Pope Alexander VI

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Pope
Alexander VI

Bishop of Rome

Papacy began 11 August 1492

Papacy ended 18 August 1503

Predecessor Innocent VIII

Successor Pius III

Orders

Ordination 1468[1]

Consecration 30 October 1471

Created Cardinal 17 September 1456

by Callixtus III

Personal details

Birth name Roderic Borgia (Roderic Llanol i de

Borja/Rodrigo Borgia)

Born 1 January 1431

Xtiva, Kingdom of Valencia, Crown of Aragon

Died 18 August 1503 (aged 72)

Rome, Papal States

Buried Santa Maria in Monserrato degli Spagnoli, Rome

Nationality Aragonese

Denomination Catholic (Roman Rite)

Jofr de Borja i Escriv

Parents
Isabel de Borja

Children Giovanni (or Juan)

Cesare (or Cesar)

Lucrezia
Gioffre (or Giuffre, Jofr in Valentian, Goffredo)
[Note 1]
Previous post Cardinal-Deacon of San Nicola in Carcere (1456

1471)

Administrator of Girona (14571458)

Cardinal-Deacon of Santa Maria in Via

Lata (14581492)

Administrator of Valencia(14581492)

Cardinal-Bishop of Albano(14711476)

Cardinal-Bishop of Porto e Santa Rufina (1476

1492)

Administrator of Cartagena(14821492)

Administrator of Mallorca(14891492)

Administrator of Eger (14911492)

Archbishop of Valencia (1492)

Coat of arms

Other popes named Alexander

Papal styles of
Pope Alexander VI

Reference style His Holiness

Spoken style Your Holiness

Religious style Holy Father

Posthumous style None

 Pope Alexander VI, born Rodrigo de Borja (Valencian: Roderic Llanol i de Borja [roei ans i e
da], Spanish: Rodrigo Lanzol y de Borja [roio lanol i e orxa]; 1 January 1431 18 August
1503), was Pope from 11 August 1492 until his death. He is one of the most controversial of
the Renaissance popes, partly because he acknowledged fathering several children by his mistresses.
Therefore his Italianized Valencian surname, Borgia, became a byword for libertinism and nepotism, which
are traditionally considered as characterizing his pontificate. Two of Alexander's successors, the
controversial pontiffs Sixtus V and Urban VIII, described him as one of the most outstanding popes
since Saint Peter.[3]

Contents
[hide]

1Birth and family

2Education
3Appearance and personality
4Archbishop of Valencia
5Mistresses and family
6Election
7Early years in office
8French involvement
9French in retreat
10Crime
11Savonarola
12Familial aggrandizement
13The Jubilee (1500)
14Slavery
15Last years
16Death
17Ancestry
18Legacy
19In popular culture
o 19.1Books
o 19.2Plays
o 19.3Film
o 19.4Television
o 19.5Video games
20See also
21Further reading
22References
o 22.1Notes
o 22.2Citations
o 22.3Bibliography
23External links

Birth and family[edit]

Rodrigo de Borja was born on 1 January 1431, in the town of Xativa near Valencia, one of the component
realms of the Crown of Aragon, in what is now Spain. His parents were Jofr Llanol i Escriv (died bef. 24
March 1437), and his Aragonese wife and distant cousin Isabel de Borja y Cavanilles (died 19 October
1468). His family name is written Llanol in Valencian and Lanzol in Castillian (Spanish). Rodrigo adopted
his mother's family name of Borja in 1455 following the elevation to the papacy of maternal uncle Alonso de
Borja (Italianized to Alfonso Borgia) as Calixtus III.[4]
Alternatively, it has been argued that Rodrigo's father was Jofr de Borja y Escriv, making Rodrigo a Borja
from his mother and father's side.[5] However, his children were known to be of Llanol paternal lineage.
Some revisionists suggest that the confusion is attributed by attempts to connect Rodrigo as the father of
Giovanni, Cesare, Lucrezia, and Gioffre, who were surnamed Llanol i Borja.[6]

Education[edit]
Rodrigo Borgia studied law at Bologna where he graduated, not simply as Doctor of Law, but as "the most
eminent and judicious jurisprudent".[7] After the election of his uncle as Pope Callixtus III, he was
ordained deacon and created Cardinal-Deacon of San Nicola in Carcere at the age of twenty-five in 1456.
The following year, he was appointed vice-chancellor of the Holy Roman Church.
Both nepotistic appointments were characteristic of the age. Each pope during this period inevitably found
himself surrounded by the servants and retainers of his predecessors who often owed their loyalty to the
family of the pontiff who had appointed them.[8] In 1468, he was ordained to the priesthood and, in 1471, he
was consecrated bishop and appointed Cardinal-Bishop of Albano.[1] Having served in the Roman
Curia under five popes his uncle Calixtus III, Pius II, Paul II, Sixtus IV and Innocent VIII Rodrigo Borgia
acquired considerable administrative experience, influence and wealth. [9]

Appearance and personality[edit]

Contemporary accounts suggest that Rodrigo was "handsome, with a very cheerful countenance and genial
bearing. He was gifted with the quality of being a smooth talker and of choice eloquence. Beautiful women
were attracted to him and excited by him in quite a remarkable way, more strongly than how 'iron is drawn to
a magnet'."[10] Rodrigo Borgia was also an intelligent man with an appreciation for the arts and sciences and
an immense amount of respect for the Church. He was capable and cautious, considered a "political priest"
by some. He was a gifted speaker and great at conversation. Additionally, he was "so familiar with Holy Writ,
that his speeches were fairly sparkling with well-chosen texts of the Sacred Books".[Note 2][12][Note 3]
Plaque outside the Archbishop's Palace, Valencia.

Archbishop of Valencia[edit]
When his uncle Alonso de Borja (bishop of Valencia) was elected Pope Callixtus III, he "inherited" the post
of bishop of Valencia. Sixteen days before the death of Pope Innocent VIII, he proposed Valencia as
a metropolitan see and became the first archbishop of Valencia. When Rodrigo de Borgia was elected pope
as Alexander VI following the death of Innocent VIII, it was the turn of his son Cesare Borgia to "inherit" the
post as second archbishop of Valencia. The third and the fourth archbishops of Valencia were Juan de
Borja and Pedro Luis de Borja, grand-nephews of Alexander VI.
Translation of the plaque on the side of the Archbishop's Palace of Valencia:
ALEXANDER VI
The 9th July 1492, Pope Innocent VIII, at the request of Cardinal Borja and the Catholic Monarchs, raised
the Valencian See to the rank of metropolitan, making Rodrigo of Borja the first Archbishop of Valencia
1492 - 1503

Mistresses and family[edit]

Vannozza dei Cattanei
Of Alexander's many mistresses the one for whom passion lasted longest was Vannozza (Giovanna) dei
Cattanei, born in 1442, and wife of three successive husbands. The connection began in 1470, and she had
four children whom he openly acknowledged as his own: Cesare(born 1475), Giovanni, afterwards duke
of Gandia (commonly known as Juan, born 1476), Lucrezia (born 1480), and Gioffre (Goffredo in Italian,
born 1481 or 1482).
For a period of time, before legitimizing his children after becoming Pope, Rodrigo pretended that his four
children with Vannozza were his niece and nephews and that they were fathered by Vannozza's
husbands.[citation needed]
Before his elevation to the papacy, Cardinal Borgia's passion for Vannozza somewhat diminished, and she
subsequently led a very retired life. Her place in his affections was filled, according to some, by the
beautiful Giulia Farnese ("Giulia la Bella"), wife of an Orsini. However, he still very dearly loved Vannozza, in
a way he considered 'spiritual', and his love for his children by Vannozza remained as strong as ever and
proved, indeed, the determining factor of his whole career. He lavished vast sums on them and lauded them
with every honor. Vannozza lived in the Palace of a late Cardinal, or in a large, palatial villa. The children
lived between their mother's home and the Papal Palace itself. The atmosphere of Alexander's household is
typified by the fact that his daughter Lucrezia apparently lived with Giulia at a point. [14]


Giovanni Borgia, 2nd Duke of Gandia.

Cesare Borgia

Presumed portrait of Lucrezia Borgia by Bartolomeo Veneto

Gioffre Borgia (14821517) Prince of Squillace.

