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cn

Recent development and applications of tubular structures in China

Z.Y. Shen, W. Wang & Y.Y. Chen
Tongji University, Shanghai, China

ABSTRACT: To meet the requirement of economic booming, a large number of mega-structures for
commercial, industrial and infrastructure uses have been built in China in recent years. Tubular structures
have thus been developed rapidly and used widely in such mega-structures as large span spatial structures
(such as stadiums, airport terminals, station, theatre, and exhibition centre), high-rise buildings, bridges, and
offshore platforms. Reliable design of these tubular structures requires a sound understanding of their
behaviors under various working conditions. Considerable research has been carried out on tubular structures
especially on tubular joints in China, and the achievements are valuable and encouraging. In this paper,
tubular structures are classified into three large groups: truss-type structures, frame-type structures and lattice
shell structures. A number of typical applications of tubular structures in China are described firstly. The
latest developments on behavior study of tubular joints in China are reviewed, together with background of
practical applications. Emphases are given to CHS joints, which are the most commonly used types. Research
on static, seismic, and fatigue behavior of tubular joints has been addressed, as well as the performance with
different details. Based on results obtained from both research and practical applications, Chinese technical
specification for design of tubular structures have been built and introduced.

1 INTRODUCTION cal specification for design of tubular structures re-

To meet the requirement of economic booming, a
large number of buildings for commercial, industrial
and infrastructure uses have been constructed in
China in recent years. Steel tubular structures are
well recognized for their pleasing appearance, light
weight, easy fabrication and rapid erection. They
have thus been developed rapidly and used widely in
such mega-structures as large span spatial structures
(such as stadiums, airport terminals, station, theatre,
and exhibition centre), high-rise buildings, and off-
shore platforms. According to official statistics, the
consumption of steel tubes for structural use in
building construction of China is increasing at a rate
of 20% per year, covering a total weight of one mil-
lion tons. By the end of 2007, steel tubes account for
30% of the total consumption of steel used in the
newly built stadiums and gymnasiums matching
with Beijing Olympic Games. Currently there are
more than 120 fabricators of tubular structures in
China, representing a new manufacturing industry.
In this paper a number of typical engineering ap-
plications of tubular structures in China are de-
scribed, the latest developments on behavior study
of tubular joints in China are reviewed, together with
background of practical applications, and the techni-
cently completed by the China Association for Engi-
neering Construction Standardization are overview-
ed in the last section.
2 TYPES AND ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS
OF TUBULAR STRUCTURES IN CHINA
In this paper, tubular structures are classified into
three large groups: truss-type structures, frame-type
structures and lattice shell structures.
2.1 Truss-type tubular structures
Greater load-bearing capacity and the increase in
span can be achieved with the use of planar or
spatial truss-type structures. For planar tubular
trusses, a Warren type truss with K-joints, a Pratt
type truss with N-joints and a Vierendeel type truss
with T-joints are three main types of trusses which
are mostly used in practice.
The large-span shuttle-shaped trussed system ap-
plied to the restaurant and the press centre of Shang-
hai F1 International Circuit is an example of the
Pratt type tubular trusses (Fig. 1). The chord mem-
bers adopted welded box sections and the web

