Chapter 1 Introduction

The calculation of wave loads and load combinations is the first step in marine structural design.
For structural design and analysis, a structural engineer needs to have basic concepts of waves,
motions and design loads. Once the functional requirements and loads are determined, an initial
scantling may be sized based on formulae and charts in classification rules and design codes. The
basic scantling of the structural components is initially determined based on stress analysis of
beams, plates and shells under hydrostatic pressure, bending and concentrated loads. Three levels
of marine structural design have been developed:
Level 1: Design by rules
Level 2: Design by analysis
Level 3: Design based on performance standards

In a limit-state design, the design of structures is checked for all groups of limit-states to ensure
that the safety margin between the maximum likely loads and the weakest possible resistance of
the structure is large enough and that fatigue damageis tolerable. Based on the first principles,
limit-state design criteria cover various failure modes such as:
1. Serviceability limit-state
2. Ultimate limit-state
3. Fatigue limit-State
4. Accidental limit-state
The design criteria have traditionally been expressed in the format of Working Stress Design
(WSD) (or Allowable Stress Design, ASD), where only one safety factor is used to define the
allowable limit. However, in recent years, there is an increased use of the Load and Resistance
Factored Design (LRFD), that comprises of a number of load factors and resistance factors
reflecting the uncertaintiesand safety requirements. A general safety format for LRFD design may
be expressed as:
(Kriteria desain secara tradisional telah dinyatakan dalam format Design Stress Design
(WSD) (atau Allowable Stress Design, ASD), dimana hanya satu faktor keamanan yang
digunakan untuk menentukan batas yang diijinkan. Namun, dalam beberapa tahun
terakhir, ada peningkatan penggunaan Load and Resistance Factored Design (LRFD), yang
terdiri dari sejumlah faktor beban dan faktor ketahanan yang mencerminkan
ketidakpastian dan persyaratan keselamatan. Format keamanan umum untuk desain LRFD
dapat dinyatakan sebagai
(DI PDF)

Major factors that should be consideredin marine structural design include:

 1. Still-waterand wave loads, and their possible combinations
2. Ultimate strengthof structural componentsand systems
3. Fatigue/fracturein critical structural details
(Faktor utama yang harus diperhatikan dalam desain struktur kelautan meliputi:
1. Masih-air dan muatan gelombang, dan kemungkinan kombinasinya
2. Kekuatan utama komponen dan sistem struktural
3. Kelelahan / fraktur kritis rincian structural)