Four other children, Girolama, Isabella, Pedro-Luiz, and Bernardo, were of uncertain maternal parentage.
His daughter Isabella was the great-great-grandmother of Pope Innocent X, who was therefore descended
in a direct line from Alexander.[15]

Giulia Farnese as A young Lady and a Unicorn, by Domenichino, ca 1602, from Palazzo Farnese
A daughter, Laura, was born to his mistress, Giulia Farnese; paternity was officially attributed to Orsino
Orsini (Farnese's husband). He is an ancestor of virtually all royal houses of Europe, mainly the southern
and western ones, for being the ancestor of Dona Luisa de Guzmn, wife of King John IV of Portugal, of
the House of Braganza.


Ercole II d'Este, Duke of Ferrara

Francis Borgia, 4th Duke of Ganda

Luisa de Guzmn, Queen consort of Portugal



Alexander VI kneeling in front of the Madonna, said to be a likeness of Giulia Farnese.[Note 4]

Election[edit]
Main article: Papal conclave, 1492

Coat of Arms of Alexander VI Castel Sant'Angelo, Rome

There was change in the constitution of the College of Cardinals during the course of the fifteenth century-
especially under Sixtus IV and Innocent VIII. Of the twenty-seven cardinals alive in the closing months of the
reign of Innocent VIII no fewer than ten were Cardinal-nephews, eight were crown nominees, four were
Roman nobles and one other had been given the cardinalate in recompense for his family's service to
the Holy See; only four were able career churchmen.[8]
On the death of Pope Innocent VIII on 25 July 1492, the three likely candidates for the Papacy were the
sixty-one-year-old Borgia,[8] seen as an independent candidate, Ascanio Sforza for the Milanese,
and Giuliano della Rovere seen as a pro-French candidate. It was rumoured but not substantiated that
Borgia succeeded in buying the largest number of votes and Sforza, in particular, was bribed with four mule-
loads of silver.[17]Mallett shows that Borgia was in the lead from the start and that the rumours of bribery
began after the election with the distribution of benefices; Sforza and della Rovere were just as willing and
able to bribe as anyone else.[18] The benefices and offices granted to Sforza, moreover, would be worth
considerably more than four mule-loads of silver. Johann Burchard, the conclave's master of ceremonies
and a leading figure of the papal household under several popes, recorded in his diary that the 1492
conclave was a particularly expensive campaign. Della Rovere was bankrolled to the cost of 200,000
gold ducats by King Charles VIII of France, with another 100,000 supplied by the Republic of
Genoa.[19] Borgia was elected on 11 August 1492, assuming the name of Alexander VI (due to confusion
about the status of Pope Alexander V elected by the Council of Pisa).
Giovanni di Lorenzo de' Medici (later Pope Leo X) is said to have warned after the election, "Now we are in
the power of a wolf, the most rapacious perhaps that this world has ever seen. And if we do not flee, he will
inevitably devour us all."[20] Such a criticism, particularly by the very youthful Giovanni, is believed to be
highly unlikely: "Precocious though he was, the cardinal would scarcely have made this observation when
sixteen years of age."[21] Even if he did make the comment, though, Michael de la Bdoyre says that it
would be "unintentionally complimentary as coming from a representative of one of the leading Italian States
about a Pope whose aim it would be to save Italy in defiance of the prejudices and jealousies of its petty
rulers".[22]

Early years in office[edit]

Papal bulla of Alexander VI

In contrast to the preceding pontificate, Pope Alexander VI adhered initially to strict administration of justice
and orderly government. Before long, though, he began endowing his relatives at the church's and at his
neighbours' expense. Cesare Borgia, his son, while a youth of seventeen and a student at Pisa, was
made Archbishop of Valencia, and Giovanni Borgia inherited the Spanish Dukedom of Gandia, the Borgias'
ancestral home in Spain. For the Duke of Gandia and for Gioffre, also known as Goffredo, the Pope
proposed to carve fiefs out of the Papal States and the Kingdom of Naples. Among the fiefs destined for the
duke of Gandia were Cerveteri and Anguillara, lately acquired by Virginio Orsini, head of that powerful
house. This policy brought Ferdinand I, King of Naples, into conflict with Alexander, who was also opposed
by Cardinal della Rovere, whose candidature for the papacy had been backed by Ferdinand. Della Rovere
fortified himself in his bishopric of Ostia at the Tiber's mouth as Alexander formed a league against Naples
(25 April 1493) and prepared for war.[14]
Ferdinand allied himself with Florence, Milan and Venice. He also appealed to Spain for help, but Spain was
eager to be on good terms with the papacy to obtain the title to the recently discovered New World.
Alexander, in the bull Inter Caetera on 4 May 1493, divided the title between Spain and Portugal along a
demarcation line. This became the basis of the Treaty of Tordesillas which was ratified by Spain on 2 July
1494 and by Portugal on 5 September 1494. (This and other related bulls are known collectively as the Bulls
of Donation.)[citation needed]

French involvement[edit]
Italy 1494
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Pope Alexander VI made many alliances to secure his position. He sought help from Charles VIII of
France (14831498), who was allied to Ludovico "Il Moro" Sforza (the Moor, so called because of his
swarthy complexion), the de facto Duke of Milan, who needed French support to legitimise his rule. As
King Ferdinand I of Naples was threatening to come to the aid of the rightful duke Gian Galeazzo Sforza, the
husband of his granddaughter Isabella, Alexander encouraged the French king in his plan for the conquest
of Naples.
But Alexander, always ready to seize opportunities to aggrandize his family, then adopted a double policy.
Through the intervention of the Spanish ambassador he made peace with Naples in July 1493 and
cemented the peace by a marriage between his son Gioffre and Doa Sancha, another granddaughter of
Ferdinand I.[19] In order to dominate the Sacred College of Cardinals more completely, Alexander, in a move
that created much scandal, created 12 new cardinals. Among the new cardinals was his own son Cesare,
then only 18 years old. Alessandro Farnese (later Pope Paul III), the brother of one of the Pope's
mistresses, Giulia Farnese, was also among the newly created cardinals.
On 25 January 1494, Ferdinand I died and was succeeded by his son Alfonso II (14941495).[19] Charles VIII
of France now advanced formal claims on the Kingdom of Naples. Alexander authorised him to pass through
Rome, ostensibly on a crusade against the Ottoman Empire, without mentioning Naples. But when the
French invasion became a reality Pope Alexander VI became alarmed, recognised Alfonso II as king of
Naples, and concluded an alliance with him in exchange for various fiefs for his sons (July 1494). A military
response to the French threat was set in motion: a Neapolitan army was to advance through
the Romagna and attack Milan, while the fleet was to seize Genoa. Both expeditions were badly conducted
and failed, and on 8 September Charles VIII crossed the Alps and joined Ludovico il Moro at Milan. The
Papal States were in turmoil, and the powerful Colonna faction seized Ostia in the name of France. Charles
VIII rapidly advanced southward, and after a short stay in Florence, set out for Rome (November 1494).
Alexander appealed to Ascanio Sforza and even to the Ottoman Sultan Bayazid II for help. He tried to collect
troops and put Rome in a state of defence, but his position was precarious. When the Orsini offered to admit
the French to their castles, Alexander had no choice but to come to terms with Charles. On 31 December,
Charles VIII entered Rome with his troops, the cardinals of the French faction, and Giuliano della Rovere.
Alexander now feared that Charles might depose him for simony, and that the king would summon a council
to nominate a new pope. Alexander was able to win over the bishop of Saint-Malo, who had much influence
over the king, with a cardinal's hat. Alexander agreed to send Cesare as legate to Naples with the French
army; to deliver Cem Sultan, held as a hostage, to Charles VIII, and to give Charles Civitavecchia (16
January 1495). On 28 January Charles VIII departed for Naples with Cem and Cesare, but the latter slipped
away to Spoleto. Neapolitan resistance collapsed, and Alfonso II fled and abdicated in favour of his
son Ferdinand II. Ferdinand was abandoned by all and also had to escape, and the Kingdom of Naples was
conquered with surprising ease.

