Trends in Food Science & Technology 22 (2011) 595e603
Food applications
of nanotechnologies:
An overview of
opportunities and
challenges for
developing countries
Qasim Chaudhry* and
Laurence Castle
The Food and Environment Research Agency,
Sand Hutton, York YO41 1LZ, United Kingdom
(Tel.: D44 1904 462584; fax: D44 1904 462111;
e-mail: qasim.chaudhry@fera.gsi.gov.uk)
Like other sectors, recent developments in nanosciences and
nanotechnologies are offering lots of new opportunities for
innovation to food and related sectors worldwide. Whist de-
veloping countries can potentially benefit from these develop-
ments, there are also a number of challenges ahead. This
concise review provides an account of the main issues ema-
nating from applications of nanotechnologies in food and re-
lated sectors with a particular reference to developing
countries.
Introduction
Rapid advancements in nanosciences and nanotechnol-
ogies in recent years have opened up new prospects for
so many industrial and consumer sectors that they have
been regarded as the hotbed of a new industrial revolution.
The food sector, which is worth over 4 trillion US$ per an-
num globally (Murray, 2007), is an obvious target of these
new developments. Food related applications of nanotech-
nologies offer a wide range of benefits to the consumer
(Table 1). These include a possible reduction in the use
* Corresponding author.
0924-2244/$ - see front matter Crown Copyright 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2011.01.001
of preservatives, salt, fat and surfactants in food products;
development of new or improved tastes, textures and mouth
sensations through nano-scale processing of foodstuffs.
Nano-formulations can also improve the uptake, absorp-
tion, and bioavailability of nutrients and supplements in
the body compared to bulk equivalents. Nanotechnology-
derived polymer composites offer new lightweight but
stronger food packaging materials that can keep food prod-
ucts secure during transportation, fresh for longer during
storage, and safe from microbial pathogens. Antibacterial
nano-coatings on food preparation surfaces can help main-
tain hygiene during food processing, whereas the use of
Smart labels can help protect safety and authenticity of
food products in the supply chain. However, despite the
projected benefits, the current level of nanotechnology ap-
plications in food and related sectors is still new emergent
in most countries and, despite a steady increase in the num-
ber of available products, the vast majority of new develop-
ments is still at R&D or near-market stages. Because of the
scarcity of information on commercial activity in this area,
estimates of the current and future market share of nano-
technology-enabled food products vary widely. The global
market value for nano-enabled food and food packaging
products was estimated at around US$4 million in 2006,
predicted to grow to between US$6 billion by 2012
(Cientifica, 2006) and >US$20 billion by 2010 (Helmut
Kaiser Consultancy, 2004). The main focus of new applica-
tions so far appears to be on food packaging and health-
food products, with only a few known examples in the
mainstream food and beverage areas. According to market
estimates, food packaging applications make up the largest
share of the current and short-term predicted market for
nano-enabled products in the food sector. The most prom-
ising growth areas identified for the near-future include
Active and Smart packaging, health-foods, and func-
tional food products (Cientifica, 2006).
According to Helmut Kaiser Consultancy (2004) report,
the nano-food sector is led by the USA, followed by Japan
and China, whereas Asian countries (led by China) could be
the biggest future market for nano-food products. It has
been suggested that the number of companies undertaking
R&D in food related applications could range between
200 and 400 (Cientifica, 2006; IFST, 2006), including
some major international food and beverage companies.
In view of this, more developments in this area can be
expected in the coming years, and this may have a major

Table 1. List of current and projected nanotechnology applications in the food and agriculture sectorsa
Nature of application
Processed nano-structured or
nano-textured food products
Nano-Carrier systems for delivery
of nutrients and supplements in the
form of liposomes or biopolymer-
based nano-encapsulated
substances
Organic nano-sized additives
(many of them naturally occurring
substances) for food, health-food
supplements, and animal feed
applications
Inorganic nano-sized additives for
food, health-food and feed
applications
Projected benefits
Use of less fat and emulsifiers, stable emulsions,
better tasting food products. A typical product of
this type of application would be a nano-textured
food (e.g. ice cream, mayonnaise, spread, etc.)
which is low-fat but as creamy as the full-fat
alternative. Such products would therefore offer
healthy but tasteful products to the consumer.
Processing foodstuffs at submicron or nano-scale
is also known to kill any microbial pathogens.
