineralibus,
describes several kind of magnets and states some of the properties commonly attributed to them
[2]. The minstrel Guyot de Provins, in a satirical poem written about 1208, refers to the directive
quality of the lodestone and its use in navigation [2,7]. We find the magnetic compass also in the
Historia Orientalis (1215-1220) by Cardinal Jacques de Vitry, in the Tresor des Sciences
(1260) written in Paris by Brunetto Latini, poet and philosopher, in a treatise written by the
Enlightened Doctor Raymond Lully, and in the famous canzone Al cor gentil rempaira sempre
amore (Love always has its home in the noble heart), composed by Guido Guinizelli, the poet-
priest of Bologna [2]. In Ref.1 we find mentioned other scholars too. Bartholomaeus Anglicus
(1220-1250) refers to the magnet in his encyclopedic treatise De proprietatibus rerum (On the
properties of things). Henry Bate (1246-1317) included a substantial discussion of magnetism in his
Speculum divinorum et quorundam naturalium (Mirror of divine things and of some natural
ones).
Magnets and diamonds: Let us discuss for a while the reference to Guinizellis poetry. In his
canzone on love, the poet tells Amore in gentil cor prende rivera per suo consimel loco
comadamas del ferro in la minera, that is love has home in a gently noble heart, like, in the same
manner, adamas has home in an iron mine. What is the adamas? Some commentators translate it
as diamond, others, probably more correctly, as magnet [8]. In fact, the word adamas is the
medieval word for both lodestone and diamond. In the Guinizellis canzone, when we consider
adamas as magnet, we have a clear example of the medieval similitude between love and
magnet that was common in troubadour lyrics. For instance: tira com azimans, la bela, that is,
the fair lady draws me toward her like a magnet, writes Bernart de Ventadorn [9]. The similitude
is reinforced by a phonetic resemblance between the words for magnet and love. As noted in
[8], for medieval poets the true lover (amans) was like a magnet (azimans, adamas).
In the book of William Gilbert (1544-1603), English physicist and natural philosopher, on
magnetism [10], we find several names for magnets from different countries. Gilbert writes that in
English, the magnet is known as lodestone and adamant stone (William Shakespeare used
adamant too, in the Midsummer Nights Dream: You draw me, you hard-hearted adamant, but
yet you draw not iron; for my heart is true as steel). Adamant is another form of adamas. In
various forms (adamas, adamant, aimant, azimans, aymant, yman) and in many languages, we find
the original ancient Greek adamas, the unconquered. Originally, the word was applied by the
Greeks to the hardest of the metals with which they were acquainted, that is to say, to hard-
tempered iron or steel. Due to its meaning, this word was subsequently applied to diamond for the
same reason. In the writings of the middle ages, and even in Pliny the Elder, we find some
confusion between the two uses of adamas to denote the lodestone as well as the diamond [10].
Petrus Peregrinus and the perpetual motion: As told in [2], of the early years of Peregrinus
nothing is known. He studied probably at the University of Paris and graduated with the highest
scholastic honors. His surname is coming from the village of Maricourt, in Picardy, whereas the
appellation Peregrinus, or Pilgrim, is due to the fact that he visited the Holy Land. He was also

91
known as Peter Adsiger, as we can find in a book of 1787, written by Tiberio Cavallo (1749-
1809), entitled Treatise on Magnetism (London) [11].
In 1269, we find Peter Peregrinus in the engineering corps of the French army that was besieging
Lucera, in Southern Italy. Peregrinus worked to fortify the camp and lay mines. He also worked to
build engines for projecting stones and fireballs into Lucera. It seems that, during such warlike
preoccupations, an idea occurred to Peregrinus: the idea was of devising a mechanism able of
keeping the astronomical sphere of Archimedes in uniform rotation [2].
Of the spheres of Archimedes, wrote Cicero, the Roman philosopher and politician, in the first
century BC. Cicero wrote of two spherical objects built by Archimedes, that Marcellus, the Roman
consul who conquered Syracuse in 212 BC, brought to Rome [12]. One was a solid sphere on which
were engraved or painted stars and constellations; the second sphere was much more ingenious and
original. It was a planetarium, a mechanical device showing the motions of sun, moon, and planets
as viewed from Earth. No physical trace of Archimedes' planetarium survives, but we can have
some ideas about it. In 1900, a shipwreck found near the Greek island of Antikythera uncovered an
exceptional object. Amidst the cargo of a ship dated from the first century BC, there was a small
lump of wood and corroded gears of bronze, which revealed itself as an analog computer designed
to predict astronomical positions and eclipses. The device is known as the Antikythera mechanism
[13,14]. Of course, we cannot attribute this mechanics to Archimedes, but we can imagine he could
had built a similar device too, that the consul Marcellus brought to Rome. And in fact, recently, a
model of Archimedes sphere had been reconstructed by Michael Wright, who was a curator at the
Science Museum in London and that spent many years studying the Antikythera mechanism. His
globe, made from copper and brass displays the movements of the sun, moon and planets as they
travel through the night sky [15].
