NIST Paul Macharia

CONSTRUCTION PLANT AND EQUIPMENT

INTRODUCTION
General Considerations
Items of plant ranging from small hand held power tools to larger pieces of plant such
as mechanical excavators and tower cranes can be considered for use for one or more
of the following reasons: -
Increased production.
Reduction in overall construction costs.
Carry out activities which cannot be carried out by the traditional manual
methods in the context of economics.
Eliminate heavy manual work thus reducing fatigue and as a consequence
increasing productivity.
Replacing labour where there is a shortage of personnel with the necessary
skills.
Maintain the high standards required particularly in the context of structural
engineering works.
Economic Considerations
The introduction of plant does not always result in economic savings since extra
temporary site works such as roadworks, hard standings and foundations may have to
be provided at a cost which is in excess of the savings made by using the plant. The
site layout and circulation may have to be planned around plant positions and
movements rather than around personnel and material movements and
accommodation. To be economic plant must be fully utilized and not left standing idle
since plant, whether hired or owned, will have to be paid for even if it is non-
productive. Full utilisation of plant is usually considered to be in the region of 85% of
on site time, thus making an allowance for routine, daily and planned maintenance
which needs to be carried out to avoid as far as practicable plant breakdowns which
could disrupt the construction programme. Many pieces of plant work in conjunction
with other items of plant such as excavators and their attendant haulage vehicles
therefore a correct balance of such plant items must be obtained to achieve an
economic result.
Maintenance Considerations
On large contracts where a number of plant items are to be used it may be
advantageous to employ a Skilled mechanic to be on site to carry out all the necessary
daily, preventive and planned maintenance tasks together with any running repairs
which could be carried out on site.

EARLY CIVIL ENGINEERING PLANT AND EQUIPMENT

In ancient times, various earthwork tools, similar to the ones found nowadays were
used to loosen and dig earth and stone. Spades and picks were used for digging
trenches. These tools were made of iron, which is not as strong as the steel that is used
for the manufacture of tools today.
For shaping and breaking rock, chisels and hammers were used.

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Again, the drawback was that they were made of iron.
For removing sand and rock, wooden wheelbarrows were used.
For lifting, the most common tool was the crowbar (a lever).
It was cheap and strong, but difficult to use when required to lift a load more than a
short distance. The load would have to be lifted, and then packed with a wedge so that
it could not move. The crowbar was then removed and a spacer was placed below it.
Then the load was again lifted a short distance. The whole procedure would have to be
repeated many times.
A lifting trestle was developed to advance the use of the lever. This simple machine
allowed the crowbar height to be adjusted without having to keep packing it and the
load.
An improvement that was used to lift loads was the screwjack. Made of wood, the
thread and nut was used to easily lift loads. The drawback of this tool was the material
that it was made from. Some jacks were made with worm gears, which allowed easy
movement in one direction (lifting) but difficulty in moving the opposite direction,
thereby preventing the load from slipping back

.
Wooden wheelbarrows were used for moving sand and stone.

The screw principle was used to clamp and press, as well as lift.
Grapes could be pressed to make wine and olives pressed to make oil.
Wooden differential pulley blocks were also invented around this time.
The top block contained two sheaves of different diameters, mounted together so to
form one piece. The bottom block contained one sheave only. A rope passed first round
the larger top sheave, then round the bottom sheave and then round the smaller top

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sheave. When raising or lowering the load, the loose chain passing from the larger top
sheave was pulled.

The wooden wheel and hub of earlier wagons and trailers caused high friction making
them difficult to move.

To transport loads, rollers and wagons were used extensively. Timber rollers have been
used since ancient times. Some had slots cut in their ends. A lever could then be
inserted and a considerable propelling force could be exerted.
Simple wagons and trailers were also used. They had a huge drawback due to the high
friction created between the wheel and hub. This was caused by wood rubbing on
wood, which can produce a high resistance to movement.
Tall scaffolds with winches were used to lift columns into position.
The scaffolds were made of timber. To dig the hole for the column to fit into, pile
drivers were used. A pointed weight, attached to a rope so that it could be raised, was
dropped from these tall scaffolds. The constant dropping of the weight eventually
created a deep hole.
Solid steel rollers were used to compact earth for road building. Some had a mass in
excess of 600kg.
Surveying instruments were also used extensively and worked similarly to those used
today.

