Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Antonio Gmez Ortiz, Lothar Schulte, Ferran Salvador Franch, David Palacios
Estremera, Carlos Sanz de Galdeano, Jos J. Sanjos Blasco, Luis M. Tanarro Garca and
Alan Atkinson
Antonio Gmez Ortiz, Lothar Schulte, Ferran Salvador Franch, David Palacios Estremera, Carlos
Sanz de Galdeano, Jos J. Sanjos Blasco, Luis M. Tanarro Garca and Alan Atkinson
Departament de Geografa Fsica i Anlisi Geogrfica Regional. Facultat de Geografa i Histria. Universitat Central de
Barcelona. Baldiri Reixac, s/n. 08028 Barcelona. e-mail: gomez@trivium.gh.ub.es
Introduction
The A9 field trip of the Sixth International Conference on Geomorphology highlights the special
morphobioclimatical nature of Sierra Nevada Massif situated in the southeast of Spain. This
massif is characterized by the existence of high peaks (over 3.400 m), its low latitude (the
southeastern zone of Europe) and its thermopluviometric pattern (long arid periods and intensive
cold). These features make Sierra Nevada and especially its summits be an interesting scientific
area to reconstruct the recent paleoenvironmental Quaternary history of the Mediterranean areas
and to understand the present morphodynamics in cold and arid high areas of temperate latitudes.
The guide is divided into two parts. The first one pays attention to the biophysics features and
particularly to the glacial and periglacial geomorphology of summits. The second part contains
the details of the viewpoints and the most outstanding geomorphological aspects of the field trip.
To sum up, the field trip emphasizes the glacial and periglacial landforms and the cold processes
that characterize the mountaintops from the study of one of the most representative areas of the
range, the Picacho Veleta unit.
The final results come from several research projects developed since 1998.
The morphology of Sierra Nevada is characterized by the predominance of gentle landforms apart
from the western summits affected by Pleistocene glaciations (picture 1 and figure 1). A dense
and incised network of creeks and watercourses compartmentalizes the relief. The ones orientated
to the South discharge into the Mediterranean Sea (Guadalfeo creek, Adra creek, Andarax creek,
etc.) while those orientated to the North discharge into the Guadalquivir River (Genil creek,
Fardes creek, etc.). They show an ephemeral regime due to the arid/semiarid climate of the
western part of the Mediterranean area. Long dry periods are interrupted by autumn high intensity
Sierra Nevada massif glacial geomorphology
storms that make the watercourses overflow, sometimes catastrophically. However, the altitude of
the massif triggers a change in the climate, especially in the summits where the cold and the snow
become important (at 2150 m between October and May the mean temperature is lower than 5 C
and the 47,8 per cent of the mean annual rainfall is as snow). As a result, the thicket and the
sclerophile forest of the lower altitudes disappear in favour of a xerophile grass of festucas at
higher altitudes.
0
al Ro Guadiana Baza
40
R. Almanzora
Guadix
GRANADA
R. Genil Fiana
37 N
ALMERIA
Adra
Motril
Cabo de Gata
N
0 10 20 30 Km
3 W
2
A. Gmez Ortiz et al.
Sierra Nevada (known asSun Hill/Snow Hill in Muslim texts of the IX century) has been
affected by anthropic activities since the old times. Currently, many villages are spread all over
the area ascending up to 1550 m high. Their economy is based on farming and tourism trade. The
summits that are home to high value scientific ecosystems and interesting landscapes have been
declared Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO, 1986), Natural Park (Regional Government, 1989) and
National Park (Spanish Government, 1999) (picture 2).
2. Geological context
Sierra Nevada is situated in the Inner Betic Zone that is formed by three large tectonically
overlapped complexes. From bottom to top, they are the Nevado-Filbride, the Alpujrride
and the Malguide. The latter does not crop out in Sierra Nevada. In contrast, the Alpujarride
Complex is found at low altitude areas surrounding the massif. The highest summits of this
complex such as Alayos, Trebenque, the Tesoro, the Dornajo and the Calar de Cantar
occur at the western part of the massif and they may reach 2000 m high. Although the Alpujarride
Complex is superposed on the Nevado-Filbride Complex, it is not as taller as the Nevado-
Filbride Complex. Both complexes are formed by metamorphic rocks. Finally, the Nevado-
Filbride Complex is divided into two thrust nappes: at the bottom the Veleta nappe and at the top
the Mulhacn nappe (figure 2).
In this area, the Veleta nappe is formed by a single unit called Las Yeguas unit (Puga, 1971;
Daz de Federico et al., 1980). The field trip pays attention to Veleta nappe outcrops. This nappe
is made up of over 3000 m thick dark carbonaceous schists (picture 3) (Daz de Federico et al.,
1980) that alternate with locally thick quartzite beds. We may also find lenses of amphibolites and
scarce serpentinites and epidotites. These rocks are believed to constitute a Palaeozoic basement
affected by Alpine metamorphism.