Peregrinus, attracted by the mechanical problems connected with Archimedes planetarium, was
gradually led to consider the problem of perpetual motion. The result was that he described, to his
own evident satisfaction, [2] how a wheel might be driven round forever by the power of magnetic
attraction. Elated over his imaginary success, Peregrinus wrote to inform a friend at home. To
allow his friend comprehending the mechanism of the motor and the functions of its parts, he
proceeds to set forth in a methodical manner all the properties of the lodestone, most of which he
himself had discovered. [2]
Fig. 1. Two drawings from the notebook of Villard de Honnecourt, an artist from Picardy,
contemporary of Peter Peregrinus. A drawing is showing how could appear a soldier at the time.
On the right, we can see a wheel of perpetual motion as imagined by Villard de Honnecourt.

92
Peter Peregrinus was not the only person from Picardy that studied the problem of perpetual motion.
Another one was his contemporary Villard de Honnecourt. Villard is known to history only through
a surviving notebook of 33 sheets of parchment containing about 250 drawings dating from the
1220s/1240s, which is now in the Bibliothque Nationale, Paris (MS Fr 19093). The great variety of
subjects (religious and secular figures, architectural plans and mechanical devices), makes it
difficult to determine his profession. Since the discovery of his notebook, it is general opinion that
Villard was an itinerant architect. Among the mechanical devices sketched by Villard, we see the
perpetual-motion machine shown in the Figure 1. The problem of perpetual motions was of great
appeal during the middle ages. This interest was probably stimulated by the books on mechanics
coming from Arabic world, where we can find such wheels. The wheel sketched by Peregrinus is
discussed in a very interesting article [16], which is also showing several layouts of it in different
manuscripts and also wheels from Arabic manuscripts.
Roger Bacons opinion: Peregrinus Letter was the first landmark among the studies on
magnetism, the next being William Gilbert's De Magnete, in 1600. The Letter was addressed to
Sigerus de Foucaucourt, his "amicorum intimus," the dearest of friends. Another friend was Roger
Bacon, who held Peregrinus in the very highest esteem, as shows by his following words: "There
are but two perfect mathematicians," wrote the English monk, "John of London and Petrus de
Maharne-Curia, a Picard" [2]. Bacon thus writes of Peregrinus [2]: "I know of only one person who
deserves praise for his work in experimental philosophy, for he does not care for the discourses of
men and their wordy warfare, but quietly and diligently pursues the works of wisdom. he is a
master of experiment. he knows all natural science whether pertaining to medicine and alchemy,
or to matters celestial and terrestrial. He has worked diligently in the smelting of ores as also in the
working of minerals; he is thoroughly acquainted with all sorts of arms and implements used in
military service and in hunting, besides which he is skilled in agriculture and in the measurement of
lands. It is impossible to write a useful or correct treatise in experimental philosophy without
mentioning this man's name. Other references and information on Petrus Peregrinus are reported
in [17].
Analysis of the Letter: The analysis proposed in [2] shows that, according to the known
manuscripts: 1) Peter Peregrinus was the first to assign a definite position to the poles of a lodestone
and to provide a method for determining which is north and which south; 2) he proved that unlike
poles attract each other, and that similar ones repel; 3) after experiments, he established every
fragment of a lodestone, however small, has two poles and then it is a complete magnet; 4) he
recognized that a pole of a magnet may neutralize a weaker one of the same name, and even reverse
its polarity; 5) he was the first to describe the use of a pivot for a magnetized needle and surround it
with a graduated circle, creating, in such a manner, a model for the modern magnetic compass; 6)
he determined the position of an object by its magnetic bearing as done in modern compass
surveying; and, at the end of the letter, 7) he described his perpetual motion machine, based on the
idea of a magnetic motor, a clever and new idea for a thirteenth century engineer [2].
The copies of Peregrinus Letter for nearly three centuries, remained unnoticed among the libraries
of Europe, until William Gilbert, who makes frequent mention of it, published his De Magnete in
1600. After, a Jesuit writer, Niccol Cabeo, refers to it in his Philosophia Magnetica, 1629. And
Athanasius Kirches quotes from the Letter, in his De Arte Magnetica, 1641. Kircher also
constructed a magnetic clock, the mechanism of which is described in his book.
In the first part of the Letter: After an introduction, where Peregrinus writes that he wants to
explain to his friend the hidden virtue of the lodestone in a simple style, he poses the qualifications
of the experimenter. Whoever wishes to experiment, should be acquainted with the nature of
things, and should not be ignorant of the motion of the celestial bodies. He must also be skilful in
manipulation in order that, by means of this stone, he may produce these marvelous effects
Besides, in such occult experimentation, great skill is required, for very frequently without it the

93
desired result cannot be obtained, because there are many things in the domain of reason which
demand this manual dexterity [2].