French in retreat[edit]
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A reaction against Charles VIII soon set in, for all the European powers were alarmed at his success. On 31
March 1495 the Holy League was formed between the Pope, the emperor, Venice, Ludovico il
Moro and Ferdinand of Spain. The League was ostensibly formed against the Turks, but in reality it was
made to expel the French from Italy. Charles VIII had himself crowned King of Naples on 12 May, but a few
days later began his retreat northward. He met the League at Fornovo and cut his way through them and
was back in France by November. Ferdinand II was reinstated at Naples soon afterwards, with Spanish
help. The expedition, if it produced no material results, demonstrated the foolishness of the so-called 'politics
of equilibrium', the Medicean doctrine of preventing one of the Italian principates from overwhelming the rest
and uniting them under its hegemony.
Charles VIII's belligerence in Italy had made it transparent that the 'politics of equilibrium' did nothing but
render the country unable to defend itself against a powerful invading force. Italy was shown to be very
vulnerable to the predations of the powerful nation-states, France and Spain, that had forged themselves
during the previous century. Alexander VI now followed the general tendency of all the princes of the day to
crush the great feudatories and establish a centralized despotism. In this manner, he was able to take
advantage of the defeat of the French in order to break the power of the Orsini. From that time on,
Alexander was able to build himself an effective power base in the Papal States.

Castel Sant'Angelo in Rome

Virginio Orsini, who had been captured by the Spanish, died a prisoner at Naples, and the Pope confiscated
his property. The rest of the Orsini clan still held out, defeating the papal troops sent against them
under Guidobaldo da Montefeltro, Duke of Urbino and Giovanni Borgia, Duke of Gandia, at Soriano (January
1497). Peace was made through Venetian mediation, the Orsini paying 50,000 ducats in exchange for their
confiscated lands; the Duke of Urbino, whom they had captured, was left by the Pope to pay his own
ransom. The Orsini remained very powerful, and Pope Alexander VI could count on none but his 3,000
Spanish troops. His only success had been the capture of Ostia and the submission of the Francophile
cardinals Colonna and Savelli.
Then occurred a major domestic tragedy for the house of Borgia. On 14 June, the Duke of Gandia, lately
created Duke of Benevento, disappeared; the next day, his corpse was found in the Tiber. [14]
Alexander, overwhelmed with grief, shut himself up in Castel Sant'Angelo. He declared that henceforth the
moral reform of the Church would be the sole object of his life. Every effort was made to discover the
assassin, and suspicion fell on various highly placed people. Enquiries suddenly ceased without
explanation. Cesare was suspected but not until much later and he was never named in the immediate
aftermath, nor would there have been any particular reason for him to commit such a crime. [14] The Orsini,
against whom the Duke had been involved in the recent campaign, were the principal suspects at the time.
The Duke had many other enemies. Ascanio Sforza, for example, had had a terrible row with him just a few
days before the murder (homicIde). No conclusive explanation was ever reached,[23] and it may be that the
crime was simply as a result of one of the Duke's sexual liaisons. [Note 5]

Crime[edit]
It is often alleged, sometimes by serious historians, that Alexander and his son, Cesare, poisoned
Cardinal Adriano Castellesi, but this is unlikely.[Note 6] (When cardinals died, their wealth automatically
reverted to the Church.) There is no evidence that the Borgias resorted to poisoning, judicial murder, or
extortion to fund their schemes and the defense of the Papal States. The only contemporary accusations of
poisoning were from some of the servants of the Borgias, extracted under torture by Alexander's bitter
enemy and successor, Julius II.[26]

Savonarola[edit]

Girolamo Savonarola
The debased state of the curia was a major scandal. Opponents such as the powerful demagogic Florentine
friar Girolamo Savonarola launched invectives against papal corruption and appealed for a general council
to confront the papal abuses. Alexander is reported to have been reduced to laughter when Savonarola's
denunciations were related to him. Nevertheless, he appointed Sebastian Maggi to investigate the friar, and
he responded on 16 October 1495:
We are displeased at the disturbed state of affairs in Florence, the more so in that it owes its origin to your
preaching. For you predict the future and publicly declare that you do so by the inspiration of the Holy Spirit
when you should be reprehending vice and praising virtue. Such prophecies may easily lure the simple-
minded away from the path of salvation and the obedience due to the Holy Roman Church. Prophecies like
these should not be made when your charge is to forward peace and concord. Moreover, these are not the
time for such teachings, calculated as they are to produce discord even in times of peace let alone in times
of trouble. ... Since, however, we have been most happy to learn from certain cardinals and from your letter
that you are ready to submit yourself to the reproofs of the Church, as becomes a Christian and a religious,
we are beginning to think that what you have done has not been done with an evil motive, but from a certain
simple-mindedness and a zeal, however misguided, for the Lord's vineyard. Our duty, however, prescribes
that we order you, under holy obedience, to cease from public and private preaching until you are able to
come to our presence, not under armed escort as is your present habit, but safely, quietly and modestly as
becomes a religious, or until we make different arrangements. If you obey, as we hope you will, we for the
time being suspend the operation of our former Brief so that you may live in peace in accordance with the
dictates of your conscience.[27]
The hostility of Savonarola seems to have been political rather than personal, and the friar sent a touching
letter of condolence to the Pope on the death of the Duke of Gandia; "Faith, most Holy Father, is the one
and true source of peace and consolation... Faith alone brings consolation from a far-off country."[28] But
eventually the Florentines tired of the friar's moralising and the Florentine government condemned the
reformer to death (23 May 1498).[29]

Familial aggrandizement[edit]
In Italy at the time, the Spanish were looked down upon. Thus, the prominent Italian families looked down on
the Borgia family, and they resented their power, which they sought for themselves. This is, at least partially,
why both Pope Callixtus III and Pope Alexander VI gave powers to family members whom they could
trust.[Note 7]

Papal bull Desiderando nui, 1499

In these circumstances Alexander, feeling more than ever that he could only rely on his own kin, turned his
thoughts to further family aggrandizement. He had annulled Lucrezia's marriage to Giovanni Sforza, who
had responded to the suggestion that he was impotent with the unsubstantiated counter-claim that
Alexander and Cesare indulged in incestuous relations with Lucrezia, in 1497.[Note 8] And, unable to arrange a
union between Cesare and the daughter of King Frederick IV of Naples (who had succeeded Ferdinand II
the previous year), he induced Frederick by threats to agree to a marriage between the Duke of Bisceglie, a
natural son of Alfonso II, and Lucrezia. Cesare, after resigning his cardinalate, was sent on a mission to
France at the end of the year, bearing a bull of divorce for the new French king Louis XII, in exchange for
which he obtained the duchy of Valentinois (a duchy chosen because it was consistent with his already
known nickname of Valentino), a promise of material assistance in his schemes to subjugate the feudal
princelings of papal Romagna, and a marriage to a princess of Navarre.
Alexander hoped that Louis XII's help would be more profitable to his house than that of Charles VIII had
been. In spite of the remonstrances of Spain and of the Sforza, he allied himself with France in January
1499 and was joined by Venice. By autumn Louis XII was in Italy expelling Lodovico Sforza from Milan. With
French success seemingly assured, the Pope determined to deal drastically with the Romagna, which
although nominally under papal rule was divided into a number of practically independent lordships on which
Venice, Milan, and Florence cast hungry eyes. Cesare, empowered by the support of the French, began to
attack the turbulent cities one by one in his capacity as nominated gonfaloniere (standard bearer) of the
church. But the expulsion of the French from Milan and the return of Lodovico Sforza interrupted his
conquests, and he returned to Rome early in 1500.