Taste masking of certain ingredients/additives,
such as fish oils, protection of certain ingredients
during processing, improved optical appearance,
improved bioavailability of nutrients and
supplements, antimicrobial action, and other
health benefits.
Due to larger surface area, lesser amounts would
be needed for a function or a taste attribute.
Other claimed benefits include better
dispersability of water-insoluble additives in food
products without the need for additional fat or
emulsifiers, and enhanced tastes and flavours due
to greater surface areas of the nano-sized
additives compared to bulk forms. Virtually all
products in this category are also claimed for
enhanced absorption and improved
bioavailability in the body compared to
conventional bulk equivalents.
Essentially the same benefits as claimed for
organic nano-sized additives (see above). Other
projected benefits include increased food
hygiene due to antimicrobial activity of nano-
sized metal(oxide) additives.
Potential risks
This application area is of least
concern, as the food nanostructures
are likely to be solubilised or digested
in the GI tract and should not carry
insoluble materials to the circulatory
system.
Increased absorption, uptake and
bioavailability of certain additives and
supplements may also alter tissue
distribution of the substances in the
body. ADME properties of some
encapsulated substances may be
different from conventional bulk
equivalents.
Nano-sizing may lead to changes in
the absorption and bioavailability of
the additives and may also alter tissue
distribution.
Application area of main concern.
Some inorganic additives in this
category may contain insoluble,
indigestible and potentially
biopersistent nanoparticles.
596
Comments
Although the development of
microemulsions is known to
generate a range of droplet sizes e some in
the nano range, there is currently no clear
example of a commercially available food
product which is proclaimed to have been
specifically nano-structured. A number of
nano-structured food ingredients and addi-
Q. Chaudhry, L. Castle / Trends in Food Science & Technology 22 (2011) 595e603
tives are understood to be in the R&D pipe-
line e some may be near market.
One example, currently under R&D, is that of
a mayonnaise which is composed of an
emulsion that contains nanodroplets of water
inside. The mayonnaise would offer taste and
texture attributes similar to the full fat equiv-
alent, but with a substantial reduction in the
fat intake of the consumer (Clegg, Knight,
Beeren, & Wilde, 2009).
A number of nano-encapsulated additives and
food supplements are commercially available
in some countries and to consumers
worldwide via the Internet.
This type of application is expected to exploit
a much larger segment of the food and health-
food sectors.
The materials may range from colours,
preservatives, flavourings, to supplements and
antimicrobials. Examples include ongoing
R&D in Taiwan (Hwang & Yeh, 2010) and
Japan (Tsukamoto, Wakayama, & Sugiyama,
2010) into micronised starch, cellulose,
wheat and rice flour, and a range of spices
and herbs for herbal medicine and food
applications.
A range of inorganic additives is available for
supplements, nutraceuticals, and food, feed
and health-food applications.
Examples include silver, iron, silica, titanium
dioxide, selenium, calcium, magnesium,
platinum etc.
Food packaging applications
Plastic polymers containing (or
coated with) nanomaterials for
improved mechanical or functional
properties
Nano-coatings on food contact
surfaces for barrier or antimicrobial
properties
Surface functionalised
nanomaterials
Nanofiltration based on porous
silica, and regenerated cellulose
membranes
Improved packaging in terms of flexibility, gas
barrier properties and temperature/moisture
stability.
Active packaging incorporating metal/metal
oxide nanoparticles for antimicrobial properties.
They are claimed to prevent microbial growth on
the surface of plastic packaging and hence keep
the packaged food fresher over relatively longer
periods.
For active or self-cleaning surfaces in food
processing facilities such as abattoirs.
Processing aids, additives for food preservation/
detoxification Antimicrobial and other health
benefits.
The 2nd generation nanomaterials that add
certain functionality to the matrix, such as anti-
microbial activity, or a preservative action, such
as through absorption of oxygen.
For food packaging materials, functionalised
ENMs are used to bind with the polymer matrix
to offer mechanical strength or a barrier against
movement of gases or volatile components
(such as flavours) or moisture.
Filtration of water, and removal of some unde-
sired components in food e such as bitter taste in
some plant extracts, and clarifying wines and
beers.
Colloidal silica (thought to be in agglomerated
form) is known to be used in clarifying beers and
wines.