After the experimenter has found a good lodestone, he can find and distinguish its poles. I wish to
inform you that this stone bears in itself the likeness of the heavens, as I will now clearly
demonstrate. That is, we have in the heavens two points more important than all others, because
on them, as on pivots, the celestial sphere revolves: these points are the Arctic or north pole and
the Antarctic or south pole. The lodestone has two points which are respectively the north pole and
the south pole. If you are very careful, you can discover these two points in a general way. One
method for doing so is the following: with an instrument with which crystals and other stones are
rounded, let a lodestone be made into a globe and then polished. A needle or an elongated piece of
iron is then placed on top of the lodestone and a line is drawn in the direction of the needle or iron,
thus dividing the stone into two equal parts. The needle is next placed on another part of the stone
and a second median line drawn. If desired, this operation may be performed on many different
parts, and undoubtedly all these lines will meet in two points just as all meridian or azimuth circles
meet in the two opposite poles of the globe. One of these is the north pole, the other the south pole.
[2] In fact, Peter Peregrinus is telling that it is possible to create a globe and, on it, finding the poles
by drawing on it a set of meridians, which are following the lines of the magnetic field, detected by
means of a needle (see Figure 2).
Fig. 2. A spherical magnet with poles and meridians, as illustrated in the Tractatus, sive
Physiologia nova de magnete, magneticisque corporibus & magno magnete tellure by William
Gilbert, published 1633 by Lochmans.
In the Figure 2, the spherical magnet looks like a terrella, Latin of "little earth", a small
magnetised model representing the Earth. Terrella is usually thought to have been invented by
William Gilbert, but based on an idea of Peter Peregrinus.
Peter Peregrinus is describing another method for determining the poles. Note the place on the
above-mentioned spherical lodestone where the point of the needle clings most frequently and most
strongly; for this will be one of the poles as discovered by the previous method. In order to
determine this point exactly, break off a small piece of the needle or iron so as to obtain a fragment
about the length of two fingernails; then put it on the spot which was found to be the pole by the
former operation (see Figure 2). If the fragment stands perpendicular to the stone, then that is,
unquestionably, the pole sought; if not, then move the iron fragment about until it becomes so; mark
this point carefully; on the opposite end another point may be found in a similar manner. If all this
has been done rightly, and if the stone is homogeneous throughout and a choice specimen, these two
points will be diametrically opposite, like the poles of a sphere [2].
North and South Poles: After we have found the poles, we have to determine which is north and
which south. We can proceed in the following manner, according to Peregrinus. He is proposing to
use the celestial pole as a reference. Let us take a wooden vessel, made like a dish, and place in it

94
the stone in such a way that the two poles will be equidistant from the edge of the vessel. Then, let
us place the dish in another and larger vessel full of water, so that the stone in the first-mentioned
dish may be like a sailor in a boat. The second vessel should be of considerable size, in order that
the lodestone may not be impeded by contact of one vessel against the sides of the other. When the
stone has been thus placed, it will turn the dish round until the north pole lies in the direction of the
north pole of the heavens, and the south pole of the stone points to the south pole of the heavens.
And then since the north and south parts of the heavens are known, these same points will then be
easily recognized in the stone because each part of the lodestone will turn to the corresponding one
of the heavens, Peregrinus explains.
How lodestones attract each other: After we discovered the north and the south pole in the
lodestone, we have to mark them both carefully. If we want to see how one lodestone attracts
another, then, with two lodestones selected and prepared as previously told, we can proceed as
follows. Place one in its dish that it may float about as a sailor in a skiff, and let its poles which
have already been determined be equidistant from the horizon, i.e., from the edge of the vessel.
Taking the other stone in your hand, approach its north pole to the south pole of the lodestone
floating in the vessel; the latter will follow the stone in your hand as if longing to cling to it. If,
conversely, you bring the south end of the lodestone in your hand toward the north end of the
floating lodestone, the same phenomenon will occur; namely, the floating lodestone will follow the
one in your hand. Know then that this is the law: the north pole of one lodestone attracts the south
pole of another, while the south pole attracts the north. Should you proceed otherwise and bring the
north pole of one near the north pole of another, the one you hold in your hand will seem to put the
floating one to flight. If the south pole of one is brought near the south pole of another, the same
will happen. This is because the north pole of one seeks the south pole of the other, and therefore
repels the north pole [2].
After the discussion of this experiment, Peregrinus continues remarking that it is well known to all
who have made the experiment, that when an elongated piece of iron has touched a lodestone and is
then fastened to a light block of wood or to a straw and made float on water, one end will turn to the
star which has been called the Sailor's star because it is near the pole; the truth is, however, that it
does not point to the star but to the pole itself. Peregrinus is also telling an important fact, that
every fragment of a lodestone has two poles and then it is a complete magnet. Take a lodestone
which you may call AD, in which A is the north pole and D the south; cut this stone into two parts,
so that you may have two distinct stones; place the stone having the pole A so that it may float on
water and you will observe that A turns towards the north as before; the breaking did not destroy the
properties of the parts of the stone, since it is homogeneous; hence it follows that the part of the
stone at the point of fracture, which may be marked B, must be a south pole; this broken part of
which we are now speaking may be called AB. The other, which contains D, should then be placed
so as to float on water, when you will see D point towards the south because it is a south pole; but
the other end at the point of fracture, lettered C, will be a north pole; this stone may now be named
CD. If we consider the first stone as the active agent, then the second, or CD, will be the passive
subject. You will also notice that the ends of the two stones which before their separation were
together, after breaking will become one a north pole and the other a south pole. If now these same
broken portions are brought near each other, one will attract the other, so that they will again be
joined at the points B and C, where the fracture occurred. Thus, by natural instinct, one single stone
will be formed as before [2].