members adopted circular hollow sections (CHS) or
welded rectangular hollow sections (RHS). One side
of this megatruss is supported on two columns, and
the other side is supported on the transfer truss
which transfers the load to the bottom columns. The
span between the supports is 91.3m, and the cantile-
ver spans from each support are 26.91m and 17.41m,
respectively. The maximum height of the truss is
12.4m.
A Vierendeel truss is a type of truss without di-
agonals, in which shear forces are resisted by the
vertical web members and chords, acting as an mo-
ment-resisting frame. It may have diagonals in some
bays in some designs, but may also be designed to
rely totally on the verticals. The CHS roof truss of
Chongqing Jiangbei International Airport Terminal
(Fig. 2) is an example of this type of tubular struc-
tures.
The same construction can be done with spatial
system.
No. 3 Terminal of Beijing Capital International
Airport (Fig. 3) is a project matching with the Bei-
jing 2008 Olympic Games. The roof structure of the
project belongs to a slightly bending hyperboloidal
vacuum triangle pyramid type space truss. The
length from south to north is 958m, the width from
east to west is 775m, and the elevation of the highest
top reaches 42m. The space truss owns over 12,600
tubular joints and over 50,000 components with dif-
ferent sizes, including about 4,300 bolted spherical
joints and over 8,300 welded hollow spherical joints.
Solid steel pin nodes were adopted in the supports.
Figure 1. Shanghai F1 International Circuit.
Figure 2. Chongqing Jiangbei International Airport Terminal.
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CHS space trusses are commonly used as the
main structural system in super high steel TV towers
in China, such as the 336m high Heilongjiang Dra-
gon Tower (Fig. 4a). It is the highest steel tower in
Asia and the 2nd highest in the world. Besides, in
the recent years, space tubular trusses are being
widely used in high electricity transmission towers
in China. By the end of 2007, approximately one
hundred high electricity transmission towers have
been built in China, 50 percent of which are space
tubular trusses. Figure 4b gives a typical example of
high electricity transmission tower with 215m high.
The maximum tube diameter at the tower foot
reaches 1,580mm.
The main reasons of adopting CHS members in
high steel towers are: (1) wind load is the dominated
load for high towers and the wind pressure coeffi-
cient for CHS is lower than any other types of cross
sections; and (2) axial compression force is the dom-
inated force in the main structural members. CHS is
central symmetric and has the same radius of gyra-
tion about any axis of the cross section.
2.2 Frame-type tubular structures
Frame-type tubular structures can be divided into
two subclasses, i.e. high-rise moment resisting tubu-
lar frames and space frame tubular structures.
Figure 3. No.3B Terminal of Beijing Capital International
Airport
(a) (b)
Figure 4. Space tubular truss towers, (a) Heilongjiang Dragon
Tower and (b) Yamen electricity transmission tower.

High-rise moment resisting tubular frames are de-
fined as rigid frames adopting continuous tubular
columns or concrete filled tubular (CFT) columns as
main bearing elements. Guangzhou New TV Tower
is a high-rise tubular frames under construction in
China (Fig. 5). It consists of a main tower of 454m
height and an antenna mast of 156m, totaling 610m
in height. After completion of the project, it will be
the highest tower around the world. The tower
adopts 24 oblique straight cone-shaped steel pipe
columns filled with concrete, 46 ring tubular beams
and 24 oblique tubular supporting. The sections of
cone-shaped steel pipe are 2,00050~1,20030,
the steel material includes Q345GJC and Q460GJC.
The consumption of the steel for the project totals
about 50,000 tons.
West Tower of Guangzhou Twin Towers (Fig. 6)
is also a representative moment resisting tubular
frame. The project covers an area of 449,000m2.
There are 103 floors on the ground for the main
tower with 432m height. The tube-in-tube structural
system was adopted. The outer tube is composed of
oblique grid CHS columns and the inner tube is a
concrete core tube. The plane size is a centrosym-
metric equilateral triangle with round-corners. CHS
tube ranges from 1,80055~70020.
Figure 5. Guangzhou New TV Tower.
Figure 6. West Tower of Guangzhou Twin Towers.
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Compared with high-rise moment-resisting
frames, space frames are another class of frame-type
tubular structures. They usually have irregular con-
figuration and demonstrate a frame behavior with
significant spatial load transferring mechanism. Na-
tional Stadium is the main stadium of Beijing 2008
Olympic Games (Fig. 7), adopting frame-type struc-
ture formed by 48 huge tubular trusses. The stadium
has a plane projection size of 323.3m 296.4m,
maximum elevation of 68.5m and minimum eleva-
tion of 42.8m. The structure is composed of bend-
ing-torsion members and straight members with
welded box section. The maximum size of the box
sections of frames is 1,200mm, and the maximum
thickness is 110mm. Most materials are Q345D and
Q345GJD-Z25, and the material with highest
strength is Q460E-Z35. The column base uses GS
20Mn5V casting steel joints.
Polyhedron space frame structure with EFTE
cladding is adopted in the National Swimming Cen-
ter Water Cube. In which, rectangular hollow sec-
tions are used as chords, circular hollow sections are
used as web members and welded hollow balls are
used as joints. Although the form of the new struc-
ture is like space truss, the member behavior is en-
tirely different from the truss members which mainly
bearing axial force. The joints of the polyhedron
space frame are rigidly connected and the members
are space frame elements. Element forces contain
bending moment, axial force, shear force and tor-
sional moment. The moment stress is larger than the
axial stress.
Figure 7. National Stadium (nicknamed Birds Nest).
Figure 8. National Swimming Centre (nicknamed Water Cube).
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2.3 Lattice shell tubular structures 3 RECENT ADVANCES IN THE RESEARCH