PRODUCTIVITY AND MECHANISATION

Productivity is the difference between the quantity of goods produced (output) and the
quantity of resources required to produce them (input). Productivity is increased when
the output is increased without a significant increase in input.

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High productivity keeps costs down. This, in turn, makes manufacturing cheaper.
Cheaper manufacturing increases the market, enabling a larger number of people to
afford a product.
This principle also applies to the construction industry. The cheaper that a contractor,
such as a plumber, can carry out work, the more competitive he or she can become.
Keeping the above in mind, any type of work must be carried out as quickly and
cheaply as possible, without sacrificing quality.
The advent of tool mechanisation and the easy availability of specialised equipment has
had an enormous effect on productivity.
Work is now less labour intensive. This has led to many social problems, because
machines now carry out tasks that previously employed numerous people to carry out.
Other than productivity benefits, people also have to be trained to use specialised
equipment.
The purpose of any tool is to assist a worker to perform a task. Over the last few
decades, great technical progress has been made, especially with regard to tools and
equipment. The advent of the computer and specialized programs resulted in enormous
increases in productivity. In the construction industry, design and architectural
computer programs are used every day, making drawing and design quick and
accurate. The days of the drawing board are definitely over. Nowadays, even dayto-
day scheduling and production planning are done on computers.
Furthermore, laser equipment is now used in surveying and levelling on construction
sites. This equipment is also used to align objects easily and is taking over from the
more conventional measuring equipment. A small laser tape measure can easily
measure up to a 40m distance in ideal conditions. The amount of surrounding light
affects the distance it can measure. The distance laser can be used in place of a tape
measure. It is highly accurate and simple to use.
Some of the better models have a memory in which the first measurement is stored.
When the second measurement is taken, it can be subtracted from, added to or
multiplied with the first. This makes it the construction industry. Stronger, more
powerful and more versatile heavy-duty machines are easily available, either to buy or
to hire.
Bulldozers, cranes, mobile cranes and earth-moving equipment are seen every day on
building sites. Ready-mixed concrete is delivered even to smaller sites, making for
higher productivity.
Nowadays, for example, the breaking of a concrete floor is not done by means of a
hammer and chisel, but rather by means of jack hammers that are pneumatically
powered. For laying concrete, small batches of concrete are mixed in a compact
concrete mixer. When placed, there are vibrators available to compact and remove any
air from the concrete.
These days, controlled explosions are used to demolish large structures. A few years
ago, demolition would have been carried out by other time-consuming methods.
Of course, new materials are also being used. This, in turn, requires different types of
tools and equipment.

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A few years ago, all plumbing was done by means of galvanized pipe, which was hard
to work with. Threading machines were needed, so that two pipes could be joined
together. Nowadays, the plumber uses either copper or plastic pipes, and even
aluminium is being used more and more.
The use of these materials has meant that work can be carried out much faster and is
less labour intensive.
With modern machinery and the variety of tools available these days, it is very
important for us to select the correct tools for the job that needs to be done.

THE INFLUENCE OF CHOOSING APPROPRIATE EQUIPMENT ON

PRODUCTIVITY AND QUALITY OF WORK
There are four basic types of tools and equipment used in the construction industry,
namely:
hand tools
portable electric tools
light machines and equipment, and
heavy machines and equipment.
Hand tools are operated and powered by humans. Examples are screwdrivers, planes,
saws and hammers.
Portable tools are normally electrically powered (sometimes pneumatically or
hydraulically) and examples are electric drills, grinders and routers.
Light equipment can be fairly easily moved about, for example step ladders, scaffolds
and wheelbarrows.
Heavy equipment consists of items such as trucks, cranes, forklifts and bulldozers.
There is a saying that applies to the use of tools and equipment:
Always use the correct tool for the job or Use a tool for what it is meant.
For example, a screwdriver should only be used to insert and remove screws. A
screwdriver is neither a crowbar nor a chisel, and should not be used as such.
Furthermore, the correct size screwdriver should be used to turn a screw. If the slot of
the screw is too large for the screwdriver, then damage may occur to the screwdriver
and the head of the screw.
It may then be necessary to use other methods of removing the damaged screw. This
may lead to loss of productivity and the screwdriver may have to be repaired or
replaced.
Before carrying out any job, consider the tools and equipment that are needed for the
work. Select all the tools beforehand and make sure that they are in good working
order. Damaged tools and equipment will lead to loss of quality and productivity, and
may also lead to injury.
Careful planning and an understanding of the work to be carried out are prerequisites
to the successful and economical completion of any work.
For example, if you are required to remove half a ton of rubble, it is not good practice
to hire a 10-ton truck to do this. It is a waste of resources.