The Jubilee (1500)[edit]

In the Jubilee year 1500, Alexander ushered in the custom of opening a holy door on Christmas Eve and
closing it on Christmas Day the following year. After consulting with his Master of Ceremonies, Johann
Burchard, Pope Alexander VI opened the first holy door in St. Peter's Basilica on Christmas Eve 1499, and
papal representatives opened the doors in the other three patriarchal basilicas. For this, Pope Alexander
had a new opening created in the portico of St. Peter's and commissioned a marble door. This door lasted
until 1618, when another door was installed in the new basilica.[Note 9][Note 10]
In a ceremony similar to today's, Alexander was carried in the sedia gestatoria to St. Peter's. He and his
assistants, bearing candles, processed to the holy door, as the choir chanted Psalm 118:19-20. The Pope
knocked on the door three times, workers moved it from the inside, and everyone then crossed the threshold
to enter into a period of penance and reconciliation. Thus, Pope Alexander formalized the rite and began a
longstanding tradition that is still in practice. Similar ceremonies were held at the other three basilicas.[32]
Alexander instituted a special rite for the closing of a holy door, as well. On the Feast of the Epiphany in
1501, two cardinals began to seal the holy door with two bricks, one silver and one
gold. Sampietrini (basilica workers)[Note 11] completed the seal, placing specially-minted coins and medals
inside the wall.[32]

Slavery[edit]
While the enterprising explorers of Spain and Portugal were quick to embrace the slavery practiced by the
indigenous peoples they met in Africa and the New World, [35] some popes spoke out against the practice. In
1435, Pope Eugene IV had issued an attack on slavery in his papal bull Sicut Dudum, which included the
excommunication of all those who engaged in the slave trade with the native chiefs. A form of indentured
servitude was allowed, being similar to a peasant's duty to his liege lord in Europe.
In the wake of Columbus's landing in the New World, Pope Alexander was asked by the Spanish monarchy
to confirm their ownership of these newly found lands. [36] The bulls issued by Pope Alexander VI: Eximiae
devotionis (3 May 1493), Inter caetera (4 May 1493) and Dudum Siquidem (23 September 1493), granted
rights to Spain with respect to the newly discovered lands in the Americas similar to those Pope Nicholas
V had previously conferred with the bulls Romanus Pontifex and Dum Diversas.[37][38][39] Morales Padron
(1979) concludes that these bulls gave power to enslave the natives. [40] Minnich (2010) asserts that this
"slave trade" was permitted to facilitate conversions to Christianity. [38] Other historians and Vatican scholars
strongly disagree with these accusations and assert that Alexander never gave his approval to the practice
of slavery.[41] Other later popes, such as Pope Paul III in "Sublimus Dei" (1537), Pope Benedict
XIV in Immensa Pastorium (1741), and Pope Gregory XVI in his letter In Supremo Apostolatus (1839),
continued to condemn slavery.
Thornberry (2002) asserts that Inter Caetera was applied in the Requerimiento which was read to American
Indians (who could not understand the colonisers' language) before hostilities against them began. They
were given the option to accept the authority of the Pope and Spanish crown or face being attacked and
subjugated.[42][43] In 1993, the Indigenous Law Institute called on Pope John Paul II to revoke Inter
Caetera and to make reparation for "this unreasonable historical grief". This was followed by a similar appeal
in 1994 by the Parliament of World Religions.[42] Despite their grandiose titles, the groups had little popular
support and the requests were ignored.

Last years[edit]
A danger now arose in the shape of a conspiracy by the deposed despots, the Orsini, and of some of
Cesare's own condottieri. At first the papal troops were defeated and things looked bleak for the house of
Borgia. But a promise of French help quickly forced the confederates to come to terms. Cesare, by an act of
treachery, then seized the ringleaders at Senigallia and put Oliverotto da Fermo and Vitellozzo Vitelli to
death (31 December 1502). When Alexander VI heard the news, he lured Cardinal Orsini to the Vatican and
cast him into a dungeon, where he died. His goods were confiscated and many other members of the clan in
Rome were arrested, while Alexander's son Goffredo Borgia led an expedition into the Campagna and
seized their castles. Thus the two great houses of Orsini and Colonna, who had long fought for
predominance in Rome and often flouted the Pope's authority, were subjugated and the Borgias' power
increased. Cesare then returned to Rome, where his father asked him to assist Goffredo in reducing the last
Orsini strongholds; this for some reason he was unwilling to do, much to his father's annoyance; but he
eventually marched out, captured Ceri and made peace with Giulio Orsini, who surrendered Bracciano.[14]
The war between France and Spain for the possession of Naples dragged on, and the Pope was forever
intriguing, ready to ally himself with whichever power promised the most advantageous terms at any
moment. He offered to help Louis XII on condition that Sicily be given to Cesare, and then offered to help
Spain in exchange for Siena, Pisa and Bologna.

Death[edit]

The tomb of Pope Alexander VI

Jacopo Pesaro being presented by Pope Alexander VI to Saint Peter, painting by Titian
Cesare was preparing for another expedition in August 1503 when, after he and his father had dined with
Cardinal Adriano Castellesi on 6 August, they were taken ill with fever a few days later. Cesare, who "lay in
bed, his skin peeling and his face suffused to a violet colour"[44] as a consequence of certain drastic
measures to save him, eventually recovered; but the aged Pontiff apparently had little
chance. Burchard'sDiary provides a few details of the pope's final illness and death: [45]
Saturday, the 12th of August, 1503, the Pope fell ill in the morning. After the hour of vespers, between six
and seven o'clock a fever appeared and remained permanently. On the 15th of August thirteen ounces of
blood were drawn from him and the tertian ague supervened. On Thursday, the 17th of August, at nine
o'clock in the forenoon he took medicine. On Friday, the 18th, between nine and ten o'clock he confessed to
the Bishop Gamboa of Carignola, who then read Mass to him. After his Communion he gave the Eucharist
to the Pope who was sitting in bed. Then he ended the Mass at which were present five cardinals, Serra,
Juan and Francesco Borgia, Casanova and Loris. The Pope told them that he felt very bad. At the hour of
vespers after Gamboa had given him Extreme Unction, he died.
The pope was 72 years old.
As for his true faults, known only to his confessor, Pope Alexander VI apparently died genuinely
repentant.[Note 12] The bishop of Gallipoli, Alexis Celadoni, spoke of the pontiff's contrition during his funeral
oration[Note 13] to the electors of Alexander's successor, pope Pius III:[49][Note 14]
When at last the pope was suffering from a very severe sickness, he spontaneously requested, one after
another, each of the last sacraments. He first made a very careful confession of his sins, with a contrite
heart, and was affected even to the shedding of tears, I am told; then he received in Communion the most
Sacred Body and Extreme Unction was administered to him.
The interregnum witnessed again the ancient "tradition" of violence and rioting.[Note 15] Cesare, too ill to attend
to the business himself, sent Don Micheletto, his chief bravo, to seize the Pope's treasures before the death
was publicly announced. The next day the body was exhibited to the people and clergy of Rome, but was
covered by an "old tapestry" ("antiquo tapete"), having become greatly disfigured by rapid decomposition.
According to Raphael Volterrano: "It was a revolting scene to look at that deformed, blackened corpse,
prodigiously swelled, and exhaling an infectious smell; his lips and nose were covered with brown drivel, his
mouth was opened very widely, and his tongue, inflated by poison, fell out upon his chin; therefore no fanatic
or devotee dared to kiss his feet or hands, as custom would have required."[54]The Venetian ambassador
stated that the body was "the ugliest, most monstrous and horrible dead body that was ever seen, without
any form or likeness of humanity".[54] Ludwig von Pastor insists that the decomposition was "perfectly
natural", owing to the summer heat.[Note 16]
It has been suggested that, having taken into account the unusual level of decomposition, Alexander VI was
accidentally poisoned to death by his son, Cesare, with cantarella (which had been prepared to eliminate
Cardinal Adriano), although some commentaries doubt these stories and attribute the Pope's death
to malaria, then prevalent in Rome, or to another such pestilence. [25] The ambassador of Ferrara wrote to
Duke Ercole that it was no wonder the Pope and the duke were sick because nearly everyone in Rome was
ill because of bad air ("per la mala condictione de aere").[citation needed]
After a short stay, the body was removed from the crypts of St. Peter's and installed in a less well-known
church, the Spanish national church of Santa Maria in Monserrato degli Spagnoli.[56]