3
Sierra Nevada massif glacial geomorphology
GujarSierra
C Charcn 2528
Mirador Bajo
S Papeles
C
H. Duque
VP 2435
T Picn de
C Jeres
T T 2215 3094
Alcazaba 2891
C Veleta Puntal de 3366 C
C la Caldera
C 3398 3226 Mulhacn
3482
S
Tajo de Lagunillos
3157 C
C
S Tajo de los Machos
Caballo
3013 3081
Trevlez N
Alegas
C 2720
0 1 2 km
Mulhacn mantle
(S:Sabinas unit, C: Caldera unit, Fault
SF: San Francisco unit)
Figure 2. Geological context (modified and simplified from Daz de Federico et al., 1980).
To the top, Triassic quartzite beds alternate with feldspathic micaschists that may reach 200 m
thick.
From the beginning of the Tertiary to the end of the Oligocene, different stages of compression
and extension led to the thrusting of the Inner Betic Zone complexes. Subsequently, from the
lower Miocene to the Middle Miocene an important extensional period (Galindo-Zaldvar et al.,
1989; Garca-Dueas et al., 1992) caused a readjustment of the tectonic complexes and their units.
The upper units were displaced to the WSW. The deformation was first ductile affecting mainly
the Nevado-Filbride complex. Afterwards it changed to brittle affecting specially the Alpujrride
Complex. Most of the previously overlapped units were sheared and occasionally thrusted.
In spite of the intense tectonic activity no high relieves were formed. The highest ones (1830 m)
are found in the western zone of the massif. Those summits consist of Upper Miocene marine
sediments (Sanz de Galdeano & Lpez-Garrido, 1999) that suggest the main uplift stage occurred
after the Upper Miocene. The lack of eroded sediments from the Nevado-Filbride Complex in
4
A. Gmez Ortiz et al.
the stratigraphical record before the end of the Upper Miocene corroborates the previous
hypothesis.
Picture 3. Carbonaceous micaschists of the Veleta Unit affected by neotectonics and gelifraction processes.
The main uplift period that caused the large antiform structure of Sierra Nevada began in the
Upper Miocene as a result of a NNW-SSE to N-S compression regime (Sanz de Galdeano, 1998;
Sanz de Galdeano & Lpez Garrido, 1999; Sanz de Galdeano & Alfaro, 2004), which is still
active today. The uplift enhanced the incision of an important drainage system. The axis of this
antiform structure has an E-W orientation and it bends to the south in its western zone.
3. Geomorphological Context
Cold quaternary processes concentrate above 2000 m. The snow line was 2400, 2800-2900 and
1965 in the Wrm, Tardiglaciar and Messerli glacial phases respectively. The studies have
demonstrated that summits landforms grade into periglacial landforms from the mountaintops
downwards.
The quaternary glaciers of Sierra Nevada Massif were similar to those that exist in dry mountains
such as the High Atlas and Andes rather than in wet mountains such as the Alps or the Pyrenees.
Its latitude contributed to minimize the effect of the Atlantic atmospheric perturbances and to
favour the thermal Mediterranean influence. As a result the snow line was set at a much higher
5
Sierra Nevada massif glacial geomorphology
altitude than in other areas of the Iberian Peninsula (2300-2400 m in the North face; 2400-2500 m
in the South face; Messerli, 1965).
Other local factors that helped to characterize its glaciarism were its volume, altitude, preexisting
relief, morphostructure, lithology and slope orientation.
These local and regional factors made the glaciers exist in mountaintops and headwaters of creeks
mainly in the western zone where the summits such as the Cerro de Trevlez (2877 m)-Cerro
del Caballo (3013 m) reached the highest altitudes (figure 3).
In Sierra Nevada the area occupied by ice and snow masses is characterized by the following
geomorphological features:
Ro Genil Ro Alhor
n
arn
Gu
?
Ro
Ro Monachil
? ?
Ro Dlar
Ro Drcal
N
Trevelez
n
jar
an
oL
Ro Puntal Ro Poqueira
Ro Trevlez
R
0 5 km
1 2 3 4
Figure 3. Glaciarism of Sierra Nevada. Identification of the Corral del Veleta cirque. 1. Summits; 2. Fluvial network; 3.
Glacial cirques; 4. Glaciers.
6
A. Gmez Ortiz et al.
We may distinguish two types of glacial systems regarding their morphological meaning (table 1):
Table 1. Classification of Glacial systems
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Type Glacial system/form Variety Examples
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
convergent glacier tongues Genil, Poqueira, Trevlez
.
Cirque and valley not well differentiated Monachil, Guarnn, San Juan,
Valley isolated glacier tongue Lanjarn
..
Cirque and valley well differentiated Dlar, Vadillo, Maitena
Cirques
Sierra Nevada cirques were formed in the headwaters of watercourses where the slope was
suitable for the accumulation of snow. Those formed in the South face were favoured by an extra
supply of snow due to the predominance of west winds (picture 4). During the Tardiglaciar and
the Litlle Ice Age, the ice only remained in Cirques. The isolation of cirques, the
compartmentalization of glacial systems and the accommodation to a preexisting relief are
demonstrated by the lack of confluence points and transfluence passes.
7
Sierra Nevada massif glacial geomorphology
On the other hand, local tectonic structures influenced the erosion activity of glaciers and the
erosional landforms. The formation of thresholds, striated, polished and grooved rock surfaces
and overdeepened basins was controlled by NNW-SSE and NE-SW trending joints and faults
present on bedrock. Some examples are the Veleta (Green Water landscape), Cuenco del Gotern
and Juntillas cirques.