Ultimate strength criteria are usually advocated in design codes for various basic types of the
structural components such as:
1. columns & beam-columns
2. plates and stiffened panels
3. shellsand stiffened shells
4. structural connections
5. hull girders
(Kriteria kekuatan utama biasanya dianjurkan dalam kode desain untuk berbagai jenis
komponen struktural seperti:
1. kolom & kolom balok
2. piring dan panel yang kaku
3. Kerang dan kerang yang kaku
4. koneksi struktural
5. balok lambung)
Fatigue damage and defects may threaten integrity of the marine structures. This concern is
aggravated as the cost of repair and loss of production increase. Fatigue design became an
important subject due to use of higher strength materials, severe environmental conditions and
optimized structural dimension.
Component reliability concerns the failure probability modeled by a single limit-state function. It
is a fundamental part of the structural reliability analysis since all marine structures are composed
of their components.
One of structural reliability applications is the calibration of safety factors for structural design.
The calibration process may help achieve a consistent safety level. The safety factors are
determined so that the calibrated failure probability for various conditions is as close to the target
safety level as possible. The following steps should be taken when conducting a reliability-based
code calibration:
(Kelelahan kerusakan dan cacat dapat mengancam integritas struktur laut. Perhatian ini diperparah
karena biaya perbaikan dan penurunan produksi meningkat. Desain kelelahan menjadi subjek yang
penting karena penggunaan bahan kekuatan lebih tinggi, kondisi lingkungan yang parah dan
dimensi struktural yang optimal.
Keandalan komponen menyangkut probabilitas kegagalan yang dimodelkan oleh fungsi batas-
negara tunggal. Ini adalah bagian fundamental dari analisis keandalan struktural karena semua
struktur kelautan terdiri dari komponennya.
Salah satu aplikasi keandalan struktural adalah kalibrasi faktor keselamatan untuk disain struktur.
Proses kalibrasi dapat membantu mencapai tingkat keselamatan yang konsisten. Faktor keamanan
ditentukan sehingga probabilitas kegagalan yang dikalibrasi untuk berbagai kondisi sedekat
mungkin dengan tingkat keamanan target. Langkah-langkah berikut harus dilakukan saat
melakukan kalibrasi kode berbasis reliabilitas)
(DI PDF)
Strength and Fatigue Analysis
Structural Reliability Applications
Chapter 2 Wave Loads for Ship Design and Classification
One of the major aspects of ship design is the calculation ofwave-induced loads on the ship
structure. The difficulty in calculating this load arises from the fact that the sea is highly irregular.
When designing a ship, formulae provided by classification societies are used in order to calculate
the wave loads and ship response. However, a ship designer ought to have some knowledgeof the
theory and techniques utilized for the statistical determinationof wave loads.
Three papers, which paved the way for further work on statistical representations of the sea surface,
were published by Pierson (1952), St. Denis and Pierson (1953), and Pierson, Neumann, and James
(1955). These papers proved that the sea surface could be representedby the superposition of a
large number of regular sinusoidal waves of varying frequencies. A typical sinusoidalwave may
be representedby the following:
(DI PDF)
Chapter 4 Scantling of Ships Hulls by Rules

4.2 Basic Conceptsof Stability and Strength of Ships

Two resultant forces act on a free floating body, the force of weight acting downwards and the
force of buoyancy acting upwards. The force of weight (W), acts through a point known as the
center of gravity (CG), and the force of buoyancy (B) acts through what is known as the center
of buoyancy (CB). By Archimedes Principle, we know that the force of buoyancy equals the weight of
the liquid displaced by the floating body, and thus the center of buoyancy is the
center of gravity of the displaced liquid. When a floating body is in equilibrium and is displaced slightly
&om its original position,
three conditions may apply. As shown in Figure 4.2 (Pauling, 1988),the body may:
1. returnto its original position, a situationknown aspositive stability;
2. remain in its new position, and this is known as neutral stability;
3. move furtherfrom its original position,known as negative stability.

Another essential aspect of ship design is the strength of the ship. This refers to the ability of
the ship structure to withstand the loads imposed on it. One of the most important strength
parameters is the longitudinal strength ofthe ship, which is estimated by using the maximum
longitudinalstressthat the hull may withstand. The shear stressis another relevant parameter. The
longitudinal strength of the ships hull is evaluated based on the bending moments and
shear forces acting on the ship. Considering a ship as a beam under distributed load, the shear
force at location X, V(X), may be expressedas. For a ship in waves, the bending moment is
furtherseparatedinto two terms:

In order to compute the primary stress or deflection due to vertical and horizontal bending moments,
the elementary Bernoulli-Euler beam theory is used. When assessing the applicability of this beam
theory to ship structures, it is useful to restate the following `assumptions:
1. The beam is prismatic, i.e. all cross sections are uniform.
2. Plane cross sections remain plane and merely rotate as the beam deflects.
3. Transverse (Poisson) effects on the strain are neglected.
4. The material behaves elastically.
The derivation of the equations for stress and deflection using the same assumptions as those
used for elementarybeam theorymay be found in textbookson material strength.
This gives the followingwell-known formula:
Shear effects can be separatedh m , and not influence bending stresses or strains.

The strength requirements in ship design rules are based on a net ship approach. The
nominal design corrosion allowance is to be accounted for, because the scantlings correspond
to the minimum strength requirements acceptable for classification regardless of the vessels
design service life. Apart from coating protection for all ballast tanks, minimum corrosion
allowance for plating and structuralmembers is to be applied.