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The equipment must also be available at the correct time. This involves careful
planning. A bulldozer should not be made available long before or after a site is ready
to be cleared.
Large pieces of equipment and machinery must be able to access the site that they are
meant to service. For example, if access to a site is just a narrow lane, a large bulldozer
may not be able to reach the site.
All these considerations must be taken into account to maintain desired productivity.
Each individual is also responsible for maintaining quality in an organisation. Work
should be carried out with pride. This will automatically lead to quality. Poor-quality
work means that the job has to be redone, which leads to a loss of money and time. A
company that produces shoddy work will get a bad reputation. This, in turn, will mean
less work.
Remember that cutting corners and excessive cost cutting leads to poor quality, which
will always surface at some stage.

THE IMPORTANCE AND ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF MAINTAINING

AND CARING FOR EQUIPMENT
The care of facilities and the avoidance of failure of machinery is of utmost importance
for any organisation. Maintenance should be a planned set of activities that is carried
out systematically in order to avoid costly and time-consuming breakdown and failure.
There are many benefits to careful maintenance, including saving money and ensuring
safety.
Lower operating costs
Equipment and machinery that constantly breaks down and needs repair can be costly,
especially if the cause is due to poor or no maintenance.
Increased reliability
Well-maintained equipment and machinery will perform constantly and reliably without
disruption to productivity.
Increased safety
Machines that are not well maintained can prove dangerous to staff.
This can lead to injury or even death.
Higher resale value
A well-maintained piece of equipment or machine can fetch a higher resale price on the
second-hand market than one that has been badly looked after.
Better quality
The output of well-maintained equipment and machinery is of much higher quality than
poorly maintained ones. For example, a badly maintained forklift may actually damage
the goods that it is transporting.
Increased life span
Well-maintained equipment and machinery can last longer than badly maintained
pieces.
There are three main types of maintenance processes:
1. run-to-breakdown maintenance

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2. condition-based maintenance, and
3. preventative maintenance.
Sometimes more than one type is used simultaneously.
The best method of explaining the three maintenance processes is by using a truck as
an example.

A truck can be used to explain the three maintenance processes.

Run-to-breakdown maintenance
The light bulbs that are used for the headlights, indicators and so on are only replaced
when they stop working. This is known as the runto- breakdown type of maintenance.
Condition-based maintenance
The tyres of the truck are constantly monitored for their condition.
Once they start showing excessive wear, within legal limits, they are changed. This is
called condition-based maintenance.
Preventative maintenance
The engine and gearbox of the truck need a different type of maintenance, as a
breakdown can be very costly. It is best to prevent failure in the first place. Therefore,
regular servicing after a predetermined number of kilometres or operating hours is
made.
This is called preventative maintenance.

SAFETY REGULATIONS AND DOCUMENTS USED IN

CONSTRUCTION
Hazards in the workplace do not only affect employees and employers but also
visitors. Accidents are caused, they do not just happen. It is the responsibility of every
employee and employer to reduce as much as possible the chances of accidents
happening. An accident does not only have an impact on the person that is injured and
his or her direct family but, if the accident is serious, it also has an impact on the
economy of the country.

