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3 Tensile tests for DP600 at room temperature in both the incremental phase strain Deph is determined using
directions a linear mixing rule involving the fraction Pi of each
phase i
For the phase transformation from austenite to ferrite X
nPhases X
nPhases
1 DV
or bainite, the equation of LeBlond34 is applied V~ Vi Pi , DV ~ Vi DPi , Deph ~ 1 (16)
3 V
_ {t i~1 i~1
Pi (T,t)~ P(T) 1{exp (12) Modelling austenite growth from any other phase is
t
_ more complex than the opposite case, and is in general
where Pi(T) is the current phase fraction of phase i, P(T) not fully understood. Here, a temperature dependent
is its equilibrium phase fraction, t is a growth parameter, austenite growth from martensite has been assumed
t is the time and T is the current temperature. The using bM as growth parameter. This is superposed by a
equilibrium fraction of phase i is here set to the current time dependent growth from ferrite and bainite where
fraction of phase i plus the austenite phase fraction. This the growth parameter has been set to b520/K in order to
equation can be rewritten in a differential form obtain a good agreement to the results of the phase field
_ ! predictions for welding of DP600 as obtained from
: P(T){Pi (T)
Pi (T,t)~ (13) Ref. 41. This is a rough approximation and should be
t validated by experiments in the future.
which can be solved within each time increment using an
implicit integration scheme Parameters
Pi (T,t)zPi (TzDT,tzDt):Dt=t Here the material properties for DP600 and S355 in
Pi (TzDT,tzDt)~ (14) accordance with the presented model are applied for the
1zDt=t
welding simulations presented in the next section.
For large temperature increments, substeps can be
applied in order to increase the accuracy. The growth Thermomechanical model parameters
parameter t has been set to a constant value although it The temperature dependent plastic model parameters
is generally temperature dependent.35 Its value has been for the dual phase steel DP600 have been obtained using
determined using the numbers in the CCT which tensile tests of 1 mm sheets from room temperature up
mention the phase fraction after a certain time in the to 1000uC for different strain rates. The tests have been
related domain. The diffusionless transition from performed in both the rolling direction and the
austenite to martensite is described by the time transversal direction. Figure 3 shows the results of
independent KoistinenMarburger equation36 the tensile tests at room temperature. It can be seen
_ that the work hardening in the rolling direction is larger
PM (T)~ P(1{exp{bM (Ms {T)) TfMs (15) than in the transverse direction. Hence, an anisotropy
factor f has been applied
Here, P is the sum of the present martensite and
austenite fractions. The growth parameter bM has been sY,Rolling ~ sY,0 (1zf )
determined in a way to match the empirical formulae sY,Transversal ~ sY,0 (1{f ) (17)
given in Ref. 32. An estimated value of bM50?011/K is
given in Ref. 37. It is generally reasonable to model sY,Thickness ~ sY,0
volume expansion and contraction due to phase This anisotropy factor decreases for increasing tempera-
transformations as well as the influence of martensite tures. It has been implemented in a way that this factor
on the yield stress. The martensite volume fraction fM decreases monotonically in time, i.e. it will not increase
has a strong influence on the yield stress, as shown in again on cooling. Figure 3 shows the temperature
Refs. 38 and 39. In Ref. 40, a value of dsY/ dependent anisotropy factor for DP600 as obtained
dfM<830 MPa has been determined for the dependence from the experiments. The calculated r values of the
of the yield stress on the martensite volume fraction at sample are r0051?35 and r9050?82 which are in the range
room temperature. This value is also applied in the of values found in the literature.42
simulations. The volume change from austenite to ferrite DP600 has also been considered for welding simula-
is assumed to be 1?4% and from austenite to martensite tions in Refs. 43 and 44, where material properties have
1%. The total volume V, the volume change DV and been presented as well. For thin sheets, the material
5 Elastic material parameters for DP600 and S355 8 Viscoplastic material parameters for DP600 and S355:
values for DP600 have been measured in experiments
contact models, see Ref. 48. In the present paper, for the
contact modelling, a linear relationship has been
employed between the contact pressure and the over-
closure. The slope applied is k51000 MPa mm21.
Coulomb friction has been modelled assuming a friction
coefficient of m50?3 which correspond to values found
in literature.4951
11 Predicted buckling distortion for DP600 overlap joint assuming isotropic work hardening (left) and kinematic work
hardening (right) (scaling is same as in Fig. 10)
Figure 12 shows the final phase fractions at the centre Figures 15 and 16 shows the welding distortion of the
line as obtained after the simulations. Initially, the base plate as obtained from simulations and experi-
material consists of 85% ferrite and 15% martensite. At ments. In the experimental measurements, the distortion
the end of the welding step, there is almost no ferrite in has been measured for the base plate in the out of plane
the molten zone, also the fraction in the heat affected direction. In both numerical and experimental studies,
zone is reduced significantly. The martensite fraction is the distortion is dominated by angular distortion which
decreased 5%. The material which did not transform to is superposed by some bending distortion. The max-
martensite transformed to bainite mostly and partly to imum and minimum measurable distortion amplitudes
ferrite. Figure 13 shows an etched part in the centre of are 0?23 and 20?34 mm respectively. The equivalent
the fusion zone using LePeras reagent.52 The martensite values obtained from the simulations are 0?45 and
volume fraction in the fusion zone has been determined 0?5 mm. The deviation between experiments and simu-
to 5%2%. This agrees well with the simulations. lation is about 10%.
