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Some materials break very sharply, without plastic deformation, in what is called a
brittle failure. Others, which are more ductile, including most metals, experience
some plastic deformation and possiblynecking before fracture.
The UTS is usually found by performing a tensile test and recording the engineering
stress versus strain. The highest point of the stressstrain curve (see point 1 on the
Two vises apply tension to a
engineering stress-strain diagrams below) is the UTS. It is an intensive property; specimen by pulling at it, stretching
therefore its value does not depend on the size of the test specimen. However, it is the specimen until it fractures. The
dependent on other factors, such as the preparation of the specimen, the presence or maximum stress it withstands before
otherwise of surface defects, and the temperature of the test environment and fracturing is its ultimate tensile
strength.
material.
Tensile strengths are rarely used in the design of ductile members, but they are
important in brittle members. They are tabulated for common materials such as alloys, composite materials, ceramics, plastics, and
wood.
Tensile strength can be defined for liquids as well as solids under certain conditions. For example, when a tree [3] draws water from
its roots to its upper leaves by transpiration, the column of water is pulled upwards from the top by the cohesion of the water in the
xylem, and this force is transmitted down the column by its tensile strength. Air pressure, osmotic pressure, and capillary tension also
plays a small part in a tree's ability to draw up water, but this alone would only be sufficient to push the column of water to a height
of less than ten metres, and trees can grow much higher than that (over 100 m).
Tensile strength is defined as a stress, which is measured as force per unit area. For some non-homogeneous materials (or for
assembled components) it can be reported just as a force or as a force per unit width. In the International System of Units (SI), the
unit is the pascal (Pa) (or a multiple thereof, often megapascals (MPa), using the SI prefix mega); or, equivalently to pascals,newtons
per square metre (N/m). AUnited States customary unitis pounds per square inch (lb/in or psi), or kilo-pounds per square inch (ksi,
or sometimes kpsi), which is equal to 1000 psi; kilo-pounds per square inch are commonly used in one country (US), when
measuring tensile strengths.
Contents
1 Concept
1.1 Ductile materials
2 Testing
3 Typical tensile strengths
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
Concept
Ductile materials
"Engineering" stressstrain ()
curve typical of aluminum
1. Ultimate strength
2. Yield strength
3. Proportional limit stress
"Engineering" (red) and "true" (blue)stressstrain
4. Fracture
curve typical of structural steel.
5. Offset strain (typically 0.2%)
1: Ultimate strength
2: Yield strength (yield point)
Many materials can display linear elastic behavior, defined by a linear 3: Rupture
stressstrain relationship, as shown in the left figure up to point 3. The 4: Strain hardening region
elastic behavior of materials often extends into a non-linear region,
5: Necking region
represented in the figure by point 2 (the "yield point"), up to which
A: Apparent stress (F/A0)
deformations are completely recoverable upon removal of the load;
B: Actual stress (F/A)
that is, a specimen loaded elastically in tension will elongate, but will
return to its original shape and size when unloaded. Beyond this elastic
region, for ductile materials, such as steel, deformations areplastic. A plastically deformed specimen does not completely return to its
original size and shape when unloaded. For many applications, plastic deformation is unacceptable, and is used as the design
limitation.
After the yield point, ductile metals undergo a period of strain hardening, in which the stress increases again with increasing strain,
and they begin to neck, as the cross-sectional area of the specimen decreases due to plastic flow. In a sufficiently ductile material,
when necking becomes substantial, it causes a reversal of the engineering stressstrain curve (curve A, right figure); this is because
the engineering stress is calculated assuming the original cross-sectional area before necking. The reversal point is the maximum
stress on the engineering stressstrain curve, and the engineering stress coordinate of this point is the ultimate tensile strength, given
by point 1.
The UTS is not used in the design of ductile static members because design practices dictate the use of the yield stress. It is, however,
[4]
used for quality control, because of the ease of testing. It is also used to roughly determine material types for unknown samples.
The UTS is a common engineering parameter to design members made of brittle material because such materials have no yield
point.[4]
Testing
Typically, the testing involves taking a small sample with a fixed cross-sectional
area, and then pulling it with a tensometer at a constant strain (change in gauge
length divided by initial gauge length) rate until the sample breaks.
When testing some metals, indentation hardness correlates linearly with tensile
strength. This important relation permits economically important nondestructive
testing of bulk metal deliveries with lightweight, even portable equipment, such as
hand-held Rockwell hardness testers.[5] This practical correlation helps quality
assurance in metalworking industries to extend well beyond the laboratory and
universal testing machines.
While most metal forms, such as sheet, bar, tube, and wire, can exhibit the test UTS,
fibers, such as carbon fibers, being only 2/10,000th of an inch in diameter, must be
made into composites to create useful real-world forms. As the datasheet on T1000G
below indicates, while the UTS of the fiber is very high at 6,370 MPa, the UTS of a
Round bar specimen after tensile
.[6]
derived composite is 3,040 MPa less than half the strength of the fiber
stress testing
1500 for
laminates,
E-Glass N/A 2.57
3450 for fibers
alone
S-Glass N/A 4710 2.48
Carbon fiber (Toray T1000G)[19] (the strongest man- 6370 fibre alone 1.80
made fibres)
UHMWPE[22] 24 52 0.97
Vectran 28503340
Rubber 16
Boron N/A 3100 2.46
Silicon, monocrystalline (m-Si) N/A 7000 2.33
See also
Flexural strength
Strength of materials
Tensile structure
Toughness
Failure
Tension (physics)
Young's modulus
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Giancoli, Douglas, Physics for Scientists & Engineers Third Edition(2000). Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.
Khler T, Vollrath F (1995). "Thread biomechanics in the two orb-weaving spidersAraneus diadematus (Araneae,
Araneidae) and Uloboris walckenaerius(Araneae, Uloboridae)".Journal of Experimental Zoology. 271: 117.
doi:10.1002/jez.1402710102.
T Follett, Life without metals
Min-Feng Y, Lourie O, Dyer MJ, Moloni K, Kelly TF , Ruoff RS (2000). "Strength and Breaking Mechanism of
Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes Under T ensile Load". Science. 287 (5453): 637640. Bibcode:2000Sci...287..637Y.
PMID 10649994. doi:10.1126/science.287.5453.637.
George E. Dieter, Mechanical Metallurgy (1988). McGraw-Hill, UK
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