Potential consumer exposure to
nanoparticles through migration into
foodstuffs, or ingestion of edible
coatings.
Potential consumer exposure to
nanoparticles through migration into
foodstuffs.
Potential consumer exposure through
migration into foodstuffs.
Potential consumer exposure unlikely
unless nanoparticles end up in the
filtered products.
This area of application constitutes the largest
share of the current and short-term predicted
market for nanotechnology applications in
the food sector. Examples include plastic
polymers with nanoclay as gas barrier, nano-
silver and nano-zinc oxide for antimicrobial
action, nano-titanium dioxide for UV protec-
tion in transparent plastics, nano-titanium
nitride for mechanical strength and as a
processing aid.
Another application is the deposition of
Q. Chaudhry, L. Castle / Trends in Food Science & Technology 22 (2011) 595e603
metallic aluminium on plastic films.
Migration tests, and modelling studies, have
so far shown little evidence of any significant
migration of nanoparticles from plastic poly-
mers into food. More tests are needed on
biopolymer based nano-composites.
A number of nanomaterial-based coatings are
available for food preparation surfaces, and
for coating food preparation machinery.
Examples include nano-silica coating for
hydrophobic for self-cleaning surfaces; tita-
nium dioxide or zinc oxide nanocoating for
photocatalytic sterilization of food contact
surfaces, and nanocoating of silver for
hygienic food preparation surfaces.
Also reported are nanoscale lipid structures
for development of water-repellent surfaces.
Main uses of surface functionalised nanoma-
terials are currently in food packaging. Possi-
ble uses are also emerging in animal feed.
Examples include organically modified
nanoclays that are currently used in food
packaging to enhance gas-barrier properties.
As nanotechnologies converge with other
technologies (e.g. biotechnology), the use of
functionalised nanomaterials in food and
related applications is likely to grow in the
future. Other examples are not yet available,
but a number of nano-bio materials are under
development e some may find use in food
related applications.
The use of porous silica in nanofiltration
systems needs to be considered differently
from the use of other nanomaterials in food
products.
597
(continued on next page)

Table 1 (continued)
Nature of application Projected benefits
Nano-sized agrochemicals Improved delivery of agrochemicals in the field,
(fertilisers, pesticides, biocides, better efficacy, better control of application/dose,
veterinary medicines) less use of solvents in agricultural spraying.
Nanosensors for food labelling Better food authenticity, safety and security from
the use of Smart packaging, which incorporate
nano-sized sensors that can monitor condition of
the food during transportation and storage. Also
under development are Intelligent packaging
concepts that will release a food preservative
only when releases preservatives only when
triggered by rough handling or transport abuse, or
when microbial activity initiates in the packaged
food.
Water decontamination Breakdown of organic pollutants, oxidation of
heavy metals, elimination of pathogens.
Animal feed applications Reduced use of feed additives, improved
bioavailability, less environmental impact,
removal of toxins in feed.
a
More details on different applications of nanotechnologies for the food sector can be found in (Chaudhry et al., 2010; 2008).
Potential risks
Potential risk of worker exposure to
hazardous substances, consumer
exposure through potential carryover
of residues in foodstuffs.
Through (potential) migration into
foodstuffs.
Potential consumer exposure to
nanoparticles through consumption of
treated drinking water, or carryover
from wastewaters used in agriculture
and food processing.
Potential consumer exposure through
carryover from consumption of animal
products (such as meat, milk). Animal
welfare can also be an issue.
598
Comments
Despite known R&D activity in this area,
there is no product currently available on the
market. Nano-encapsulated and solid lipid
based nanoparticles have been explored for
delivery of agrochemicals, such as slow- or
controlled-release fertilisers and pesticides.
Any application of this type for a pesticide or
veterinary medicine will go through pre-
Q. Chaudhry, L. Castle / Trends in Food Science & Technology 22 (2011) 595e603
market approval.
Developments include safety and quality
indicators that can be applied as labels or
coatings to add an intelligent function to food
packaging. For example, to monitor the
integrity of the packages sealed under vac-
uum or inert atmosphere by detecting leaks,
freezeethawerefreeze scenarios by detecting
variations in timeetemperature, or microbial
safety by detecting the deterioration of food-
stuffs. This area of application is likely to see
a rapid growth in the future.