The most outstanding depositional landforms are rock glaciers that tend to fill cirques above
2,800 m. They might be formed during the Early Wrmiense (Tardiglaciar) in different phases
(Messerli, 1965; Lhenaff, 1977; Snchez Gmez et al. 1990). The best examples occur at the
headwater of Dlar creek (Cascajar del Cartujo) and in the Valdeinfierno unit (Genil headwater)
(figure 4).
Rock ledge
3371
Taj
os
del
G ote
rn More recent rock glaciers
no
i er
nf
ei
N ld
Va Gravity gelifract cone
de
o
nc
ra
0 50 100 m
B ar
River systems and irrigation
grassland
Valleys
Glaciers mainly tended to flow along the preexisting fluvial valleys leading to glacier tongues.
However some of them grew along the mountain slopes becoming cirque glaciers (Cornavaca,
Siete Laguna, Alhor). Glacier tongues were little and didnt reach long distances. Nevertheless,
glaciers orientated to the North and especially to the Northwest had longer tongues. For example,
the Dlar glacier tongue could reach more than 10 km long. The low latitude of the massif, the fact
that accumulation areas were small and the scarce transfluence caused the early thawing. As a
result the U-shaped glacial geometry of the valleys has disappeared quickly due to erosional
processes.
8
A. Gmez Ortiz et al.
Polished and raked bedrock Moraine matter indistinguishable Erosive high plateau
from Majada
Ro Veleta
Ro Mulhacn
Ro Seco
Peones
Negros
La Majada
Barr
anc
o de
l Sa
bina
r
Hoya del
Capitn
Ro Poquerira
Alto del
N Chorrillo
0 0,9 km
9
Sierra Nevada massif glacial geomorphology
Only those moraines deposited in low-gradient valleys (glaciers formed on cirque thresholds and
on open thalweg valleys) such as the ones present in Poqueira, San Juan, Cornavaca and Lanjaron
glacial systems, preserve their original morphology. In those places, several different stages of
moraines formation can be identified. Each stage may be related to a glacial period (figure 5). All
the moraines identified in the massif had similar features. They are sharp-crested ridges made up
of a poorly sorted mixture of debris embedded in fine matrix. In the absence of good absolute
dating, they have been dated depending on their morphosedimentary features and their
distribution in the valleys. Outer, inner and intermediate moraines are supposed to be Prewrm-
Wrm, Wrm-tardiglaciar and wrm respectively. The Poqueira glacial system is a good
example. Here, stepped moraine ridges occur between the altitudes of 1750 m and 3150 m
The most outstanding feature of Sierra Nevada periglaciarism is the existence of altiplanation
terraces. They are attributed to old remains of periglacial erosional surfaces. The edaphological
studies conducted in altiplanation terraces (Snchez Gmez, 1989) suggest that they behaved as
cryoplanation surfaces and they didnt host fjeld type ice caps. On the other hand, periglacial
processes led to patterned grounds, stone pavements, gelifluction lobes and stone accumulations
depending on the topographic gradient (table 2 and picture 5). In addition, during the Tardiglaciar,
a great volume of debris was accumulated leading to the previously mentioned rock glaciers. The
snow deflacted from the altiplanation terraces was accumulated in the cirques orientated to the
south. This fact controlled the dynamics of the existent rock glaciers such as the ones situated in
Poqueira and Lanjaron valleys.
10
A. Gmez Ortiz et al.
The geophysical (seismic and electrical profiles) and borehole data point out the present existence
of a frozen mass at 1.90 m underground covered of debris in the eastern side of the cirque where
the glacier lasted up to halfway through the 20th century (Gmez Ortiz et al. 1999). The frozen
body may be associated with an alpine permafrost situated between the back wall and the
Tardiglaciar lip moraines of the cirque. Periodical thermal checks suggest that it may be
undergoing a degradation process.
11
Sierra Nevada massif glacial geomorphology
5. Morphodynamics of summits
The climatic conditions of Sierra Nevada summits are defined by the aridity and the thermal and
nival regime (long periods of gelifraction processes on soils). Those conditions allow the
development of the important cold processes that characterize arid mountains. The combined
effect of cold, ice, snow and wind is very effective above 2.700 m in the South face.
Cold processes are variable. Gelifraction is favoured by the low strength of the substratum
(fractured micaschists that led to block accumulations at the toe of vertical walls). Solifluction
and cryoturbation are especially important in loose detrital deposits. Their action results in either
a slow migration of superficial debris along the slopes or the formation of debris terraces,
12
A. Gmez Ortiz et al.
depending on the topographic gradient. The scarce vegetation cover is always a passive agent as it
is unable to inhibit those movements. The resulted landforms, cryonival processes and altitude are
connected as shows Table 3.
1. Carihuela pass;
2. Picacho del Veleta Peak
3. Corral del Veleta cirque
4. Cerro de los Machos pass
13
Sierra Nevada massif glacial geomorphology
1. Carihuela pass.
Carihuela Pass (3199 m) is one of the main communication routes between the North and the
South faces of Sierra Nevada. Many years ago, people from the Alpujarra villages were obliged to
cross it to get to Granada city. Thanks to its situation it acts as a junction point of three glacial
valleys: Veleta, Lagunillos-El Nevero and Dlar. In addition, Carihuela Pass shows excellent
views of the Mulhacn-Loma del Tanto-Chorrillo Ridge and the Veleta cirque and valley head.