OF TUBULAR JOINTS IN CHINA
Like space trusses, lattice shell structures are three-
dimensional skeletal structures. They are now the
One important difference of tubular structures from
most widely used tubular structures for long-span
other steel structures lies in the design of tube-to-
buildings in China.
tube connections. Connections between hollow sec-
The main building of the National Grand Theater
tion members are usually configured by welding one
consists of an exterior shell, within which are a
member directly to the surface of the other, where
2,416-seat opera house, a 2,017-seat concert hall, a
possible, without any exposed stiffening or reinforc-
1,040-seat theater, a lobby and other supporting fa-
ing element. Conventional design procedures appli-
cilities. The exterior is a shell in the shape of a half
cable to welded plate-to-plate connections can not be
ellipsoid with a long east-west axis of 212.20 meters
applied to the design of these connections. With the
and a short south-north axis of 143.64 meters. It is
vigorous application of tubular structures in practical
46.285 meters tall, and it reaches to a maximum un-
engineering in China, fruitful research of both theo-
derground depth of 32.50 meters. Most of the shell is
retical and practical significance has been carried out
covered by titanium panels, and it is broken in the
on tubular joints. Some of these are described below.
middle by a curtain of glass that opens gradually
from top to bottom.
Guangzhou Opera will be a landmark architecture 3.1 Non-rigid behavior of tubular joints and inter-
in Guangzhou City of China. It adopts Double- action with global performance of tubular
Gravel-based irregular geometric configuration, structures
covering an area of 42,000m2. The periphery of the
In engineering practice, tubular joints are usually as-
building adopts three-dimensional grids folded plate
sumed pinned or rigid. Recent research showed that
and single layer reticulated shell structures. All
tubular joints may exhibit non-rigid behavior under
members of this structure are thin-walled box girder.
axial or bending loads (Fig. 11). It may have signifi-
Rigid joints made of cast steel are used where planes
cant influence on the behavior of Vierendeel truss
intersect. The highest weight of the single joint is 37
and single-layer lattice shell structures.
tons and the longest one is 12m. The consumption of
Recent investigations on non-rigid behavior of
steel totals 10,000 tons, including 1,200 tons of steel
tubular joints include experimental investigations on
casting.
CHS X- and KK-joints under in-plane bending or
out-of-plane bending loads on the brace (Chen &
Wang 2003, Wang et al. 2007). Test results showed
that the joints primarily failed by excessive
deformation and punching shear cracking at the weld
toe. It is found that the stiffness ratio of the
connection to the brace member is a critical factor to
classify this joint to be rigid or semi-rigid.
Parametric formulae for predicting tubular joint
rigidities are proposed, which are based on numeri-

Compression Tension

Figure 9. National Grand Theater (nicknamed Big Egg).

In-plane bending Out-of-plane bending

Figure 10. Guangzhou Opera. Figure 11. Non-rigid deformation under axial or bending loads.