R&D work also is ongoing to integrate
nano(bio)sensors with Radio Frequency Iden-
tification Display (RFID) systems to enable
tracking down of food products in the supply
chain.
Nano-iron and other photocatalysts (e.g.
titanium dioxide) are also finding use in water
treatment. Nano-iron is already available in
industrial scale quantities. A number of
companies are thought to be using the
technology in developing countries where
water resources are scarce.
A few examples of nano-sized additives that
have specifically been developed (or are
under development) for animal feed are
known. These include nanomaterials that can
bind and remove toxins (e.g. mycotoxins), or
pathogens in animal feed.
 Q. Chaudhry, L. Castle / Trends in Food Science & Technology 22 (2011) 595e603
impact on the agricultural and food sectors in the medium
to longer terms. Considering the fact that rapid advance-
ments in nanotechnologies have also raised a number of
technological, health and safety, regulatory and societal is-
sues, it is likely that the developing countries will lag be-
hind the developed world in terms of technical know-
how, production/processing capacity, quality control, safety
assessment etc. Developing countries are also likely to face
issues such as high costs, effective regulatory controls and
certain barriers to international trade etc. It is, however, also
possible that, because of the less well developed regulatory
and other control systems, developing countries will offer
a more open market for nano-food products in the future.
Current state of nanotechnology applications
Food production
The emerging applications of nanotechnologies for food
production include nano formulated agrochemicals (e.g. fer-
tilisers, pesticides, biocides, veterinary medicines) for im-
proved efficacy, less use of farm chemicals, better control
of applications (e.g. slow release pesticides), safer and
more nutritious animal feeds (e.g. fortified with nano-sup-
plements, antimicrobial additives; detoxifying nanomateri-
als), and nano-biosensors for animal disease diagnostics.
Example applications include nano-sized feed supplements
and feed additives, such as nano-form of a biopolymer de-
rived from yeast cell wall that can bind mycotoxins to protect
animals against mycotoxicosis, and an aflatoxin-binding
nano-additive for animal feed derived from modified nano-
clay (Shi, Xu, Feng, Hu, & Xia, 2005). Another example is
polystyrene nanoparticle with polyethylene glycol linker
and mannose targeting biomolecule that can potentially
bind and remove food-borne pathogens in animal feed (Qu
et al., 2005). Nano-encapsulated and solid lipid nanopar-
ticles have also been explored for the delivery of agrochem-
icals (Frederiksen, Kristensen, & Pedersen, 2003). However,
despite a great deal of interest in this area, examples of avail-
able products are still very scarce at present, and most devel-
opments seem to be at R&D stage. Such applications,
nevertheless, have the potential for adoption at a very
large-scale by the agricultural sector worldwide. In view of
this, it is important that developing countries develop and
put in place adequate risk management strategies in advance,
because some of the applications (e.g. nano-pesticides) may
pose a greater (or different) risk to farm workers, the environ-
ment, and the consumers.
Food processing
Currently known example applications of nanotechnol-
ogies for food processing have been detailed by
Chaudhry, Castle, and Watkins (2010) and Chaudhry
et al. (2008). These include the use of nano-food ingredi-
ents/additives in the form of:
e Processed food nano-structures for improved (or new)
tastes, textures, and mouth-feels. Nano-structuring of
599
natural food materials can potentially enable the use
of less fat but still produce tasteful food products. A
typical product of this technology would be a nano-
structured ice cream, mayonnaise or spread, which is
low-fat but is as creamy in texture as the full-fat
equivalent. Such products would therefore offer
a healthy option to the consumer.
e Nano-sized or nano-encapsulated food additives and
supplements can improve dispersability of fat-soluble
additives in food products, improve food tastes, enable
hygienic food storage, reduction in the use of fat, salt,
sugar and preservatives, and improvement in the uptake
and bioavailability of nutrients and supplements. Cur-
rently available examples include vitamins, antioxi-
dants, colours, flavours, and preservatives. Also
developed for use in food products are nano-sized car-
rier systems for nutrients and supplements. These are
based on nano-encapsulated substances in liposomes,
micelles or protein based carriers. The nano-carrier sys-
tems are also used for taste masking of certain ingredi-
ents and additives, or to protect them from degradation
during processing. Examples include food additives,
such as a synthetic form of the tomato carotenoid lyco-
pene, benzoic acid, citric acid, ascorbic acid, and sup-
plements such as vitamins A and E, isoflavones,
-carotene, lutein, omega-3 fatty acids, coenzyme-Q10.