Ancestry[edit]
[show]Ancestors of Pope Alexander VI

Legacy[edit]
This section may be unbalanced towards certain
viewpoints. Please improve the article by adding information on
neglected viewpoints, or discuss the issue on the talk page. (March
2017)
Detail of fresco Resurrection in the Borgia Apartments, showing Alexander VI humbly in prayer[57]
Before the death of Alexander VI, Rome was filled with political instability. A famous quote by him stated the
following "Never have mercy for those who won't help themselves." This reflected clearly the legacy of the
Borgia Pope.[citation needed] Following the death of Alexander VI, Julius II said on the day of his election: "I will
not live in the same rooms as the Borgias lived. He desecrated the Holy Church as none before.
"[58] The Borgias' apartments remained sealed until the 19th century.[58]
Sometimes overlooked is the fact that Alexander VI set about reforms of the increasingly irresponsible Curia.
He put together a group of his most pious cardinals in order to move the process along. Planned reforms
included new rules on the sale of Church property, the limiting of cardinals to one bishopric, and stricter
moral codes for clergy.[Note 17] Had he stayed in office longer, the pontiff might have had more success in the
enactment of these reforms.
Alexander VI was known for his patronage of the arts, and in his days a new architectural era was initiated in
Rome with the coming of Bramante. Raphael, Michelangelo and Pinturicchio all worked for him.[14] He
commissioned Pinturicchio to lavishly paint a suite of rooms in the Apostolic Palace in the Vatican, which are
today known as the Borgia Apartments. He took a great interest in theatrics, and he even had
the Menaechmi performed in his apartments.[Note 18]
In addition to the arts, Alexander VI also encouraged the development of education. In 1495, he issued
a papal bull at the request of William Elphinstone, Bishop of Aberdeen, and King James IV of Scotland,
founding King's College, Aberdeen.[61][62] King's College now forms an integral element of the University of
Aberdeen. Alexander VI also, in 1501, approved the University of Valencia.[63][64]
Alexander VI, allegedly a marrano according to papal rival Giuliano della Rovere,[65] distinguished himself by
his relatively benign treatment of Jews. After the 1492 expulsion of the Jews from Spain, some 9,000
impoverished Iberian Jews arrived at the borders of the Papal States. Alexander welcomed them into Rome,
declaring that they were "permitted to lead their life, free from interference from Christians, to continue in
their own rites, to gain wealth, and to enjoy many other privileges". He similarly allowed the immigration
of Jews expelled from Portugal in 1497 and from Provence in 1498.[66]
It has been noted that the alleged misdeeds of Alexander VI are similar in nature to those of other
Renaissance princes, with the one exception being his position in the Church. As De Maistre said in his
work Du Pape, "The latter are forgiven nothing, because everything is expected from them, wherefore the
vices lightly passed over in a Louis XIV become most offensive and scandalous in an Alexander VI." [67]
Bohuslav Hasitejnsk z Lobkovic, a Bohemian humanist poet (14611510) dedicated one of his Latin
poems to Alexander:[68]
Epitaphium Alexandri Papae Epitaph to Pope Alexander
Who sacrificed quiet to hatred, with a warrior
Cui tranquilla quies odio, cui proelia
heart,
cordi
who did not stop at quarrels, struggles and
et rixa et caedes seditioque fuit,
slaughters,
mortuus hac recubat populis
is lying here in the coffin for all people to
gaudentibus urna
rejoice,
pastor Alexander, maxima Roma,
thy supreme pontiff Alexander, oh, capital
tuus.
Rome.
Vos, Erebi proceres, vos caeli
Ye prelates of Erebus and Heaven, close your
claudite portas
doors
atque Animam vestris hanc prohibete
and prohibit the Soul from entering your sites.
locis.
He would disrupt the peace of Styx and
In Styga nam veniens pacem turbabit
disturb Avernus,
Averni,
and vanquish the Saints, if he enters the sphere
committet superos, si petat astra poli.
of stars.
Despite Julius II's hostility, the Roman barons and Romagna vicars were never again to be the same
problem for the papacy and Julius' successes owe much to the foundations laid by the Borgias. [69] Unlike
Julius, Alexander never made war unless absolutely necessary, preferring negotiation and diplomacy. [70]
Alexander Lee argues that the crimes attributed to the Borgias were exaggerated by contemporaries
because they were outsiders expanding their holdings at the expense of the Italians, that they were
Spaniards when it was felt that Spain had too much control on the Italian peninsula, and that after the death
of Alexander the family lost its influence and therefore any incentive for anyone to defend them. [71]

In popular culture[edit]
This article appears to contain trivial, minor, or
unrelated references to popular culture. Please reorganize this
content to explain the subject's impact on popular culture rather than
simply listing appearances; add references to reliable sources if
possible, otherwise delete it. (September 2017)

Books[edit]

The contemporary politician, political theorist and author Niccol Machiavelli wrote his book of power
politics The Prince in 1513, in which he refers to Alexander VI as an astute politician who did much to
strengthen the power of the Church.[72] "Alexander VI, more than any other pontiff who has ever lived,
showed how much a pope could achieve with money and armed force. ... Although his aim was the
aggrandizement of the duke [his son Cesare], not of the Church, nonetheless what he did increased the
greatness of the Church; and after his death ... the Church inherited the fruits of his labours. Then came
Pope Julius [II]. He found the Church already great ... as a result of Alexander's vigour." [72]
E. R. Chamberlin's 1969 book The Bad Popes documented the lives of eight of the most controversial
popes, including Alexander.
Alexander, Cesare and Lucrezia play key roles in Cecelia Holland's 1979 historical novel City of God: A
Novel of the Borgias.[73]
Alexander is one of six Popes of the Renaissance era profiled unfavorably by historian Barbara
Tuchman in The March of Folly (1984).
Frederick Rolfe ("Baron Corvo") wrote Chronicles of the House of Borgia, a revisionist account in which
he argued that the Borgia family was unjustly maligned and that the accounts of poisoning were a myth.
Alexander VI and his family are the subjects of Mario Puzo's final novel The Family (2001), as well
as Robert Rankin's humorous and fictionalized novel The Antipope.
 The Borgia Bride (2005) is a historical fiction by Jeanne Kalogridis, told from the perspective of Sancha
of Aragon, married to the Pope's youngest son Gioffre Borgia.
In March 2005, Heavy Metal published the first of a three-part graphic novel biography of Alexander VI
entitled Borgia, written by Alexandro Jodorowsky with art by Milo Manara. The story focuses mostly on
the sexual indiscretions and acts of violent backstabbery carried out by the corrupt papal figure. The
second part was released in July 2006 and the third in July 2009.
Gregory Maguire makes strong references to Alexander VI and specifically his daughter in the 2003
novel, Mirror, Mirror.[74]
Spanish author Javier Sierra writes of Pope Alexander VI in his novel, The Secret Supper.
French author Alexandre Dumas' The Count of Monte Cristo mentions murder of Cardinal Spada by
Alexander VI and his son. This is told by Abb Faria to Edmond Dantes in the prison in relation to a
treasure belonging to Cardinal Spada.[75]
Alexander Dumas also chronicles the life of the Borgia family in his "Celebrated Crimes, vol 1".
Italian authors Rita Monaldi and Francesco Sorti depict a totally different image of Pope Alexander VI
in The Doubts of Sala (2007). They reference sources which quote Alexander as an integral, hard-
working functionary in the Roman Catholic Church. His infamous reputation would be largely attributed
to falsified documents and the slander of his opponents.
Pope Alexander's diplomatic correspondence and intrigues with the Ottoman Turks, as well as Charles
VIII's invasion of Italy, are depicted in the historical novel The Sultan's Helmsman.
Blood & Beauty by Sarah Dunant is a well-researched historical novel of the Borgia family, focused on
documentable incidents, with a particular focus on Lucrezia.
The introduction to The Bad Catholic's Guide to Good Living, by John Zmirak and Denise Matychowiak,
is attributed to Pope Alexander, writing in 2005 from "The Seventh Terrace of Purgatory". In a postscript
to the introduction, "Alexander" requests additional prayers for the sake of himself and several other
popes stuck in Purgatory.
Prominently depicted in the non-fiction account: The Borgias: The Hidden History (2013) by G. J. Meyer
Alexander VI as well as his descendants were prominently featured in Hella Haasse's The Scarlet City.
The poisoning theory of Alexander VI's death was mentioned in Chapter VII of the Dornford
Yates thriller Safe Custody, as part of a highly sensationalized accout of his career. It was repeated in
Chapter XIV.
Plays[edit]