The natural virtue of magnets: In the part of the Letter discussing the natural virtue of magnets,
we can find an experimental device, which Peregrinus is proposing for having a magnetic clock. To
Peregrinus, it is clear that the poles of the lodestone derive their virtue from the poles of the
heavens. As regards the other parts of the stone, the right conclusion is that they obtain their virtue
from the other parts of the heavens. You may test this in the following manner: A round
lodestone on which the poles are marked is placed on two sharp styles as pivots having one pivot
under each pole so that the lodestone may easily revolve on these pivots. Having done this, make
95
sure that it is equally balanced and that it turns smoothly on the pivots. Then place the stone with
its axis in the meridian, the poles resting on the pivots. Let it be moved after the manner of bracelets
(the bracelets are the circles, armillae, of armillary spheres) so that the elevation and depression
of the poles may equal the elevation and depressions of the poles of the heavens of the place in
which you are experimenting. If now the stone be moved according to the motion of the heavens,
you will be delighted in having discovered such a wonderful secret; With such an instrument you
will need no timepiece, for by it you can know the ascendant at any hour you please, as well as all
other dispositions of the heavens which are sought for by astrologers [2].
About this experiment, William Gilbert tells in his book [10]: I omit what Peter Peregrinus
constantly affirms, that a terrella suspended above its poles on a meridian moves circularly, making
an entire revolution in 24 hours: which, however, it has not happened to ourselves as yet to see .
A comment in [10] tells us that, besides Gilbert, Galileo too discussed this experiment in the third
of his Dialogues, the book which presents a series of discussions among two philosophers and a
layman: Salviati, who presents some of Galileo's views directly, Sagredo and Simplicio, a follower
of Ptolemy and Aristotle. About Peregrinus experiment, Salviati tells I will speak to one
particular, to which I could have wished, that Gilbert had not lent an ear; I mean that of admitting,
that in case a little Sphere of Loadstone might be exactly librated, it would revolve in itself; because
there is no reason why it should do so; For if the whole Terrestrial Globe hath a natural faculty of
revolving about its own centre in twenty four hours, and that all its parts ought to have the same, I
mean, that faculty of turning round together with their whole, about its centre in twenty four hours;
they already have the same in effect, whilst that, being upon the Earth, they turn round along with
it: And the assigning them a revolution about their particular centres, would be to ascribe unto them
a second motion much different from the first; for so they would have two, namely, the revolving in
twenty four hours about the centre of their whole; and the turning about their own: now this second
is arbitrary, nor is there any reason for the introducing of it [18].
With the discussion of the pivoted sphere made by Galileo, let us conclude this discussion on the
medieval magnetism as we find in the Peregrinus Letter. However, let us stress that the attraction
the Peregrinus had for pivoted magnets, forced him to imagine new devices. In the second part of
the Letter, he discussed three devices: one is an instrument for measuring the azimuth of sun, moon
and stars on the horizon, the second a pivoted compass and the third a wheel of perpetual motion.
The use of a pivoted compass to determine the azimuth of the sun is clearly shown by the Figure 3,
which is obtained adapting images from [2]. The devices described by the Peregrinus will be the
subject of a future paper, on pivoted mechanisms of the Middle Ages.
Fig. 3. The pivoted magnet used for measuring the azimuth of stars.

96
References
[1] T.F. Glick, S. Livesey, F. Wallis (2014). Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An
Encyclopedia, Routledge.
[2] Peter Peregrinus (1904). The Letter of Petrus Peregrinus on the Magnet, A.D. 1269, Translated
by Brother Arnold, with introductory notice by Brother Potamian, New York, McGraw Publishing
Company.
[3] E. Grant (1974). A Source Book in Medieval Science, Volume 1, Harvard University Press.
[4] W.J. Battersby (1953). Brother Potamian: Educator and Scientist, Antic Hay Books.
[5] E. Du Trmolet de Lacheisserie, D. Gignoux, M. Schlenker (2005). Magnetism, Springer
Science & Business Media.
[6] T. Breverton (2012). Breverton's Encyclopedia of Inventions: A Compendium of Technological
Leaps, Groundbreaking Discoveries and Scientific Breakthroughs that Changed the World,
Hachette UK.