Corral del
Veleta
Corral de
Valdeinfierno
Veleta
3.398 m
Circo de
Ro Seco
Loma
Pa
N
0 300 900 m
Ro Veleta
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Figure 8. Morphology of the Veleta cirque. 1. Horn; 2. Sep-walled cirque; 3. Ledge, furrow; 4. Joints and faults families;
5. U-shaped valley; 6. Glacial basin hewn through a tectonic fault; 7. Bedrock subject to gelifraction and remains of
glacial abrasional surfaces; 8. Hanging valley and transfluence pass; 9. Ice cap (Corral del Veleta cirque); 10. Late-melting
glacier (Vasares del Veleta).
14
A. Gmez Ortiz et al.
The snow deflated from the Altiplanation terraces of the Picacho del Veleta peak fed the Veleta
Cirque. Even at the present times snow-patches orientated towards the South survive in the
surroundings of the Cilindro shelter in summer. The Veleta, Ro Seco and Mulhacn glaciers
formed the Poqueira glacial system that reached 6.4 km in length and led to a sequence of stepped
moraines. Their tongues reached the altitude of 1704 m. The zone of ablation occurred at an
altitude of 1980 m in the Hoya del Capitn basin.
In the Veleta Cirque, erosional landforms such as overdeepened glacial basins (Aguas Verdes,
Plpito and Cabras ponds) and incised channels (Chorreras Negras) were controlled by the
lithology and structure of the substratum (figure 8). This is made up of low shear strength
micaschists affected by a NW-SE and NE-SW trending alpine faults. Rockfall deposits
accumulate at the toe of vertical walls.
The Veleta glacial trough is a straight, wide and U-shaped valley of four km long (picture 6) that
starts soon after the cirque threshold is surpassed. In its right margin we find several knickpoints
and small hollows cut into bedrock blocked by rock glaciers. In its left margin the hanging Plpito
cirque and moraines are at 125 m above the main channel. Hanging lateral moraines occur in both
valley sides.
15
Sierra Nevada massif glacial geomorphology
The Picacho del Veleta peak connects with the Machos Peak through a gentle pass to the east and
with the headwaters of Dlar and Monachil creeks to the west. Its top shows one of the most
beautiful panoramic view of the massif (picture 7).
2.1. Thermal record from the Picacho del Veleta peak borehole
Periodic temperature measurements of the permafrost allow distinguishing annual and centuries-
old changes in the energy balance. The european PACE project (Permafrost and Climate in
Europe) established the first permafrost systematic monitoring network in the european
mountains. The stations were placed from Janssonhaugen (Svalbard) to Sierra Nevada (Spain)
(Janssonhaugen (Svalbard) Tarfalaryggen (Sweden) Juvvasshoe (Norway) Schilthorn and
Stockhorn (Switzerland) Stelvio Pass (Italy) Sierra Nevada (Spain)) (Harris et al., 2003; figure
9). In Sierra Nevada drillholes were conducted in the Picacho del Veleta peak (3,397 m high) up
to 114,5 m deep at 3,380 m high by rotary-percussion drilling technique. In a first stage 30 and in
a second stage 10 thermal sensors were placed inside a protection PVC pipe (figure 10).
The thermal profiles of figure 11 show the record of the only two temperature measurements
obtained (September 8th 2001 and August 27th 2002 at 12:00 am GMT). The absence of
permafrost in the Picacho del Veleta Peak is suggested by: a) The temperature values of the 2002
survey were above 2.15 C and b) the existence of water at 80 m deep.
16
A. Gmez Ortiz et al.
0 250 500 km
Svalbard, Noruega (UO-NO)
Jotunheimen, Noruega
(UO-NO y TEDAT-UK)
4000-
8 4
3500-
5
3000-
6
7
2500-
3
2000-
2
1500-
Altitude, meters
1000-
500-
1
0-
30 40 50 60 70 80
Figure 9. Geographical situation and altitude of permafrost monitoring stations in European mountains (PACE).
The temperature of both thermal profiles are almost similar from 1.20 m deep downwards. There
is just 0.15 C difference that is less than the deviation of the instrumentation. At 7 m deep the
temperature sets at around 2.45 C. Below this depth the variation of temperature was minimum.
The zero annual amplitude (ZAA) was set at 20 m deep. Under this depth there werent
significant temperature variations.
17
Sierra Nevada massif glacial geomorphology
467.0 468.0
3.098,08
116m-Borehole
3.095,5
3.050
2.900
4.102.0 4.102.0
2.950
3.073,0
3.10
3.065,5 0
3.095,5 3.15
3.072,5 0
3.200
3.137,0
3.250
3.150
00
3.3
3.200
3.329,0
c hos
3.250
s Ma
3.100
1
3.299,0
de lo
Cerro
3.352,5 3.319,5 3.323,5
3.398 3.324,5
3.35 0
3.298,5
3.30
Veleta Peak
0
3.135,0
467.0 468.0
The Picacho del Veleta peak thermal record shows that there isnt an increase of temperature due
to geothermal gradient. Actually, between 20 m and 100 m deep the thermal gradient is 0.004C
m-1 and it may be even negative. This fact has been also observed in other european mountains
included in the PACE project (Isaksen et al., 2001; Harris et al., 2003).