For regions of structural members, where the corrosion rates might be higher, additional
design margins should be considered for primary and critical structural members. This may
minimize repairs and maintenancecoststhroughoutvessels life cycle.

(Bab 4 Scantling Hull Kapal menurut Aturan

4.2 Konsep Dasar Stabilitas dan Kekuatan Kapal

Dua gaya resultan bekerja pada benda mengambang bebas, gaya berat yang bekerja ke bawah dan

Kekuatan apung bertindak ke atas. Kekuatan berat (W), bertindak melalui titik yang dikenal sebagai

Pusat gravitasi (CG), dan gaya apung (B) bertindak melalui apa yang dikenal sebagai pusat

Dari daya apung (CB). Dengan Prinsip Archimedes, kita tahu bahwa kekuatan apung sama dengan
berat cairan yang dipindahkan oleh tubuh mengambang, dan dengan demikian pusat daya apung
adalah

Pusat gravitasi cairan yang dipindahkan. Bila tubuh mengambang berada dalam ekuilibrium dan
tergelincir sedikit & dari posisi semula,

Tiga kondisi mungkin berlaku Seperti ditunjukkan pada Gambar 4.2 (Pauling, 1988), tubuh dapat:

1. kembali ke posisi semula, sebuah situasi yang diketahui stabilitas aspal;

2. tetap berada pada posisi barunya, dan ini dikenal sebagai stabilitas netral;

3. bergerak lebih jauh dari posisi aslinya, yang dikenal sebagai stabilitas negatif.

Aspek penting lain dari desain kapal adalah kekuatan kapal. Ini mengacu pada kemampuan

Struktur kapal untuk menahan beban yang dikenakan padanya. Salah satu kekuatan yang paling
penting

Parameter adalah kekuatan longitudinal kapal, yang diperkirakan dengan menggunakan maksimum

Longitudinalstress bahwa lambung dapat menahan. Tegangan geser adalah parameter lain yang
relevan. Kekuatan longitudinal lambung kapal dievaluasi berdasarkan momen lentur dan

Gaya geser yang bekerja di kapal. Mengingat kapal sebagai balok di bawah beban terdistribusi,
geser

Gaya di lokasi X, V (X), dapat dinyatakan. Untuk sebuah kapal dalam gelombang, momen lentur
adalah furtherseparated ke dua istilah:

Untuk menghitung tegangan utama atau defleksi karena momen lentur vertikal dan horisontal,
teori balok Bernoulli-Euler elementer digunakan. Ketika menilai penerapan teori balok ini terhadap
struktur kapal, berguna untuk mengemukakan kembali asumsi berikut ini:

1. Sinar itu prismatik, yaitu semua bagian melintang seragam.

2. Penampang pesawat tetap pesawat dan hanya diputar saat balok membelok.

3. Efek melintang (Poisson) pada regangan diabaikan.

4. Materi berperilaku elastis.

Derivasi persamaan untuk tegangan dan defleksi menggunakan asumsi yang sama seperti pada

Digunakan untuk teori elementarybeam yang bisa ditemukan dalam kekuatan materi textbookson.

Ini memberi rumus berikut ini:

Efek geser dapat dipisahkanh m, dan tidak mempengaruhi tekanan bending atau strain.

Persyaratan kekuatan dalam peraturan perancangan kapal didasarkan pada pendekatan kapal
"bersih". Itu

Tunjangan korosi desain nominal harus dipertanggungjawabkan, karena korespondensi scantlings

Untuk persyaratan kekuatan minimum yang dapat diterima untuk klasifikasi terlepas dari kapal itu

Desain kehidupan layanan Selain proteksi pelapis untuk semua tangki ballast, korosi minimal

Penyisihan plating dan struktur anggota harus diterapkan.

Untuk daerah anggota struktur, dimana tingkat korosi lebih tinggi, tambahan

Margin desain harus dipertimbangkan untuk anggota struktural primer dan kritis. Ini mungkin

Meminimalkan perbaikan dan pemeliharaan sepanjang siklus hidup manusia.)