[7] J. Block Friedman, K. Mossler Figg (2013). Trade, Travel, and Exploration in the Middle Ages:
An Encyclopedia, Routledge.
[8] L. Spitzer, A.K. Forcione, H.S. Lindenberger, M. Sutherland (1988). Representative Essays,
Stanford University Press.
[9] F. Jensen (1994). Tuscan Poetry of the Duecento: An Anthology, Taylor & Francis.
[10] W. Gilbert (1600). De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, et de Magno Magnete Tellure, On
the Magnet, edited and with notes by Silvanus P. Thompson. Available on line at:
https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/g/gilbert/william/on-the-magnet/complete.html
[11] G.W.F. Hegel (2004). Philosophy of Nature, Volume 2, Psychology Press.
[12] https://www.math.nyu.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/Sphere/SphereSources.html
[13] D. De Solla Price (1975). Gears from the Greeks, The Antikythera Mechanism-A Calendar
Computer from ca. 80 B.C., Science History Publications, New York, 1975,
[14] D. De Solla Price (1974). Gears from the Greeks, The Antikythera Mechanism-A Calendar
Computer from ca. 80 B.C., Transaction of The American Philosophical Society, New Series,
Volume 64, Part 7.
[15] J. Marchant (2015). Archimedes Legendary Sphere Brought to Life; Recreation of a 2,000-
year-old Model of the Universe to Appear in Exhibition, Nature 526(19), 01 October 2015.
Available on line at: http://www.nature.com/news/archimedes-legendary-sphere-brought-to-life-
1.18431 DOI: 10.1038/nature.2015.18431
[16] A. Kleinert (2003). Wie funktionierte das Pepertuum Mobile des Petrus Peregrinus?,
International Journal of History & Ethics of Natural Sciences, Technology & Medicine, 11(3):155-
170. DOI: 10.1007/s00048-003-0168-5
[17] T. Bertelli (1868). Pietro Peregrino di Maric e la sua Epistola de Magnete, Roma, Tipografia
della Scienze Matematiche e Fisiche.
[18] Galilus Galilus Lyncus, His System of the World, The Third Dialogue. Available on line
at: http://www.chlt.org/sandbox/lhl/Salusbury/page.376.php?

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Depletion Gilding: An Ancient Method for Surface Enrichment of Gold Alloys
Amelia Carolina Sparavigna
Keywords: Gilding, Depletion Gilding, Gold-Copper Alloys, Tumbaga, Gold-Silver-Copper Alloys, Electrum,
Archaeological Artefacts, Gold-Copper nanoparticles, Nanoporous Gold.
ABSTRACT. Ancient objects made of noble metal alloys, that is, gold with copper and/or silver, can show the
phenomenon of surface enrichment. This phenomenon is regarding the composition of the surface, which has a
percentage of gold higher than that of the bulk. This enrichment is obtained by a depletion of the other elements of the
alloy, which are, in some manner, removed. This depletion gilding process was used by pre-Columbian populations for
their tumbaga, a gold-copper alloy, to give it the luster of gold.
Introduction: A phenomenon often encountered when ancient objects made of noble metal alloys
are analyzed is that of their surface enrichment. Let us consider, for instance, a statuette made of an
alloy of gold with copper and/or silver; it can occur that its surface has a percentage of gold higher
than that of the bulk. This enrichment can be due to an addition of gold on the surface, or to a
depletion process during which the less chemically stable elements leach out causing the surface
composition to change. In both cases, the local percentage of gold is increased consequently.
Therefore, both processes are gilding processes, the second being known as depletion gilding. It
happens because a specific depletion process had been applied to the surface of the object or
because it had been buried for a rather long time [1] (of course, besides such a slow gilding process,
time is causing a long series of damaging and corrosive effects [2]). Masters of the depletion gilding
were the pre-Columbian populations of America that used it for their tumbaga, an alloy of gold
and copper, to give the luster of gold to the objects made of it. In this paper, we will discuss some
aspects of tumbaga and depletion gilding.
Gilding: The term gilding covers several techniques for applying a gold leaf or a gold powder to
solid surfaces, in order to have a thin coating of this metal on objects. Several methods of gilding
exist, including hand application, chemical gilding and electroplating. These are additive methods,
which act by depositing gold onto the surface of objects usually made of a less precious material.
Among the techniques of gilding, some are quite old. Fire-gilding of metals for instance goes back
at least to the 4th century BC, and was known to Pliny the Elder and Vitruvius. Fire-gilding is a
process by which an amalgam of gold is applied to metallic surfaces. Objects are set on fire and
mercury volatilizes, leaving a film of gold or a gold-rich amalgam on the surface. About the coating
with gold leaf, Pliny is also telling the following. When copper has to be gilded, a coat of
quicksilver is laid beneath the gold leaf, which it retains in its place with the greatest tenacity: in
cases, however, where the leaf is single, or very thin, the presence of the quicksilver is detected by
the paleness of the colour [3].