However, the predicted bainite volume fraction is some Isotropic and kinematic hardenings have also been
per cent larger than the measured fraction. In the HAZ, compared for the case of the T joint. Unlike the results
measurements show that the predicted martensite obtained for the DP600 lap joint, the distortion in this
volume fraction is underestimated. The reason for this case is not significantly dependant on the assumed
is that austenite growth is overestimated by the present hardening model. Hence, isotropic hardening is used in
transformation model. Hence, the CCT diagram might the simulations for simplicity and in order to reduce the
be employed to model the transformation, but one has computational time.
to be careful with the austenitisation on heating of the
material. Analysis of influencing variables
S355 T joint In order to investigate the robustness of the model, an
Figure 14 shows the mesh applied for the welding analysis has been performed to determine the dependency
simulations of a T joint. The sizes of the base and top of the final welding distortion on different influencing
plate are 300615066 mm and 30068066 mm respec- variables. Table 2 shows an overview of the case studies
tively. The model has a total of about 28 000 volume performed and the deviations obtained compared to the
elements. previously presented results.
Switching between kinematic hardening and isotropic
hardening (case 1) changes the results significantly, and
hence the kind of hardening the material shows should
15 Measured buckling distortion for base plate of S355 T joint (scaling is in mm)
Table 2 Deviations of results to presented reference models: low, moderate, high and very high refer to changes of ,5,
510%, 1025 and .25% respectively
diagrams for phase transformations on cooling and 16. D. Gross and T. Seelig: Bruchmechanik: mit einer Einfuhrung in
die Mikromechanik, 3rd edn; 2001, Berlin, Springer Verlag.
phase field modelling for austenitisation on heating has
17. R. Hill: Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. A, 1948, 193A, 281.
been presented. Model parameters for the thermome- 18. D. Banabic: Formability of metallic materials, 1st edn; 2000,
chanical and the metallurgical model have been pre- Berlin, Springer.
sented for the dual phase steel DP600 and the structural 19. A. Bhattacharyya, D. Rittel and G. Ravichandran: Metall. Mater.
steel S355. The model parameters have mostly been Trans. A, 2006, 37A, 11371145.
20. G. Hahn: Acta Met., 1962, 10, 727738.
combined from different literature sources. For DP600,
21. T. Schenk: Deformation behavior of tungsten and crack propaga-
tensile tests have been performed in order to model the tion in thin tungsten wires, Master thesis, Fraunhofer IWM,
anisotropic behaviour for thin sheets and the viscoplas- Freiburg, Germany, 2006.
tic behaviour at higher homologous temperatures. 22. D. L. McDowell: Int. J. Plast., 1992, 8, 695728.
The model has been applied successfully for welding 23. G. Gottstein: Physikalische Grundlagen der Materialkunde, 3rd
edn; 2007, Berlin, Springer Verlag.
simulations of gas metal arc welding of DP600 overlap
24. W. Prager: J. Appl. Phys., 1949, 20, 235.
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on welding and subsequent cooling has been measured 26. R. Mahnken and E. Stein: Model. Simul. Mater. Sci. Eng., 1994, 2,
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the simulations. Clamping conditions have been mod- 27. M. Rodriguez: Characterization of tungsten wires, Master thesis,
Fraunhofer IWM Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany, 2005.
elled realistically using contact formulations. The
28. T. Seifert: Identification of material parameters using instrumen-
results out of plane distortions have been compared to ted indentation test data, Master thesis, University of Stuttgart,
experiments. In both cases, there is a good agreement Stuttgart, Germany, 2003.
between simulations and measurements and hence, it 29. S. Sandfeld: Comparative study for use of numerical and
could be shown that the presented material model is analytical gradients in parameter identification, Master thesis,
University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany, 2005.
adequate.
30. K. W. Andrews: J. Iron Steel Inst., 1965, 203, 721727.
In order to investigate the robustness of the model, an 31. B. Donnay, J. C. Herman, V. Leroy, U. Lotter, R. Grossterlinden
analysis has been performed with regard to various and H. Pircher: Proc. 2nd Int. Conf. on Modelling of metal rolling
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have larger impacts than others. However, the impact is 2335.
32. W. Steven and A. G. Haynes: J. Iron Steel Inst., 1956, 183, 349
dependent on certain assumptions, e.g. the assumed 359.
volume change from austenite to martensite. Hence, in 33. P. Seyffarth, B. Meyer and A. Scharff: Groer Atlas Schwei-
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35. A. Murugaiyan, A. Saha Podder, A. Pandit, S. handra, D.
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