e Inorganic nanomaterials may also be potentially used in
(health)food products. Example include transition
metals and metal oxides (e.g. silver, iron, titanium diox-
ide); alkaline earth metals (e.g. calcium, magnesium);
and non metals (e.g. selenium, silicates). Food packag-
ing is currently the major area of application of metal
and metal-oxide nanomaterials. Example nanomaterials
finding use in packaging include plastic-polymer com-
posites with nanoclay for gas barrier, nano-silver and
nano-zinc oxide for antimicrobial action, nano-titanium
dioxide for UV protection, nano-titanium nitride for
mechanical strength and as a processing aid, nano-silica
for hydrophobic surface coating etc. The use of nano-
silver as an antimicrobial, antiodorant, and a (pro-
claimed) health supplement has already surpassed all
other nanomaterials used in different sectors
(Woodrow Wilson International Centre for Scholars,
2008). The current use of nano-silver is mainly for
health-food and packaging applications, but its use as
an additive in antibacterial wheat flour is the subject
of a recent patent application (Park, 2005). Nano-silica
is reported to be used in food contact surfaces and food
packaging applications, and some reports suggest its
use in clarifying beers and wines, and as a free flowing
agent in powdered soups. The conventional bulk forms
of silica and titanium dioxide are permitted food addi-
tives (SiO2, E551, and TiO2, E171), but there is a con-
cern that the conventional forms may also contain
a nano-sized fraction due to natural size range variation
(EFSA, 2009). A patent (US Patent US5741505)
600 Q. Chaudhry, L. Castle / Trends in Food Science & Technology 22 (2011) 595e603
describes nano-scale inorganic coatings applied directly
on food surface to provide moisture or oxygen barrier
and thus improve shelf life and/or the flavour impact
of foods. The materials used for the nano-coatings, ap-
plied in a continuous process as a thin amorphous film
of 50 nm or less, include titanium dioxide. Another ex-
ample is that of nano-selenium, which is being mar-
keted as an additive to a tea product in China for
a number of (proclaimed) health benefits.
e Surface functionalised nanomaterials are being devel-
oped that may add a certain functionality to food or
packaging products. Current examples include the use
of organically-modified nanoclays in food packaging
applications. However, due to the possible convergence
of nanotechnologies with other technologies (e.g. bio-
technology), the development of new functionalised
nanomaterials is likely to grow in the future.
Applications for food packaging
Whilst most nanotechnology applications for food and
beverages are currently at R&D or near-market stages,
applications for food packaging are already becoming
a commercial reality (Chaudhry et al., 2010). As mentioned
before, food packaging applications form the largest
share of the current and short-term predicted market for
nano-enabled products in the food sector (Cientifica,
2006). It has been estimated that nanotechnology-derived
packaging (including food packaging) will make up to
19% of the share of nanotechnology-enabled products and
applications in the global consumer goods industry by
2015 (Nanoposts report, 2008). The incorporation of nano-
materials in plastic polymers has led to the development of
improved or novel food packaging materials, for example:
e Polymer nano-composites with improved properties in
terms of flexibility, durability, temperature/moisture
stability, gas-barrier properties
e Active packaging based on polymers incorporating
nanomaterials with antimicrobial properties
e Active nano-coatings for hygienic food contact sur-
faces and materials, and hydrophobic nano-coatings
for self-cleaning surfaces
e Nano-(bio)sensors for Smart packaging concepts
Examples include plastic polymers with nanoclay as gas
barrier, nano-silver and nano-zinc oxide for antimicrobial
action, nano-titanium dioxide for UV protection, nano-tita-
nium nitride for mechanical strength and as a processing aid,
nano-silica for surface coating etc. The use of nano-composite
with biopolymers is expected to rise because they offer possi-
bility for carbon-neutral biodegradable materials for packag-
ing. This will offer opportunities for developing countries to
utilise their agricultural and forestry resources, by-products
and wastes for development of biopolymer nano-composites.
Food packaging applications are also driven at two levels:
1. Raw material manufacture, which will require a greater
technical know-how, infrastructure and capacity
2. Uses/applications of the material will not require high-
tech or large capacity. This will suit many developing
countries, where new developments can be taken up
by SMEs.