cal investigations through systematic variation of the
main geometric parameters (Wang & Chen 2005).
By considering the deformation patterns of respec-
tive parts of Vierendeel lattice girders, the boundary
between rigid and semirigid tubular connection is
built in terms of joint bending rigidity. In order to
include characteristics of joint rigidity in the global
structural analysis, a type of semirigid element
which can effectively reflect the interaction of two
braces in K joints is introduced and validated. The
numerical example of a Warren lattice girder with
different joint models shows the great effect of tubu-
lar joint rigidities on the internal forces, deformation
and secondary stresses (Wang & Chen 2005). A fur-
ther study is in process on a new classification sys-
tem of tubular joints based on the global perform-
ance of CHS lattice shell structures.
3.2 Seismic behavior of tubular joints
Many large-span tubular truss applications now exist
in regions of high seismic risk in China. Unlike
common beam-column connections in moment re-
sisting frames, unstiffened tubular joints sometimes
have lower capacity than adjacent tubular members.
In order that the inelastic seismic performance of
truss structures can be evaluated properly, it is nec-
essary to study the hysteretic behavior of tubular
joints.
A series of cyclic loading tests of CHS T-, K-,
and KK-joints were performed to understand the
seismic properties of these joints (Wang & Chen
2007, Chen & Zhao 2007) (Fig. 12). Some of the
new findings were as follows: (1) Monotonic load-
deformation curves can cover the skeleton of the
hysteretic curves for the joints having the same ge-
ometry, but the ductility will deteriorate under cyclic
loading. (2) Both member failure mechanism in the
form of brace yielding and joint failure mechanism
in the form of chord wall plasticity demonstrate
good energy dissipation capacity, if weld cracking
can be prevented or delayed. For proper design of
weld, stress distribution around intersection welds
should be further studied, and seismic design criteria
of tubular joints should be established pertain to
structural deformability.
Figure 12. Cyclic loading test of a multiplanar CHS KK-joint.
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3.3 Behavior of inner-stiffened tubular joints
Along with the development of large-span spatial
structures, inner-stiffened tubular joints are more
and more applied to engineering projects of China. It
helps to improve both strength and rigidity of the
joint, as well as to keep its original appearance.
A number of experimental and analytical investi-
gations into inner-stiffened tubular joints are found
in recent years, including CHS joints with multiple
braces (Tong et al. 2007), RHS T-joints (Yan et al.
2007), and CHS brace to RHS chord joints (Cao &
Yao 2008).
The present study proposed some basic design
guidelines for the ring stiffeners in the complicated
CHS joints with multiple brace members. A set of
formulae used to predicting ultimate strength of in-
ner-stiffened CHS-RHS T- and K-joints were also
recommended.
3.4 Behavior of tubular joints with curved chords
In tubular structures of China, welded trusses with
curved circular hollow sections have been increas-
ingly used in order to meet the needs of more attrac-
tive architectural appearance. It confronts structural
engineers with the question that how to check the
strength of tubular joints with curved chord mem-
bers.
Nine static tests on CHS joints with curved and
straight chord members were carried out (Tong et al.
2006) (Fig. 13). Behavior in failure modes, load-
deformation curves and stress distributions is com-
pared between joints with curved and straight chord
members. Test results show that the curved circular
chord members do not exert more significant influ-
ence upon the behavior of joints. Both the experi-
mental and numerical results indicated that the
strength of the joints with curved chords at a wide
range of curvature radiuses used in practical engi-
neering can be checked like the joints with straight
chords based on the current design specifications.
3.5 Behavior of overlapped tubular K-joints
For partially overlapped CHS K-joints (Fig. 14), it is
Figure 13. A CHS joint with curved chord under loading.
 http://www.paper.edu.cn