As previously told, besides the gilding obtained by the abovementioned techniques, we have also
the subtractive process of depletion gilding. In this gilding, some material is removed to increase
the purity of the gold. Of course, gold must be already present on the surface of the object. For this
reason, this gilding procedure can be applied only to objects composed by gold alloys, usually gold
with copper and/or silver. The gilding is performed by removing the metals, which are not gold.
These metals are etched away from the surface by means of the use of some acids or salts, often

98
combined with the action of heat. Of course, there is no gold addition, because the object already
contains gold.
Depletion gilding: Depletion gilding is based on the property of gold of being resistant to oxidation
or corrosion by most chemicals, whereas many other metals, such as copper and silver, are not so.
Therefore an object, cast for instance by an alloy of gold with copper and silver, can be immersed in
a suitable acid or packed in a salt, which attacks the copper and silver in the object's surface. The
action of acid or salt is transforming these elements to some copper/silver compounds that can be
removed from the object's surface by washing or heating, or by using a brick dust [4, 5]. The result
is a thin layer of nearly pure gold on the surface of the object. Often it is necessary to repeat this
procedure several times, making the resulting surface soft and spongy with a dull appearance. For
this reason, most depletion-gilded objects are burnished to make their surfaces more durable and
give them a more attractive polished finish.
Depletion gilding was widely used in antiquity. A historical and technical introduction of this gold
surface enrichment is given in [6], which discusses how goldsmiths have used the depletion gilding
technique for coloring the gold. The process requires some skill to execute it properly, but it is
technologically simple. Moreover, it is requiring materials that were available to most ancient
civilizations, those that were able of making alloys.
For what concerns the color of gold, let us note that pure gold is slightly reddish yellow in color.
Other colors can be produced making alloys with silver, copper, nickel and zinc in various
proportions, producing white, yellow, green and red golds [7] (see Appendix for some data). In the
case of an alloy of gold and copper, the result is a red or yellow-red color. These alloys were used
especially in the pre-Columbian Meso- and South America. Known as tumbaga, this material was
used widely both for castings and for hammered metal works. A further depletion gilding was
giving to these objects the color and luster of pure gold.
Today, gold alloys have many applications in dentistry, jewelry and industrial areas too (let us note
that gold is used for corrosion protection of electrically conductive surfaces [8]). For economic
reasons then, much effort has been made to lower the gold content in the bulk of such alloys. As a
consequence, the surface enrichment of low gold alloys became an interesting subject of researches
[9]: in this reference, we find the modern methods for the creation of a gold-enriched surface on a
gold alloy by depletion processes. Experiments tell that the additions of sodium chloride to pure
water speed up the oxidation of copper to copper chloride, which is dissolved at the metal-solution
interface. Additions of sodium sulfide to pure water should also speed up the oxidation of copper to
cuprous or cupric sulfide, but these compounds are insoluble in water, and then they are tarnishing
the alloy [9]. Let us remember that, in pure water, copper dissolves regardless of being in a gold
alloy or as metal [9].
American goldsmiths: However, how did the pre-Columbian populations of Meso- and South
America a depletion gilding? This question was the subject of several researches made by
archaeologists. In [4], we can find a description of techniques. It is also told that was Gonzalo
Fernandez de Oviedo (1478-1557), to give a hint on pre-Columbian depletion gilding, writing that
the pre-Columbian goldsmiths knew how to use a certain herb for gilding objects made of debased
gold. The alloys used were generally of two types [4]. One type is composed by the tumbaga
copper-gold alloys produced with differing gold contents, the other was that of pale greenish-white
ternary silver-gold-copper alloys, containing a high proportion of silver, similar to the
Mediterranean electrum and widely used in Peru.
For tumbaga, a depletion gilding technique was the following: the object made of tumbaga was
rubbed with the juice of a plant and then heated so that it assumed a gold coloration. This process
was repeated many times to improve the colour and increase the superficial gold contain. It is
believed that the plant was a species of oxalis and that the juice contained oxalic acid [4]. For
objects made of alloys of electrum type, they were probably gilded using a cementation process or
by using some aqueous pastes [4]. In the first process, the object was placed in a crucible and
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surrounded with a powdered mixture containing alum, common salt and brick dust [4]. The crucible
and its contents were heated. The mixture reacted with the surface of the object, forming chlorides
of silver, copper and other impurity metals. The chlorides were absorbed by the brick dust [4].
Probably, additional ingredients may have been used too. After cooling, and subsequently washing
the object, the brilliance of the surface was increased by burnishing [4]. The second method was
that of immersing the object in an aqueous paste or solution of alum, iron sulfate and salt at room
temperature. After about ten days [4], the object was washed in a strong salt solution and then
heated to convert the spongy, gold-enriched surface to a smooth and compact surface. Both
cementation and aqueous methods work equally well on electrum and tumbaga [4].