Barnabe Barnes' 1606 play The Devil's Charter, performed at the Globe by the King's Men, dramatizes
the life of Pope Alexander VI and his daughter Lucretia Borgia. In Barnes' play Alexander sells his soul
to the devil in exchange for the papacy. Lucretia binds, gags, and stabs her husband onstage and later
dies poisoned by her own cosmetics.
Cesare and Lucrezia Borgia, a play by Robert Lalonde[76]
Caesar Borgia, son of Pope Alexander the Sixth: a tragedy acted at the Duke's theatre by Their Royal
Highnesses servants a 1679 play by Nathaniel Lee and John Dryden, dramatizes the life of Pope
Alexander VI and his son Cesare Borgia.
Showtime's The Borgias's ending after its cancellation was quickly published by Neil Jordan in an e-
book screenplay format [77] for fans of the show. The Borgia Apocalypse: The Screenplay met with
harsh criticism and disapproval by the show's fans due to its out-of-character portrayals and general
incoherence.
Film[edit]

In the 1922 German silent film, Lucrezia Borgia, Alexander VI is played by Albert Basserman.
Alexander is played by Llus Homar in the 2006 Spanish film, Los Borgia.
A young Roderic de Borgia during the 1458 Conclave is played by Manu Fullola in the 2006 Canadian
movie The Conclave.
In the 1935 French movie, Lucrezia Borgia, Alexander is portrayed by Roger Karl.
The last of Walerian Borowczyk's Contes Immoraux (Immoral Tales) shows Jacopo Berenizi as
Alexander VI, enjoying incest with Lucrezia and Cesare while Savonarola is arrested and burned.
 In the series of short films Assassin's Creed: Lineage, Rodrigo Borgia starts a conspiracy to destroy the
Medici dynasty. In the first short film, he hires some assassins to kill the Duke of Milano, Galeazo Maria
Sforza. He is played by Manuel Tadros.
Television[edit]

The papacy of Alexander VI was dramatized in the 1981 BBC series The Borgias, starring the veteran
Italian actor Adolfo Celi as Pope Alexander.
The Canadian sketch comedy History Bites parodied Pope Alexander VI by portraying him and his
family as The Osborgias (done as a parody of The Osbournes).
In the popular TV show, Alias, the character Milo Rambaldi was said to be Alexander VI's "chief
architect."
French premium-pay TV Canal+, Atlantique Productions and EOS Entertainment broadcast the
series Borgia in 2011, recounting the infamous family's rise to power and subsequent domination of the
Vatican. John Doman stars as Rodrigo Borgia. A second season followed in 2013 and season 3 was
produced in 2014.
Showtime's The Borgias (2011 - 2013) was produced by Neil Jordan and starred Jeremy Irons as Pope
Alexander VI. The show had three seasons but was cancelled by Showtime after the third season "due
to costs", as it cost $3 million per episode.
In the 2012 season of the BBC children's series Horrible Histories, Alexander VI was dramatized by
actor Jim Howick. The show parodied Pope Alexander as a mafia crime boss, and later as the father of
an Addams Family-style dynasty of the Borgias. (The Addams Family theme song was also parodied,
being renamed The Borgia Family.)
Video games[edit]

In Assassin's Creed II (2009), Rodrigo Borgia is the main antagonist of the game, secretly the Grand
Master of the Knights Templar. He is also depicted as an atheist. The protagonist (Ezio Auditore da
Firenze) tried to kill Alexander VI before ascending the papacy, but let him go, knowing that killing him
would not bring his father and brothers back. Ezio even went on so far as to learn of Rodrigo's atheism.
His character in the game is voiced by and modeled on Canadian actor Manuel Tadros.
In Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood (2010), Rodrigo Borgia has a smaller role than his son, Cesare
Borgia, the game's main antagonist. He is killed by Cesare, who after becoming aware of his father's
plot to assassinate him (due to Cesare's campaigning in Romagna resulting in declining Borgia
influence in Rome) forces his own poisoned apple in his mouth.

See also[edit]

Biography portal

Catholicism portal

Pope portal

Banquet of Chestnuts
Cardinals created by Alexander VI
List of popes from the Borgia family
Route of the Borgias
Birthplace of Pope Alexander VI
List of sexually active popes

Further reading[edit]
 Loughlin, James Francis (1913). "Pope Alexander VI". In Herbermann, Charles. Catholic
Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
John Burchard, Diaries 14831492 (translation: A.H. Matthew, London, 1910)
Burkle-Young, Francis A., "The election of Pope Alexander VI (1492)", in Miranda, Salvador. Cardinals
of the Holy Roman Church
Eamon Duffy, Saints & Sinners: A History of the Popes (Yale Nota Bene, 2002)
Encyclopdia Britannica, 11th edition.
Pastor, Ludwig von (1902). The History of the Popes, from the close of the Middle Ages, third
edition, Volume V Saint Louis: B. Herder 1902.
Pastor, Ludwig von. The History of the Popes, from the close of the Middle Ages, second
edition, Volume VI Saint Louis: B. Herder 1902.
DIARIO BORJA BORGIA (Spanish)
The Historical Encyclopedia of World slavery, Editor Junius P. Rodriguez, ABC-CLIO, 1997, ISBN 978-
0-87436-885-7

References[edit]
Notes[edit]
This article contains too many or too-lengthy quotations for an
encyclopedic entry. Please help improve the article by editing it to
take facts from excessively quoted material and rewrite them
as sourced original prose. Consider transferring direct quotations
to Wikiquote. (September 2017)