The influence of thermal flows from the Corral de Veleta (North) and Aguas Verdes (Southeast)
cirques walls might explain this phenomenon. The mean annual ground surface temperature
(MAGST) has been estimated around 2.6C. The 20 m deep bh1 thermal profile carried out in
Flela Pass in the Swiss Alps at an altitude of 2470 shows a similar behaviour. The absence of
permafrost possibly inhibits the development of a geothermal gradient (Luntschg et al., 2004).
18
A. Gmez Ortiz et al.
The thermal record allows reconstructing the maximum and minimum values from September
2002 to August 2004 (figure 12). The maximum temperature variation occurred just 20 cm below
the surface and the zero annual amplitude (ZAA) was at 20 m deep as in the first phase thermal
measurements. The extreme minimum temperature was -1.2 C at 20 cm deep. From 80 cm deep
downwards, temperature was no longuer negative. Therefore, only the upper 80 cm of the ground
is undergoing temperature changes above and below 0C. The mean annual ground surface
temperature (MAGST) was around 2.3 C, three tenths less than in the first phase survey. This
difference may be attributed to the less sensitivity of the UTL-1 sensors. The average annual
atmospheric temperature measured by the UTL-1 sensors at the Picacho del Veleta peak (3395 m)
was 0.83 C from September 21st 2003 to September 20th 2004 (figure 13).
Schulte, 2003
Figure 11. Geothermal log of the Picacho del Veleta peak (8-9-2001 y 27-8-2002).
The average ground temperature data recorded in Picacho del Veleta peak borehole (figure 14)
every four months from September 1st 2003 to August 26th 2004 suggests: a) there isnt
permafrost as it was already observed in the first phase survey, b) The ZAA is located at 20 m
deep, c) The lowest temperature values happened during spring in the first 5 m of the ground and
during summer between 5 m and 10 m deep, d) Solar radiation at the Corral cirque side walls may
explain the lack of a geothermal gradient as it was stated for the 2001-2002 period, and f) the
unknown thermal effect of the flowing water found at the base of the borehole.
19
Sierra Nevada massif glacial geomorphology
10
ZAA
20
30
40
50
60
Maximum and minimum temperatures 01.09.2002 - 28.08.2003
Maximum and minimum temperatures 01.09.2003 - 26.08.2004
Figure 12. Annual ground temperature amplitude within the Veleta peak borehole (3380 m) (2202-2204)
Temperature (C)
Figure 13. Air temperature in the Veleta peak (2003-2004 field survey).
20
A. Gmez Ortiz et al.
Conclusions
The positive temperature values recorded by the thermistors, the mean annual ground surface
temperature (MAGST) of around 2.3 C and the occurrence of water at different depths suggest
the lack of alpine permafrost. As a result, the postnival expansive thermal wave quickly
counteracts the negative values accumulated at the surface. Ground temperature values are 2.5 C
higher than the ones recorded by the PACE borehole in Schilthorn (46 N, Switzerland) at 2,900
m high (Harris et al., 2003).
Below the ZAA the positive thermal gradient remains constant probably due to its proximity to
the side walls of the Cirque. This fact has been also observed in the Stockhorn and Schilthorn
boreholes despite the present existence of permafrost (Harris et al. 2003). The lack of permafrost
in Sierra Nevada does not allow the calculation of the geothermal gradient and the possible
influence of the present climatic change (Lachenbruch & Marshall, 1986). The surface-wave
radiation reaches 20 m deep. The monitored boreholes of Tarfalaryggen (Sweden) and Juvvasshoe
(Norway) show the same value (Isaksen et al., 2001). The seasonal lag of the radiation wave is
recorded at a depth of 7 m.
3380 m
a.s.l.
Figure 14. Mean seasonal ground temperature within the Veleta peak borehole (3380 m) (2003-2004).
21
Sierra Nevada massif glacial geomorphology
Temperature of the Winter Snow Cover), altitude, solar radiation and snow cover. According to
Gruber & Hoelzle (2001), this relationship decisively influences on the occurrence of permafrost.
121 BTS temperature measurements were carried out at the base of the snow cover when it was
more than 80 cm thick and two months stay. Haeberli (1973) points out that permafrost exists
when the BTS temperature obtained under these conditions is below -3C BTS temperature values
below -3C were recorded in the north face of the Picacho del Veleta peak and the northern wall
of the Corral del Veleta cirque. The variables that might control these values were the altitude, the
potential solar radiation and the snow cover during summer. The altitude was established from a
1:10.000 scale digital elevation model (DEM). The potential solar radiation values were obtained
using the SRAD model. This model developed by Moore et al. (1993) allows determining the
solar radiation distribution from July to October when the snow cover is minimum and radiation
is maximum. The minimum radiation values occurred at the northern wall of the Corral del Veleta
cirque. A raster type model of the snow cover in summer time was obtained by the aerial
photographs of four years (1957, 1985, 1989 and 1999) in July. The different zones were
classified depending on the existence or the lack of snow.