For further information on recent developments in this
area see Smolander and Chaudhry (2010).
Other applications
There are a number of other emerging applications of
nanotechnologies that could offer innovative solutions to
the food and related sectors. Examples include the use of
nano-porous materials for water filtration and for removal
of undesirable tastes, flavours or allergens from food prod-
ucts. The use of nanomaterials such as zero valent iron is
finding increasing applications in water decontamination.
Other developments nearing market include nano-coatings
(e.g. of titanium dioxide) for photocatalytic sterilisation
of surfaces and water, nano(bio)sensors for food safety,
and nano-barcodes for food authenticity (Chaudhry et al.,
2010). Water treatment, filtration, desalination using nano-
technologies offers a lot of benefits to developing countries
in terms of safe use/re-use of potable water; for example,
possible removal of arsenic from drinking ground water
in Bangladesh. Possible de-centralised water treatment
will further reduce infrastructural costs in developing coun-
tries. The nano(bio)sensors are expected to enable multi-an-
alyte detection of pathogens and food contaminants. They
are also expected to be low-cost, and usable in the field
by relatively little training. These features are very suitable
for a user in a developing country. The potential benefits of
these sensors will include microbial and chemical safety of
foods to protect consumer health. This is again very rele-
vant to the developing countries where food/water borne ill-
nesses may be more prevalent.
Opportunities and challenges for developing
countries
Projected benefits
The new developments emanating from nanotechnol-
ogies offer a number of benefits to the food sector in devel-
oping countries, as they do in developed countries. The
relative attractiveness of each depends on local circum-
stances. They include:
e More efficient food production methods e less use of
agrochemicals (e.g. pesticides, antibiotics, veterinary
medicines; less harm to the environment; less carryover
of harmful chemicals residues in food);
e More hygienic food/feed processing (better food and
feed safety and quality, reducing food-borne illnesses
in developing countries);
e Novel food products with improved tastes, flavours,
mouth feels (healthy/nutritious/tasteful food products);
 Q. Chaudhry, L. Castle / Trends in Food Science & Technology 22 (2011) 595e603
e Longer shelf-life of food products (contributing to
reducing food waste, and a more dependable food
supply);
e Innovative lightweight, stronger, functional packaging
(reducing the cost of transportation and packaging
materials in the environment);
e Smart labels to ensure food authenticity, safety, and
traceability.
More details on different applications of nanotechnol-
ogies for the food sector can be found in (Chaudhry
et al., 2010, 2008).
Potential risks
Whilst nano-sizing of materials offers lots of potential
benefits, it also brings the prospect of consumer exposure
to some insoluble and possibly biopersistent nanoparticles
(termed as hard nanomaterials) through consumption of
food and drinks. The concern is that, once in the body,
nanoparticles with large reactive surfaces may cross biolog-
ical barriers to reach those parts of the body which are
otherwise protected from entry of (larger) particulate mate-
rials. Whilst most foods processed at nano-scale should not
raise any special health concerns, there are a number of
knowledge gaps in our current understanding of the proper-
ties, behaviour and effects of hard nanomaterials which
may be used in food applications. Such knowledge gaps
make it difficult to assess the risk to a consumer, although
a careful consideration of the nature of materials and appli-
cations can provide a basis for a conceptual risk categorisa-
tion on a case-by-case basis. For example, products
containing natural food nano-structures that are likely to
be digested/degraded in the GI tract (also termed as soft
nanomaterials) may not require a detailed evaluation com-
pared to products containing insoluble and biopersistent
nanomaterials. On the basis of this, the following broad
application categories may be considered:
e Areas of least concern: where food products contain
processed (natural) food nano-structures, which are
either digested or solubilised in the gastrointestinal
(GI) tract, and are not biopersistent.
e Areas of some concern: where food products contain
encapsulated food/feed additives in nano-sized carriers
which may not be biopersistent but may carry the en-
capsulated substances across the GI tract. In such
a case, tissue distribution of the materials contained
in nano-carriers may be different from that of conven-
tional bulk equivalents. Also an increased bioavailabil-
ity of vitamins and minerals may not always be
beneficial for consumer health. A greater uptake of
food colours or preservatives could take the application
outside of the conditions under which the ADI (accept-
able daily intake value) was set for the additive.
e Areas of major concern: where food products contain
insoluble, indigestible, and potentially biopersistent
601
nano-additives (e.g. metals or metal oxides), or func-
tionalised nanomaterials. Such applications may pose
a risk of consumer exposure to hard nanomaterials
e the ADME profile (adsorption, distribution, metabo-
lism and elimination) and toxicological properties of
which are not fully known at present. Some of the pro-
jected applications in the agricultural sector (e.g. nano-
pesticides) will also fall in this category.