1. Jump up^ Pope Alexander VI only recognized four children as his: Cesare, Giovanni,
Lucrezia, and Gioffre. Some, including Christopher Hibbert, recognize up to six more:
Girolama (or Jeronima), Isabella, Pier Luigi (or Pedro Luis), Bernardo, Ottaviano, and Laura.[2]
2. Jump up^ "Alexander was a jovial, far-sighted, moderate man, well-balanced in mind and
body. Having lived nearly half a century in Rome, and having been for almost the whole of his
life part of the ecclesiastical organization, he had a profound respect for all the interests of the
Catholic Church, a respect greater than for his own life. He was prepared to compromise
upon all purely human questions, but inflexible upon whatever concerned the rights of
religion. He was the type of 'political priest', cautious and slow to act in the fact [sic] of the
unforeseen, but brave to the point of heroism in defence of the great Institution whose
direction had been entrusted to him."[11]
3. Jump up^ "He was also a natural orator, a pleasant conversationalist, an expert in Canon
Law and Theology, and 'so familiar with Holy Writ that his speeches sparkled with well
chosen texts from Sacred Scripture'. He never ceased to be a student: if not occupied by
Divine service or Church affairs he would be reading books. He also wrote for the instruction
of others. It is admitted even by his enemies that he was a protector and promoter of
literature and the sciences."[13]
4. Jump up^ Doubtful, but possible. On a similar claim: "Without any solid evidence Giulia is
said to have been the model for Pinturicchio's 'Virgin and Child' surrounded by angels in the
Borgia Apartments of the Vatican."[16]
5. Jump up^ "Next morning the absence of the Duke was noticed by his servants, and the
Pontiff was informed. He was not too worried for, as Burchard says, Alexander jumped to the
conclusion that his son had spent the night with some girl and preferred to avoid the
indiscretion of leaving by day. It may be mentioned in passing that this touch, as with many
others one comes across, hardly squares with the general view that the Pope, his family and
those around him were without shame. Juan was a dissolute young man and not a
churchman, yet Alexander presumed on a discretion more in keeping with later times." [24]
6. Jump up^ "The fact that father and son [Alexander and Cesare] had collapsed on the same
day inevitably aroused suspicions of foul play. It was pointed out that on the third [of August
1503] the two of them had dined with the recently appointed Cardinal Adriano Castellesi in his
nearby villa; the rumor rapidly spread around Rome that they had intended to poison their
 host but had inadvertently drunk the poisoned wine themselves. For some reason this mildly
ridiculous story has survived and found its way into a number of serious histories; it ignores
the fact that..they had no ascertainable motive to kill Castellesi."[25]
7. Jump up^ "We need now to digress a little to explain why the Pope should bestow his
favours so generously on his own relatives. Let us take a look first at the political situation in
Spain and in Italy. For centuries, Spain had been almost completely overridden by the Moors.
The Spaniards had been trying to take back their country from the Moors for almost 800
years. By the middle of the 15th century, this reconquest was almost complete, but Spain was
still a hodgepodge of competing principalities and, because of its constant state of warfare,
still a very backward country. In Italy, on the other hand, the Renaissance, which had hardly
begun in Spain, had reached its high point and the Italians in general did not look kindly on a
citizen of this backward country being elevated to the highest post in the Church. Remember,
too, that the Pope at the time, besides his spiritual powers, was a sovereign political power
with large areas of the peninsula, nominally, at least, under his control. (see map) Italy was,
politically, in a worse state than Spain. In the south, Naples was a fief of the Pope, but its
ruler, King Ferrante, refused to acknowledge the Pope's authority. In the north of the
peninsula, many small principalities vied for dominance and were often at war with one
another, changing alliances as rapidly as opportunity invited. In the Papal States themselves,
noble families, such as the Orsini and the Colonna, acted as petty tyrants in the cities and
areas which they controlled, grinding down the people and constantly seeking to achieve their
independence from their sovereign, the Pope. These Roman families even sought to control
the Papacy itself. It was probably only because they could not agree on an Italian successor
to Nicholas V that the elderly Callistus had been elected; one who, in all probability, would not
live long. (Remember that, in our own times, John XXIII was supposed to have been elected
for the same reason). Callistus III was acknowledged by all as religious and austere, though
severely criticized for his largesse to his family. But he was surrounded by enemies both
within the Church and among the rulers of Europe. When elected, he did what all leaders do,
he surrounded himself with people whom he believed he could trust. A Spaniard in Italy, he
was hard pressed to find such trustworthiness except from members of his own family; hence
his patronage of them, though it is not to be denied that it was probably also for personal
reasons."[30]
8. Jump up^ "As for her reputation, there is absolutely no evidence for the rumors of incest with
one or more of her brothers or indeed with her father apart from that given by her first
husband, Giovanni Sforza, during the divorce proceedings, during which several other
baseless accusations were leveled in both directions."[31]
9. Jump up^ "The holy year 1500 definitively ushered in the custom of opening a holy door on
Christmas Eve and closing it the following year on Christmas Day. Alexander opened the first
holy door in St. Peter's Basilica on Christmas Eve, 1499, and papal legates opened the doors
in the other three patriarchal basilicas. For this occasion, Pope Alexander had a new opening
created in the portico of St. Peter's and commissioned a door, made of marble, 3.5 meters
high and 2.2 wide. It lasted until 1618 when another door was installed in the new basilica.
The door, in turn, was replaced in 1950 by the bronze door, which is still in use. In a
ceremony strikingly similar in many ways to today's ritual opening of a holy door, Alexander
was carried in the gestatorial chair to the portico of St. Peter's. He and the members of his
retinue, bearing long candles, processed to the holy door, as the choir intoned Psalm 118:19-
20: "Open for me the gate of Yahweh, where the upright go in." The Pope knocked thrice on
the door, it gave way (assisted from within by workers), and everyone then crossed the
threshold to enter into a period of penance and reconciliation. Thus, Pope Alexander, a lover
of pomp and ceremony, formalized the rite of opening a holy door and began a tradition that
continues, with few variations, to this day. Similar rites were held at the other patriarchal
basilicas. Alexander was also the first to institute a special rite for the closing of a holy door.
On the feast of the Epiphany, January 6, 1501, two cardinals one with a silver brick and the
other with a gold one symbolically began to seal the holy door. Basilica workers known as
sanpietrini completed the task, which included placing small coins and medals, minted during
the holy year, inside the wall."[32]
10. Jump up^ "[A]ll the clergy of the city were invited to the opening of the [1500] Jubilee. The
Pope himself performed this ceremony on Christmas Eve, 1499, having taken pains to settle
all the details beforehand with his Master of Ceremonies. The ceremonial observed on these
 occasions was no modern invention, but, as the Bull of Indiction expressly says, was founded
on ancient rites and full of symbolic meaning. According to Burchard, the crowd which
assisted at these solemnities numbered 200,000 persons. Although this may be an
exaggeration, still it is certain that, in spite of the troubles of the times and the insecurity in
Rome itself, the numbers attending this Jubilee were very large."[33]
11. Jump up^ "The permanent group of skilled workers and artisans, in every trade, who with
their assistants take care of St. Peter's Basilica."[34]
12. Jump up^ "[T]here is every reason to believe," writes the Dublin Review, that Pope
Alexander VI died "in sentiments of piety and devotion."[46]
13. Jump up^ The historical value of Bishop Celadoni's funeral oration is said to be immense:
"On 16 Sept 1503 Burchardus records in his diary that Alexius Celadenus or Celadonius,
bishop of Gallipoli, delivered a discourse to the cardinals about to enter into conclave for the
election of a successor to Pope Alexander VI. Et fuit tediosa et longa oratio. Burchardus's
most recent editor, Thuasne, states that this oration exists in manuscript in the Bibliothque
Nationale... He omits to observe that, granting that the discourse may have been too long for
the cardinals, the longer the better for us, inasmuch as it contains an account of Pope
Alexander of almost unique value, not merely as the judgment of a contemporary, but as
delivered in public before an audience of contemporaries whose station in the church had
brought them into almost daily intercourse with the deceased pope, and before whom any
serious misrepresentation would have been impossible. It is incomprehensible how he should
have failed to reprint an historical testimony of such importance, having it under his own
eyes."[47][48]
14. Jump up^ Latin text: "Dum graviter aegrotaret, factorum conscientia punctus contrito
dolentique animo ad lachrymas ut audio fusus, sacrosanctum communionis corpus sua
sponte, dilutis prius diligentissima confessione peccatis, petierit, et alia sacramenta..." [50]
15. Jump up^ "Throughout the Middle Ages a 'tradition' or 'custom' involving pillaging was
attached to the death and election of high-ranking prelates."[51] And as early as 633,
"the Fourth Council of Toledo condemned the violence of the interregnum."[52] Nor were the
Romans alone guilty of such misbehavior. In the eleventh century, Peter Damian, writing to
the clergy and people of Osimo, sharply reproved the "perverse and wholly detestable
practice of certain people, who at the death of the bishop break in like enemies and rob his
house, like thieves make off with his belongings, set fire to the homes on his estate, and with
fierce and savage barbarity cut down his grape vines and orchards."[53]
16. Jump up^ "In consequence of the simultaneous illness of both the Pope and his son, and the
rapid decomposition of the body, which, considering the heat of the weather, was perfectly
natural, the cry of poison was raised at once; but on the 19th of August the Mantuan Envoy
writes that there was no sort of ground for supposing this."[55]
17. Jump up^ "As part of his proposed new reforms, Alexander now nominated a commission of
six of the most pious cardinals, and less than two months later a draft Bull of Reformation had
been prepared. The pope was banned from selling benefices and from transferring Church
property to laypersons. As for the cardinals, who were to be drawn from all the nations, none
should possess more than one bishopric; their households were limited to eighty people and
thirty horses; they were banned from hunting, theaters, carnivals, and tournaments; and their
funeral expenses were not to exceed 1,500 ducats. The lesser clergy were similarly reined in:
they must refuse all bribes and put away their concubines."[59]
18. Jump up^ "Under Alexander VI, the taste for theatrical representations made great progress.
Plays, for the most part of an extremely objectionable character, were a prominent feature in
all court festivities, and also in the Carnival amusements, in which Alexander took a great
interest. In 1502 the Pope had the Menaechmi performed in his own apartments."[60]
Citations[edit]

1. ^ Jump up to:a b "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Pope Alexander VI".