A multiple regression analysis of the four variables was applied to develop a permafrost
distribution model using ArcInfo GIS software. The function used was (Gruber y Hoelzle, 2001):
BTS = 11.789 - 0.0054 * Altitude + 0.131 * Radiation + 0.095 * snow thickness in summer
Three different methods validated the model (figure 15). Firstly, the occurrence of a cryokarst
(collapse structures) informed that permafrost was undergoing degradation processes. Secondly,
the temperature under the snow cover was constant (-5C). Finally, seismic refraction and
geoelectrical resistivity surveys showed characteristic physical properties of the ice mass. For
example, different areas presented resistivity values of 562.220 Ohm/m
According to the model, permafrost occurs at the north face of the Picacho del Veleta peak and
the back wall of the Corral del Veleta cirque. The model informs that solar radiation is the
variable that best fit the permafrost distribution. Therefore it seems that permafrost existence in
the Picacho del Veleta peak is controlled by the topography that favours the occurrence of areas
where solar radiation is minimum and snow patches remain. Future BTS data of a larger number
of points and the establishment of a ground thermal control network at different depths will
improve the current model.
22
A. Gmez Ortiz et al.
23
Sierra Nevada massif glacial geomorphology
On the other hand, a large number of studies developed since the end of the XIX century in South
Europe evidence the glacial variability that existed in high mountain ranges. Messerli (1967)
pointed out the altitudinal and latitudinal distribution of glaciers during the Holocene and
Pleistocene glaciarism in the Mediterranean areas. However, the correlation and reconstruction of
the climatic changes in the Mediterranean regions isnt easy due to the shortage of well-
differentiated Holocene moraines, the insufficient geochronological data, The insufficient
stratigraphic record and the absence of written texts referring to the extension of glaciers.
In the Iberian Peninsula, the understanding of glacial fluctuations started in the nineties of the XX
century. For example, lichenometric dating and written texts of the Maladeta Cirque (central
Pyrenees Range) suggest that the Pyrenees Range underwent four ice expansion periods during
the Little Ice Age in 1600-1620 AC, 1820-1830 AC, 1915-1925 AC and 1985-1995 AC (Chueca
Ca & Julin Andrs, 1996). The rest of the mountain ranges of the Iberian Peninsula had a poor
record of moraine deposits that difficults the reconstruction of the recent climatic changes. Apart
from the Pyrenees, Sierra Nevada massif shows the greatest information.
For the last 130 years Sierra Nevada has become an interesting area to study end and lateral
moraines ridges due to the volume and geographical situation of the massif (Obermeier, 1916;
Paschinger, 1957; Messerli, 1965, Gmez et al., 1996; Schulte, 2002a). The Corral del Veleta
cirque located in the Guarnn valley and the Hoya del Mulhacn cirque situated in the
Valldecasillas valley are two of the most outstanding areas of the massif.
The youngest Tardiglacial moraine (LPM or Late Pleistoce Moraine) may be correlated with the
outer end and lateral moraine ridges of the Corral del Veleta cirque situated at an altitude of 2.980
m (figure 15). The LPM consists of heterogeneous, up to metric-scale blocks that are
perpendicularly orientated to the glacier flow direction. Its absolute age is unknown due to the
absence of radiometric dating. However, its spatial configuration and topography indicate a
tardiglacial age, probably Younger Dryas. The tardiglacial equilibrium line altitude (ELA) was
lower than the Holocene ELA (figure 16). This fact suggests that the glacier exceeded the cirque
threshold flowing along the Guarnn valley during the Tardiglacial. The reconstruction of the
Tardiglacial glaciation and ELA was carried out by Schulte et al. (2002 a) by the dating of
lacustrine sediments found in the overdeepened basin of the Hoya del Mulhacn cirque.
24
A. Gmez Ortiz et al.
3.065,5
3.073,0 0 features
Sorted circle (Crculo de piedras)
3.095,5 3.15 Sorted stripes (Banda de piedras)
0 Debris flows (Colada de derrubios)
3.072,5
Dead-ice depression (Depresin por fusin de hielo muerto)
3.200 Blocks field (Campo de bloques )
3.137,0 (Lbulos de solifluxin
Stone-banked
solifluction lobes con frente de piedras)
Gelifluxin lobes (Lbulos de gelifluxin)
s Channels (Canales)
cho
3.250
Ma
Break of slope by (Ruptura de pendiente por
Los
covered structural steps escalones estructurales cubiertos)
3.299,0
e Lakes (Lagos)
3.352,5 3.319,5 ro d
Pico del Veleta 3.323,5 Cer Fluvial network (Red fluvial)
3.398
3.350
3.298,5 3.324,5
3.300
100 0 100
467.5 468.0
25
Sierra Nevada massif glacial geomorphology
The HM3 period led to a 30 cm thick subglacial and ablation till that comprises subangular,
coarse and middle size clasts (52 %) and little fine size matrix.