Phase diagram of gold and copper: Tumbaga is an alloy of gold and copper then. However, we
can tell more about these two metals together. A study of the phase diagram of copper and gold
shows that they are completely soluble in each other with eutectic type low melting point, occurring
at a composition of 80.1% gold at 911 C. In the Figure 1, the phase diagram is shown, adapted
from [10]. Phase diagrams of gold with other elements, such as platinum, silver, nickel and cobalt
are given in Ref.11. Let us remember that a naturally occurring alloy of gold and silver exists, the
electrum.
Fig. 1. Phase diagram Au/Cu
In the Figure 1, it is easy to see the eutectic composition. The word eutectic comes from the
Greek word eutektos, that is, easily melted. At the eutectic-composition, an alloy of two or
more metals, when heated to its melting point, completely changes from solid to liquid at the same
temperature [12]. Thus, the eutectic-composition is characterized by being the first alloy-
composition to melt during heating [12], such as the last to freeze during cooling.
The rounded shapes at the bottom of the diagram in Fig.1 show the regions where ordered phases
exist. According to [10], these ordered phases are usually harder than the disordered alloy of the
same composition, and they may make the process of working and annealing to shape more
difficult. Moreover, the quenched alloys between about 85% gold and 50% gold are softer than the
alloys that are allowed to cool slowly in air (quenching is the rapid cooling of a work piece). This is
the opposite of what happens in alloys such as iron and carbon, where the material is hardened by
quenching because of the formation of martensitic phase [10]. For the gold-copper alloys, the
softening by quenching process happens because it is suppressing the formation of the ordered
phases, which need some time to form. As told in [10], South American populations used water
quenching after annealing in order to make their alloys easier to work to shape and to avoid
embrittlement.

100
The raft of El Dorado: The alloys of gold with copper or silver were produced by the pre-
Columbian people to create wonderful statues and ornaments. In the Figure 2, it is shown one of
such objects. It is the Muisca Raft, obtained in a lost-wax casting by the Muisca culture in a region
which currently corresponds to the center of Colombia. A recent study on Muisca metallurgy shows
that gold alloys were especially composed for votive metalwork [13], and in fact, the Raft is a
votive object. Today, it is exhibited at the Gold Museum in Bogota. The Raft refers to the ceremony
of El Dorado, during which Muisca chief, after covering his body with gold powder, dove into the
Guatavita Lake. Then, El Dorado was El Hombre Dorado, the Golden Man.
Fig. 2. The Muisca Raft (Courtesy: Wikipedia). It is a representation of the legend of El Dorado.
The cacique at the center of the raft is surrounded by attendants and oarsmen
The legends surrounding El Dorado changed over time, so that it became a golden city or a lost
kingdom full of gold. Many expeditions were made in the search for El Dorado: among the most
famous there was that led by Sir Walter Raleigh [14, 15]. All the expeditions did not find El Dorado
but mapped a large part of South America.
After failing in discovering El Dorado and its gold mines, the Spaniard conquistadores that had
promised their king a mass of gold in return for investing in the transatlantic voyage, resorted to
looting the treasuries of the local chiefs and the grave goods of cemeteries [16]. However, as
Shakespeare writes in his play The Merchant of Venice, all that glitters is not gold: when
Spaniard soldiers began to melt down the mass of the glittering ornaments, they discovered that
they had not pure gold, but an alloy debased with large amounts of copper. The result was that a
large part of beautiful objects, such as those held in the Gold Museum, were plundered by the
Spaniards and melted into tumbaga bars for transport across the Atlantic. Hernan Cortes and his
men for instance improvised a manufacture of such metallic bars [17].
Because all the metals that reached Europe were melted back into their constituent metals in Spain,
there is only an example of such a load, a group of over 200 tumbaga bars, discovered in the
remains of an unidentified shipwreck (around 1528), off Grand Bahama Island. This shipwreck was
found in 1993 [17]. Since we have mentioned Hernan Cortes, the conquistador who caused the fall
of Aztec Empire and brought Mexico under the rule of the King of Castile, let us mention an
interesting article on the metallurgy of Aztecs [18]. In it, is mentioned the pioneering research work
of Dora M.K. de Grinberg and others on the metallurgical skills of the pre-Columbian population
[19]. De Grinberg, an Argentinian archeologist working in Mexico, uncovered ample evidence that
the ancient American metalworkers were far more skilled than had previously been supposed [18].
Tumbaga: The word tumbaga is not native to any language of the area of Meso- or South
America. But it is not a Spanish word too. It is coming from Malay and means copper [20]. The

101
historical documentation on ancient American gold alloys begins with Columbus, who reported that
the word "guanin" was employed to express these alloys. Washington Irving, in his Life of
Columbus, wrote that in 1503 Columbus was on the Mosquito Coast. There was no pure gold to
be met with here, all their ornaments were of guanine; but the natives assured the Adelantado that in
proceeding along the coast, the ships would soon arrive at a country where gold was in abundance
[21]. In the reports of Columbus, it is evident his quest for gold. The same happens for other
explorers. In a 1546 communication to his king, Juan Perez de Tolosa reported on a population of
the Northwestern Venezuela that, in addition to possessing gold and other precious metals, had
ornaments of a copper-gold alloy called carcuri. Similar reports appear in the writing of Pedro de
Cieza de Leon, who explored the Cuca Valley of Northern Colombia during 1532-1550.