2. Jump up^ Hibbert (2008)[page needed] For Girolama: Ferdinand Gregorovius (1900). History of the
City of Rome in the Middle Ages. Volume 7, Part 1. London: George Bell. p. 353.
3. Jump up^ Mallett (1981), p. 9
4. Jump up^ Catherine B. Avery, 1972, The New Century Italian Renaissance Encyclopedia,
Appleton-Century-Crofts, ISBN 0-13-612051-2 ISBN 9780136120513 p. 189. [1]
5. Jump up^ Noel (2006)[page needed]
6. Jump up^ Meyer (2013)[page needed]
7. Jump up^ Monsignor Peter de Roo (1924), Material for a History of Pope Alexander VI, His
Relatives and His Time, (5 vols.), Bruges, Descle, De Brouwer, volume 2, p.
29. [2][3] volumes 15
8. ^ Jump up to:a b c "The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church - Papal elections - XV Century".
9. Jump up^ Tuchman (1984)[page needed]
10. Jump up^ From Gaspare da Verona
11. Jump up^ Orestes Ferrara, quoted by N. M. Gwynne in "The Truth about Rodrigo Borgia,
Pope Alexander VI", p. 17-18.
12. Jump up^ Msgr. Peter de Roo, in Vol. 2 of "Material for a History of Pope Alexander VI, His
Relatives, and His Time, p. 273-274.
13. Jump up^ Msgr. Peter de Roo, as quoted by N. M. Gwynne in "The Truth about Rodrigo
Borgia, Pope Alexander VI", p. 22.
14. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Villari (1911)[page needed]
15. Jump up^ Williams (2004), p. 70
16. Jump up^ de la Bdoyre (1958), p. 94
17. Jump up^ de Rossa (1989), p. 144
18. Jump up^ Mallett (1981), pp. 123126
19. ^ Jump up to:a b c Johann Burchard, Diaries 14831492 (translation: A.H. Matthew, London,
1910)
20. Jump up^ Reston (2006), p. 287
21. Jump up^ Studies in Church History, 1906, Reuben Parsons, New York and Cincinnati, F.
Pustet & Co., Volume 3, p. 210, n. 1. [4]
22. Jump up^ de la Bdoyre (1958), p. 90
23. Jump up^ Mallett (1981), pp. 162166
24. Jump up^ de la Bdoyre (1958), p. 20
25. ^ Jump up to:a b Norwich (2011), p. 273
26. Jump up^ Mallett (1981), p. 236
27. Jump up^ de la Bdoyre (1958), pp. 154155
28. Jump up^ de la Bdoyre (1958), p. 24
29. Jump up^ de la Bdoyre (1958), passim[page needed]
30. Jump up^ J.B. Darcy, What you don't know about the Borgia Pope: Alexander VI (1492-
1503).
31. Jump up^ Norwich (2011), p. 272
32. ^ Jump up to:a b c Allen Duston, O.P., and Roberto Zanoli, 2003, Saint Peter and the Vatican:
The Legacy of the Popes, Art Services Intl., ISBN 9780883971406, p. 158-159.
33. Jump up^ "How awful was Catholic life under those immoral Renaissance Popes!". Rorate
Caeli. Retrieved 25 March 2014.
34. Jump up^ "Dictionary: SAMPIETRINI". Catholic Culture. Retrieved 25 March 2014.
35. Jump up^ "Encomienda or Slavery? The Spanish Crown's Choice of Labor Organization in
Sixteenth-Century Spanish America." (PDF). Latin American Studies.
36. Jump up^ Stogre (1992), pp. 6970
37. Jump up^ Raiswell, p. 469
38. ^ Jump up to:a b Minnich (2010), p. 281
39. Jump up^ Rivera (1992), pp. 2528
40. Jump up^ cited by Rivera (1992), p. 28
41. Jump up^ Patrick Madrid, "Pope Fiction"
42. ^ Jump up to:a b Thornberry (2002), p. 65
43. Jump up^ Rivera (1992), p. 37
44. Jump up^ The Borgias, 1981, Georgina Masson, Marion Johnson, Penguin, ISBN 0-14-
139075-1 ISBN 9780141390758, p. 179. [5]
45. Jump up^ Johann Burchard, 1921, Pope Alexander VI and His Court: Extracts from the Latin
Diary of Johannes Burchardus, F. L. Glaser, tr., N.L. Brown, New York, p. 179. [6]
 46. Jump up^ Nicholas Patrick Wiseman, ed., 1858, The Dublin Review, London, Thomas
Richardson & Son, vol. 45, p. 351. [7]
47. Jump up^ "A Contemporary Oration on Pope Alexander VI," The English Historical Review,
1892, vol. 7, p. 318.
48. Jump up^ See also, The Oration of Alexis Celadoni, in The Ideal Renaissance Pope:
Funeral Oratory from the Papal Court, John M. MacManamon, S.J., Archivum Historiae
Pontificiae, 1976, Vol. 14. pp. 54ff.
49. Jump up^ Peter de Roo, 1924, Material for a History of Pope Alexander VI, vol. 5, p. 89,
note. 112. [8] [9] (Word frequency and page number of specific words and phrases for all 5
vols. at HathiTrust) [10]
50. Jump up^ Alexis Celadoni (Alexius Celadonius, Celadeni, 14511517), Bishop of Gallipoli,
Italy (14941508), Alexii Celadeni Episcopi Gallipolitani Oratio ad sacrum cardinalium
senatum ingressurum ad novum pontificem eligendum, Publisher: Rome: Johann Besicken,
1503. [11]
51. Jump up^ Jolle Rollo-Koster, 2008, Raiding Saint Peter: Empty Sees, Violence, and the
Initiation of the Great Western Schism (1378), Leiden; Boston: Brill, ISBN 90-04-16560-
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52. Jump up^ Bertelli (2001), p. 41
53. Jump up^ Letter 35, Easter Synod, 1050. Letters 3160, Owen J. Blum (Translator), 1990,
Catholic University of America Press, ISBN 0-8132-0707-X ISBN 9780813207070, p. 61. [13]
54. ^ Jump up to:a b Cawthorne (1996), p. 218
55. Jump up^ Ludwig von Pastor, History of the Popes, Vol. 6, p. 135
56. Jump up^ "Pope Alexander VI (14311503) Find A Grave Memorial". Findagrave.com.
Retrieved 2013-06-23.
57. Jump up^ Paintings of a Pope. Publisher: The Catholic Dormitory.
58. ^ Jump up to:a b Cawthorne (1996), p. 219
59. Jump up^ Norwich (2011), pp. 268269
60. Jump up^ Ludwig von Pastor, History of the Popes, Vol. 5, p.124
61. Jump up^ http://www.abdn.ac.uk/maps/generic-details-2503.php
62. Jump up^ Matthew Olson. "Taking a Look at Pope Alexander VI".
63. Jump up^ "History".
64. Jump up^ La Nau Building - Foundation of the Estudi General
65. Jump up^ Black Legend#Origin
66. Jump up^ Carroll (2002), pp. 363364
67. Jump up^ Knights of Columbus Catholic Truth Committee, The Catholic encyclopedia: an
international work of reference on the constitution, doctrine, discipline, and history of the
Catholic Church, Volume 1, Encyclopedia Press, 1907, p. 294
68. Jump up^ Bohuslav Hasitejnsk z Lobkovic: Carmina selecta, Praha 1996, p.14
69. Jump up^ Mallett (1981), p. 265
70. Jump up^ Mallett (1981), passim[page needed]
71. Jump up^ Lee, Alexander. "Were he Borgias Really So Bad?",History Today, 1 October
2013
72. ^ Jump up to:a b Chapter XI of The Prince
73. Jump up^ Maclaine, David. "City of God by Cecelia Holland". Historicalnovels.info.
Retrieved 5 September 2014.
74. Jump up^ Mirror, Mirror, Gregory Maguire (2003)
75. Jump up^ Alexandre Dumas, The Count of Monte Cristo, New York, Penguin Putnam Inc.,
1996, pp. 155160.
76. Jump up^ Cesare and Lucrezia Borgia www.archive.org
77. Jump up^ "The Borgia Apocalypse: The Screenplay on Amazon"
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Mallett, M. (1981) [1969]. The Borgias (Granada ed.).
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Reston, James (2006). Dogs of God: Columbus, the Inquisition, and the Defeat of the Moors. New
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Rivera, Luis N. (1992). A Violent Evangelism: the Political and Religious Conquest of the
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de Rossa, Peter (1989). Vicars of Christ: the Dark Side of the Papacy. Corgi.
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Thornberry, Patrick (2002). Indigenous peoples and human rights. Manchester University
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Tuchman, Barbara (1984). The March of Folly. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-394-52777-2.
Villari, Luigi (1911). "Alexander (popes)". In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopdia Britannica (11th
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External links[edit]