S N
Corral del Veleta, Sierra Nevada (Spain)
Section CV-98-T2
30
/ 60 / 60 / 60 / / 60 45 4 5
/ 60 /
/4
/
45 45 45 / 60 / 60 60
/ 45
45
45
3 0
15
30
45
30
Flujo
30
30
45
0 / 15
45
30
30
45
/ 45
0 / 15
/ 30
/
/
30
45
/
/
/
45
30
/
15
/ 45
15
/
45
45
30
30
30
30
4 5
15
15
30
15
Flujo
15
0 / 15
30
30
45
30
30
30
Flujo Flujo
15
Flujo
0 / 15
/ 30
Flujo
0 / 15
0 / 15
0 / 15
0 / 15
30
0 / 15
0 / 15
Flujo
/ 30
/ 30
/
0 / 15
/ 30
0 / 15
/
/ 30
0 / 15
/
15
15
15
0 / 15
/ 30
/
15
15
15
Clast dip angle
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 % Clast dip angle
Clast dip angle Clast dip angle Clast dip angle
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 %
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 %
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 %
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 %
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 %
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 %
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 %
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 %
0 / 15 0 / 15 0 / 15
0 / 15 0 / 15
15 0 / 15
/ 30
15
15 15 30 15 / 30 15
/ 30 / 30 /4 / 30 15 / 30
5 / 30
30 30 30
30 / 30
45
/4 /4 / 45 30 /4
/
45
60 /
5 5 /4 5
60
45
5
45
45
4 5
45
/
60 /
90
45
/
60 /
60 /
60 /
60 /
60
/6
/6
60 /
60
60
/6
0
0
90
0
90
90
90
90
90
m
3130 Perennial
Rock fall talus
ice slab
3120
1
20
3110 10 2
<5 LIA flutes LIA moraines Holocene moraine Hm2
Hm4b HM4a
3100 40
6
10 40 7 <
5
3090 3 10 5
<5 4 5
40
3080
3070
3050
0 50 100 150 200
Moraines ridges of HM4a and HM4b are sinuous, their thickness shows variations and they
overlay older Holocene moraine deposits. They are made up of angular blocks that constitute 65
% of the total. We didnt find fine-grained sediments (measurement points numbers 5 and 6,
cross-section CV-98-T2, figure 9) (figure 17). Subglacial till shows streamlined features such as
glacial flutes (measurement points numbers 5 and 6, cross-section CV-98-T2) (figure 17).
Chronology of the Holocene glaciation in the Corral del Veleta cirque
The absolute ages of HM1, HM2 y HM3 are unknown but it seems that they happened during the
Holocene. We can ensure that HM1 and HM2 periods are older than the Little Ice Age. The
Holocene age of HM3 is doubtful. We believe that HM3 may occur at the beginning of the Little
Ice Age or during medieval times as its deposits are little weathered (Rthlisberger, 1986;
Zumbhl & Holzhauser, 1999).
The HM4b period led to an inner moraine ridge that represents the youngest deposit of the Corral
del Veleta cirque. The HM4b is associated with the last glacier advance that happened in 1876
AC (Hellmann, 1881). This ice expansion event may be correlated with the glaciers advance of
the Alps in 1850 AC (Rthlisberger, 1986; Zumbhl & Holzhauser, 1999) and the middle
Pyrenees between 1820 AC and 1830 AC (Chueca Ca & Julin Andrs, 1996).
26
A. Gmez Ortiz et al.
The morphoestratigraphical distribution of the HM4a moraine ridges informs that HM4a deposits
had to be oldest than the HM4b ones. The 210Pb dating of the lacustrine sediments of a pond
situated between Hm4a and Hm4b moraine ridges (Schulte, 2002a, 2002c) indicates that the
HM4a period may be related to an ice expansion during the Little Ice Age. This period may be
correlated with the early glaciers advance in the Alps (15701650 AD; Rthlisberger, 1986: 308;
Wanner et al., 2000) and the middle Pyrenees (1600-1620; Chueca Ca & Julin Andrs, 1996).
The studied glacio-lacustrine sediments form a 14 cm thick rhythmite sequence of silts and sands
that is overlying gravel and block size subglacial till of the HM4a period. Therefore, the lacustrine
sequence was sedimented after HM4a. The rhythmite sequence is formed by different
sedimentary units. The age of a sample taken at 7 cm deep was 1908 AC. If we suppose that the
sedimentation rate has been constant, we may hypothesize that its deposition started 200 to 250
years ago halfway of the XVIII century (Schulte, 2002b). Therefore, the HM4a period might be
associated with an advance of glaciers at the beginning of the Little Ice Age and it might be
correlated with the ice expansion recorded in the Alps in the 1570-1650 AC (Rthlisberger, 1986:
308; Wanner et al., 2000).
The Little Ice Age deglaciation was fast. In 1899 Reins measurements of the extension of the
Corral del Veleta cirque glacier demonstrated that the ice mass had reduced half its area in just 13
years. It seems that the glacier disappear throughout the first half of the XX century (Gmez et al.,
1999). According to Rodrguez et al. (1996), the thermal and pluviometric record of La Cartuja
station located in Granada city at an altitude of 774 m (1902-1994) and University Youth Hostel
station situated in Sierra Nevada massif at an altitude of 2.550 m (1960-1994) points out a
significant change in the rainfall regime. This change consists in a decrease in winter rainfalls and
an increase in summer rainfalls.