Any potential risk arising from nanotechnology-derived
food contact materials will be dependent on the migration
behaviour of nanomaterials from packaging. The few ex-
perimental and modelling studies reported so far (Avella
et al., 2005; Bradley, Castle, & Chaudhry, 2010; EFSA,
2008) suggest that the likelihood of nanoparticle migration
from polymer packaging to be either nil or very low. On the

basis of modelling (Simon, Chaudhry, & Bakos, 2008), it
can be predicted that any detectable migration of nanopar-
ticles from packaging to food will only take place where
very small nanoparticles (in the lower nm range) have
been incorporated in a polymer matrix that has a relatively
low dynamic viscosity, and the particles are not bound to
the polymer matrix. This provides some reassurance in
the safety of nanotechnology-derived food contact mate-
rials, although further research is needed to determine
migration patterns in other polymer-nanomaterial compos-
ites, especially those derived from biopolymers.
In relation to risk assessment of nanotechnology applica-
tions, it is of note that acutely toxic materials are unlikely to
be used knowingly in food products. Thus any concerns over
consumer safety mainly relate to long term, or new/unfore-
seen harmful effects of exposure to nanomaterials. Nano-
additives in food are also likely to undergo various transfor-
mations in food and the GI system due to agglomeration,
aggregation, binding with other food components, and reac-
tion with stomach acid, enzymes, and other biotransforma-
tion in the body. Such transformations may lead to
nanomaterials losing their nano characteristics. However,
there is currently little understanding of the nature or impact
of biotransformations on the safety of nano-food products.
Regulatory aspects
A number of regulatory gap studies have shown that
developments in nanotechnologies are not taking place in
a regulatory vacuum, as the potential risks will be con-
trolled under the existing frameworks (Gergely, 2007).
The current regulatory frameworks for food and food con-
tact materials in different jurisdictions, such as the Euro-
pean Union, the United States, and Australia are broad
enough to capture nanotechnology applications in the
food sector. These include regulations relating to general
food safety, food additives, novel foods, specific health
claims, chemical safety, food contact materials, water qual-
ity, general product safety, and other specific regulations on
the use of certain chemicals in food production/protection,
such as biocides, pesticides, veterinary medicines etc. The
602 Q. Chaudhry, L. Castle / Trends in Food Science & Technology 22 (2011) 595e603
environmental regulations are also likely to capture the use
of nanotechnologies in food packaging, and agri-food pro-
duction applications. For more information on regulatory
aspects of nanotechnologies see (Chaudhry et al., 2008;
Gergely, Bowman, & Chaudhry, 2010; Hodge, Bowman,
& Ludlow, 2007).
Current gaps in knowledge
In view of the pros and cons of the use of nanomaterials
in food products discussed here, there are a number of
knowledge gaps that need further research. These include:
e A clear, fit-for-purpose, definition of nanomaterials and
nanotechnologies is needed. This is currently being
considered under the recast of the food laws in Europe.
Meanwhile, working (but not final) definitions for var-
ious terms connected with nanotechnologies have been
adopted for the purposes of FAO/WHO/CODEX dis-
cussions (FAO and WHO, 2009).
e Validated methods for detection and characterisation of
nanomaterials in complex food matrices are not currently
available. A few research projects are currently addressing
this need; for example, the EUs Nanolyse project
<www.nanolyse.eu>, and relevant projects at USDA/
NIFA.
e Toxicological research on nanomaterial safety is in its
infancy. Some common themes have, however, started
to emerge from research projects that are underway in
this area. This knowledge, however, needs to be period-
ically pooled and reviewed to draw conclusions and
directions for future research.
e ADME profiles of nanomaterials may be different from
bulk equivalents, and it is not known how the ingested
nanoparticles will behave in the body. Again research
in this area is at an early stage.
e The long term health consequences (if any) of ingestion
of insoluble and biopersistent (hard) nanoparticles via
food are currently not known. There is also little under-
standing of the potential risks of functionalised nano(-
bio)materials that are emerging from the convergence
of nano- and bio-technologies.
e Guidance on risk assessment methodologies is patchy.