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Every year, workplace accidents cost Kenya millions of Shillings.
This money could be better spent on other, more useful, things.
Legislation has been created to try to minimise risks and accidents.
Legislation provides a standardised set of rules that can be followed by all employers
and employees. This legislation takes the form of The Occupational Safety and Health
Act (OSHA) 2007

LEGISLATION AND REGULATIONS GOVERNING HEALTH AND

SAFETY IN THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
The Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) 2007, is a law that applies to all
employers and employees in the Republic of Kenya. However, there are exclusions,
with the mines and shipping industries having their own legislation.
The Act promotes excellence in the management of health and safety and clearly
defines the duties of employers, principals of a contract, the self-employed and
employees. Another significant development is that it clearly sets out a procedure that
must be followed in all places of work to identify, assess and control hazards.
The purpose of the Occupational Health and Safety Act is as follows:
to protect and ensure the rights of employees
to make provision for the health and safety of all people at work
to make provision for the health and safety of people using plant, equipment and
machinery
to ensure that actions at work do not result in harm to other people, including
members of the public, and
to allow for the creation of an advisory council for the purpose of occupational health
and safety.
The Occupational Health and Safety Act describes particular responsibilities that must
be followed by both the employer and employee. Failure to abide by these
responsibilities can lead to prosecution.
There are certain duties that employers must carry out to ensure the safety of
employees:
Within reason, provide and maintain a working environment that is safe and without
risk to the health of employees, visitors and others. This duty also applies to
contractors.
Identify risks and hazards and take appropriate steps to eliminate them.
Provide employees with health and safety equipment.
Prohibit an employer from asking an employee to carry out a task that is dangerous.
Provide a safety policy and bring it to the attention of employees.
Provide information, instructions, training and supervision.

Duties of every employee

Every employee must look after his or her own health and safety, as well as the health
and safety of other people in the workplace, and not place people at risk.

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All employees need to be completely familiar with the safety procedures within their
organisation and for their particular area of work. Generally, employees need to take
the necessary preventative measures to avoid accidents from occurring in the
workplace.
Every employee must do the following:
Take care of his or her health and safety, and the health and safety of other persons
who may be affected by his or her acts.
Carry out any lawful order given to him or her in the interest of health and safety.
Obey the health and safety rules and procedures as given to him or her.
Immediately report to his or her employer or health and safety representative any
unsafe or unhealthy situation of which he or she is aware.
Report an incident that has occurred and may affect his or her health to the
supervisor, the companys health and safety officer or the health and safety
representative, as soon as possible, but no later than the end of the shift in which the
incident occurred.
Not damage or misuse any equipment that is provided in the use of health or safety.
Keep himself or herself, the workplace and change rooms clean.

DANGEROUS SITUATIONS AND NON-COMPLIANT EQUIPMENT

IN A WORKPLACE
Dangerous situations
Dangerous situations are often referred to as hazardous conditions. They are situations
that could affect the health and safety of people. Any hazardous situation, once
identified, must be corrected as soon as possible. This is the responsibility of
management and all workers.
The identification and control of potentially unsafe conditions is not a simple matter. It
has become more difficult as the depth of technology has increased. Employees are
therefore always responsible for taking note of and reporting any incident or anything
they see that may pose a danger to themselves, colleagues and any visitors who may
be around.
An employee should be observant at all times, and take note of items or situations that
may be hazardous to guests, staff and visitors. For example:
uneven floors
no safety guards on machinery
poor lighting
inadequate ventilation
bad housekeeping
wet floors
unsafe acts by workers
electrical wiring that is not secured and out of the way, and
people loitering on or around the property who do not seem to have any particular
business there.

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Non-compliant equipment
All the equipment and tools used on a construction site must be properly maintained
and cared for. Machines that are not in a good operating condition can become
dangerous to the user and others, as well as to the environment. If a machine becomes
non-compliant, it must be reported immediately to a supervisor or safety officer. An
employee may refuse to operate any tool or equipment that could be a potential
hazard.
Non-compliant equipment, such as an excessively smoking generator, can cause health
problems to people breathing in dangerous fumes. If it is placed in an area that is not
well ventilated, it can become lethal. A small dump truck with defective brakes can
cause an accident with serious injury. The driver should stop operating the truck
immediately until it is fixed.
Some examples of non-compliant equipment are:
defective electrical connections on power tools
machines without safety guards
equipment not used for their intended use, and
poorly maintained tools and equipment.
If an employee notices any of the above situations, it is his or her responsibility to act.
The employee should first inform management or his or her immediate supervisor and
bring the hazard to their attention.
Management should place appropriate signage to alert others to the non-compliant
equipment, and contact security and maintenance.

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