lap brace through brace

d2
d1
= d i /d
= d/2t
= t i /t crack
t1 t2
Ov%=(-q/p) 100%

1 2
-q
d p chord
t
lap brace footprint through brace footprint

d
chord
hidden seam
Figure 14. Configuration of overlapped CHS K-joint.
a common practice to mount the CHS members on
an assembly rig and tack welds them in fabrication
workshops. Final welding is then carried out in a fol-
lowing separated operation. This sequence makes it
impossible to weld the hidden toe of overlapped K-
joints. In tubular structures, this type of joints is
widely used. It is thus necessary to investigate what
parameters and how they affect the behavior of over-
lapped CHS K-joints with unwelded hidden seam.
In total twelve specimens of uniplanar overlapped
CHS K-joints were tested under axial loading (Zhao
et al. 2006). The study concentrated on the effect of
varying the joint geometry, the loading hierarchy as
well as the presence or absence of the hidden weld
on the behavior of the joints. Results show that the
welding situation of the hidden seam has some effect
on the stress distribution and failure mechanism, but
the static ultimate capacity of the overlapped CHS
K-joints is not affected significantly given that the
through brace is under compression. When the
brace-to-chord thickness ratio is smaller, the local
failure is the main failure mechanism observed.
3.6 Fatigue behavior of tubular joints
Figure 15. Fatigue crack propagation of CFCHS T-joints.
proposed a simplified fracture mechanics model, and
successfully predicted stress intensity factors (SIF)
of this joint with semi-elliptical surface cracks under
axial brace loading through the FE methodology.
3.7 Behavior of tubular flange joints
Steel poles are more and more used in transmission
line systems especially in urban areas of China in re-
cent years. Bolted flange joints subjected to axial
forces and bending moments are one most common
type of connection of steel poles.
Experimental study were performed on 3 flange
joints with stiffened ribs of steel transmission poles
for Baihuadong transmission lines being constructed
in Guangdong province in China (Deng, Huang &
Jin 2008) (Fig. 16). The tubes are made of Q420B
steel. The biggest diameter of the tube is 2,100mm.
It is found that the flange plates have enough
strength and prying force does not exist in the flange
plates connected to the tensile zone of the tube. A
new rotational axis for calculating bolt force is rec-
ommended for large-scale flange joints, and maxi-
mal bolt force will be increased by 17.3% compared
with the conventional calculating method. This can
be used as a reliable reference in engineering prac-
tice.

Welded trusses composed of the brace members

with CHS and the chord members with concrete 4 CODE DEVELOPMENT OF TUBULAR
filled CHS (CFCHS) have come into increasing use STRUCTURES IN CHINA
in large span highway arch bridges in China. It is
worth while to pay attention to the fatigue problem The aim of all realistic research projects should be to
of this new kind of welded joints under repeated
loads.
Stress concentration factors (SCF) of CHS-to-
CFCHS T- and K-joints subjected to axial loading
and in-plane bending were experimentally studied
by Tong et al. (2007, 2007, 2008) (Fig. 15). Fatigue
assessment of the welded CFCHS joints can be per-
formed based on one of three approaches, namely
classification method, hot spot stress method and
fracture mechanics method. The last one is the ad-
vanced approach in which the parameter of dominat-
ing fatigue crack propagation, stress intensity factor
(SIF), needs to be determined first. Gu et al. (2008) Figure 16. Test set-up of a tubular flange joint.

provide new or improved design criteria. Indeed,
many researchers consider the acceptance of their
proposals into the codes to be the highest form of
peer recognition and achievement.
The first edition of design provisions for steel tu-
bular structures in China was published as a section
of Code for Design of Steel Structures (MCC 1988)
in 1988. The second edition (MCC 2003) was re-
vised and published in 2003. Extensive research on
steel tubular structures has been carried out all over
the world in the last 5 years. There is a need to build
a special design specification for tubular structures
in China. This section summarizes the Chinese
Technical Specification for Structures with Steel
Hollow Sections (CECS 2008), recently completed
by the China Association for Engineering Construc-
tion Standardization (CECS).
The new Chinese specification contains 9 sec-
tions and one annex. The first two sections cover the
scope, symbols, terms and definitions. Section 3
gives the requirements for steel tube materials, con-
nection materials, and infilled concrete materials.
Section 4 prescribes the basic design principle, ma-
terial strength value, service limit state design indi-
ces and some detail requirements for steel tubular
structures. The design procedures and the resistance
formulae of tubular members and joints are outlined
in the following Section 5, 6 and 7. Section 8 gives
the information about the calculating method of pre-
dicting the fatigue strength of tubular joints. In the
last section 9, some detailed recommendations of fa-
brication, assembly and erection aspects of tubular
structures are presented.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The aim of this paper was to provide information re-
garding the state of the art of research, design and
applications of tubular structures in China. There are
some issues that are awaiting intensive future study,
including a new classification system of tubular
joints based on the global structural performance,
seismic design criteria of tubular joints and welds,
and resistance formulae of overlapped tubular joints.
It should be pointed out that because many inten-
sive studies have been conducted, studies dealing
with beam-to-column connections in concrete filled
tubular frame are excluded from this review for the
sake of brevity.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The reported work is supported by Natural Science
Foundation of China (50578117).
http://www.paper.edu.cn
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