In a book of 1760 [22], written by Antonio de Ulloa (1716-1795), Spanish general and explorer, we
find other information about gold: In the district of Choco are many mines of Lavadero, or wash
gold There are also some, where mercury must be used, the gold being enveloped in other
metallic bodies, stones and bitumens. Several of the mines have been abandoned on account of the
platina; a substance of such resistance, that, when struck on an anvil of steel, it is not easy to
separate In some of these mines the gold is found mixed with the metal called tumbaga, or
copper, and equal to that of the east. Antonio de Ulloa uses the word tumbaga for copper then.
He continues telling that its most remarkable quality is that it produces no verdigrease (verdigris),
nor is corroded by any acids, as common copper is well known to be [22]. In fact, if we treat
tumbaga with an acid, copper is dissolved off the surface. On the surface, it remains a shiny layer of
nearly pure gold. As previously discussed, the use of an acid produces a process of depletion
gilding, not the verdigris. Note that, in the description made by Antonio de Ulloa, there is also
mentioned another material, the platina, that is, the platinum.
Among the first modern reports about tumbaga, there is that by G. Crqui-Montfort and P. Rivet,
published in 1919 [23], who described the tumbaga in Colombia. The documentation of a similar
pre-Columbian alloy with depletion gilding to produce a golden surface is given in the Ref.24. In a
report of 1949, W. Root is comparing the physical properties of tumbaga with those of unalloyed
gold and copper. In his review [25], Root tells that tumbaga seems to have originated in Colombia
or Venezuela before AD 1000 and spread to Ecuador and Peru. But, in a discussion about gilding
[26], Heather Lechtman et al. tell that the depletion gilding was first developed by the Moche
culture of Peru, about AD 100-800. Therefore, depletion methods of gilding used in Peru, from this
center of origin, spread north into Ecuador, Columbia, Venezuela, Panama till Mexico [26].
In nanotechnologies: Today, tumbaga has an important role in nanotechnology. In fact, the gold-
copper alloys are emerging as an important catalyst. In [27], the authors investigated the phase
diagrams of various polyhedral nanoparticles, made of gold-copper alloy. In these particles, the
researchers revealed a gold enrichment at the surface, like in tumbaga, leading to a kind of core-
shell structure, analogous to the surface enrichment of archaeological artifacts. The most stable
structures of the nanoparticles were determined to be the dodecahedron, truncated octahedron, and
icosahedron with a Cu-rich core/Au-rich surface. In [28], nanorods of AuCu3 had been investigates,
in particular to determine the catalytic activity of them, when different surface ligands are used.
Besides nanoparticles, in catalysis, sensing, and other areas, porous gold is used [29-32]. This
material is made by dealloying gold alloys [29]. In fact, this relatively new material is like the
surface of tumbaga, the spongy gold which is produces by dealloying the surface layer with gilding
depletion. For what concerns porous gold, let us conclude with an interesting feature of the layer of
gold on tumbaga, discussed by Stuart J. Fleming in Ref.16. Fleming tells that tumbaga has a self-
healing property. When corrosion happens, some gold atoms are set free by it. These atoms can
migrate and seal the minute channels, which are originated by the corrosive attack. For this reason,
objects made of a relatively gold-rich tumbaga can retain for a long time their original luster. This
property of self-healing of gold alloys could be interesting for nanotechnologies too, where surfaces
have a relevant role, due to the reduced dimensions of involved materials.

102
Appendix on colors of gold-copper alloys: Here a table on the color and chemical composition of
some alloys with karat number 18 [7]. Let us remember that 24 kt gold is pure gold. The
designations 18 kt, 14 kt, or 10 kt indicate how much pure gold is present in the mix: 18 kt gold
(75% gold) has 18 parts gold and 6 parts of another metal(s), 14 kt gold (58.3% gold) has 14 parts
gold and 10 parts of another metal(s), and so on for 12 kt and 10 kt gold. 10 kt gold is the minimum
karat designation that can still be called gold in the US [7].
Table 1
Color of Gold Alloy Compositions Containing Copper
Yellow Gold (22 kt) Gold 91.67%, Silver 5%, Copper 2%, Zinc 1,33%
Red Gold (18 kt) Gold 75%, Copper 25%
Rose Gold (18 kt) Gold 75%, Copper 22.25% Silver 2.75%
Pink Gold (18 kt) Gold 75%, Copper 20%, Silver 5%
Gray-White Gold (18 kt) Gold 75%, Iron 17%, Copper 8%
Light Green Gold (18 kt) Gold 75%, Copper 23%, Cadmium 2%
Green Gold (18 kt) Gold 75%, Silver 20%, Copper 5%
Deep Green Gold (18 kt) Gold 75%, Silver 15%, Copper 6%, Cadmium 4%
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