The European Food Safety Authority has currently pub-
lished a draft scientific opinion on risk assessment of
nanotechnology applications for food and feed for pub-
lic consultation (EFSA, 2011).
e There have been some uncertainties over the adequacy of
regulatory oversight of nanotechnology applications for
food and related products. For example, uncertainties
over responsibility/liability for relevant products and
applications, appropriate permissible limits that relate to
the (potential) effects of nano-substances in food/feed,
an exclusive pre-market approval system for nano-enabled
products etc. These uncertainties are currently being ad-
dressed by different regulatory authorities. For example,
there are certain regulatory developments in the pipeline
in the EU e e.g. the recast of the key European regulatory
instruments, such as Regulation 258/97 (the Novel Foods
Regulation), which is expected to include an explicit ref-
erence to foods modified by new production processes
such as nanotechnology and nanoscience, which may
have an impact on food http://ec.europa.eu/food/food/
biotechnology/novelfood/initiatives_en.htm.
Because of the cross-cutting nature of nanotechnology ap-
plications, most of the challenges are not specific to food
and related sectors, or to developing countries alone.
Indeed, these challenges require efforts at an international
level to realise the potential of nanotechnologies in a man-
ner that is both beneficial and safe to the consumer.
Possible ways to achieve this could be through:
e Establishment of international research collaborations
and networks that can address different aspects of the
existing and new nanotechnology applications in agricul-
ture and food sectors e i.e. not only the benefits but also
the potential risks to the consumer and the environment
(e.g. http://www.foodnano.org/). The main innovation
routes to nanotechnology applications are likely to arise
from small and medium enterprises (SMEs) and small
spin off companies. Therefore new start-up businesses
need be encouraged in developing countries to drive inno-
vation this field. It is also of note that small start-up com-
panies are usually taken over by larger ones through
mergers etc, and this may cause a barrier to further devel-
opments. Industry sponsored research also needs to be
encouraged. A number of Venture capital companies are
already seeking partnerships in developing countries.
Internal collaborations within a country between different
R&D institutions, industry and government departments
can overcome many of the current barriers.
e Development of clear and consistent guidelines for risk
assessment of nano-food products.
e Establishment of a global body to ensure quality con-
trol (i.e. a product indeed has been derived from nano-
technologies and not just labelled for a commercial
gain e or vice versa), and safety assessment of nano-
food products on a case-by-case basis.
e Promotion of industry best practices and self-regulation
in the use of nanotechnologies for food and related
applications.
e A harmonised regulatory system at the global level that
ensures pre-market evaluation of nano-food products,
sets liabilities, and sets clear limits for any nano-addi-
tives in food and related applications.
e Possible labelling of nano-food products to inform the
consumer.
Conclusions
An overview of the current and projected applications of
nanotechnologies for the food and related sectors shows
 Q. Chaudhry, L. Castle / Trends in Food Science & Technology 22 (2011) 595e603
that they offer a variety of benefits to the whole of food
chain e from innovative tastes and textures, to a potential
reduction in the dietary intake of fat, salt and other food ad-
ditives, improved absorption of nutrients and supplements,
preservation of quality and freshness, and better traceability
and security of food products (Table 1). Many of the bene-
fits e such as improvements in food quality and hygiene,
shelf life extension, water decontamination/desalination
etc, offer enormous potential for improvement of public nu-
trition and health in developing countries. The current level
of nanotechnology applications in the global food sector is,
however, only small and most products and applications are
still at R&D stage. There are also some major knowledge
gaps in regard to our current understanding of the proper-
ties, behaviour and effects of nanomaterials. The use of
nanomaterials, especially the insoluble and biopersistent
nanoparticles, in food applications must, therefore, consider
safety of the products to consumer health and the environ-
ment. The existence of stringent regulatory controls in
many countries provides reassurance that only safe prod-
ucts and applications of nanotechnologies will be permitted
on the market. However, there may be a need for a prag-
matic regulatory oversight in some developing countries
to ensure a case-by-case pre-market safety evaluation of
the nanotechnology-derived products to safeguard the con-
sumer from any potential risks.
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