Correlation problems
It is difficult to correlate the glacial fluctuations observed in the Corral del Veleta cirque with the
ones recorded in the Alps due to the lack of chronological data. These data allow highlighting the
following thoughts: a) The distribution of moraines at different altitudes indicates that the snow
line has migrated to the mountaintops. Using the Hfer method (1879) we have estimated a 628 m
upward migration of the snow line in Sierra Nevada after the Last Glacial Maximum. In contrast,
Maisch (1981) considered that in the Alps the snow line underwent a 1200 m migration during the
same period of time; b) Pleniglacial and tardiglacial periods represent important morphological
stages in the South of the Iberian Peninsula; c) In the Corral del Veleta cirque, we have detected
two periods of glaciers advance during the Little Ice Age. They are known as HM4a (the oldest
stage) and HM4b that is considered to be the youngest period and to be form during the second
half of the XX century. Both periods (HM4a and HM4b) may be correlated with ice expansion
events of the Alps and Pyrenees.
Schulte (2002a) tried to establish a relationship between the glacier advances in the Guarnn
valley and the fluvial terraces of the Aguas River in the Vera Depression situated close to the
Mediterranean coast 150 km away from Sierra Nevada massif. The correlations are still difficult
and doubtful despite the number of moraine ridges and terrace levels are the same and the fact
that Pleistocene sedimentary units are different from the Holocene ones.
The discrepancy of absolute ages comes from the dating methods used. AMS radiocarbon dating
is difficult because sediments of semiarid environments contain a little amount of organic matter
27
Sierra Nevada massif glacial geomorphology
and pollen grains. Cosmogenic nuclides accumulation and thermoluminescence dating methods
may be used in the coming future in spite of their probable age deviation. In addition, future
research should focus on determining the absolute chronology of the Sierra Nevada glacial
fluctuations so as to know the effects of climatic changes in the Mediterranean mountain ranges
and surroundings.
Average depth 14 m 14 m 10 m 25 m
Seismic velocity (m/s )maximum 4200 maximum 3800 maximum 3600 maximum3600
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
The existence of ice masses (permafrost) covered by debris was suggested by the interpretation of
vertical electrical sounding carried out during the 1995 summer. Later electrical and seismic
sounding of the PACE project (Permafrost and climate in Europa) developed by Terradat-LTD &
ETH in 1995, highlighted the existence of high resistivity deep layers exclusively in the eastern
zone of the Corral del Veleta (table 4).
...
C2 (25 cm). Dense and crystalline ice mass.
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
28
A. Gmez Ortiz et al.
A borehole was carried out in August 1999 at an altitude of 3105 m in the front of a rock glacier
in the eastern zone of the cirque (zones C and D) 250 m away from the Lagunilla del Corral pond
(Table 4). There, the highest resistivity values (58914 and 562220 Ohm/m) (figures 18 y 19) and
the type of landforms (gelifruction lobes with transverse ridges and rock glaciers) suggested the
possible existence of deep ice masses. The drill core was continuous and reached 190 cm deep
(table 5 and Picture 8).
Picture 8. Borehole log of the permafrost top in the Corral del Veleta cirque
The existence of frozen sediments from 1,20 m deep downwards, the high resistivity of zone D
(562220 Ohm/m) and the location of ice bodies in the first 50 cm under the ground in other places
of the debris-mantled slope of the Corral de la Veleta cirque, ensures the occurrence of alpine
permafrost in the eastern zone of the cirque. The permafrost would be covered by debris and it
would occupy 3200 m2. Its origin is associated with the deglaciation of the Corral del Veleta
glacier after the Little Ice Age at the end of the XIX century. Halfway through the XX century the
glacier had already become a single ice body situated in the eastern zone of the cirque. Debris
material covered it becoming a motionless black glacier. This origin explains its distribution and
the irregular depth of the permafrost top.
In Sierra Nevada massif, we are only sure that permafrost exists in the Corral del Veleta cirque,
although BTS results indicate that it may also occur in other places such as the Cerro de los
Machos peak (3240 m). Permafrost survival lies in the insulating effect of the debris cover. In
addition, the topography and orientation of the Corral del Veleta cirque made its eastern zone be
an especially cold place. Solar radiation is minimum and snow cover remains most of the year. As
a result, the underlying ice melts slowly although the thermal measurements we are carrying out
inform that the solar radiation effect reaches the top of the permafrost (Gmez Ortiz et al., 2004)
29
Sierra Nevada massif glacial geomorphology
The insulating effect of the snow cover may protect the substratum from temperature changes
(Gmez Ortiz et al. 2003). Besides, ice fixes the blocks and prevents slope movements (Thorn,
1988). In contrast, when the snow cover abruptly melts during summer time, the shear strength of
the slope decreases leading to large slope movements (Strmquist, 1985; Rapp & Nyberg, 1988).
Every year since 1995 we have monitored the residence time of the snow cover and the
geomorphological processes in order to understand the relationship between snow cover dynamics
and slope movements (table 6 and figure 18). The monitoring has been carried out by oblique
aerial photographs in September when snow cover is minimum. Slope movements and snow
cover have been mapped and the photographs have been georeferenced using a 5 m resolution
digital elevation model (DEM).
-2.0 30.0
Figure 18. Topography and Electrical D-log in the Corral del Veleta cirque.
30
A. Gmez Ortiz et al.
-10.0
South West North East
-20.0
Vertical exaggeration in model section display= 1.0 Unit electrode spacing= 5.0 m
First electrode is located = 0.0 m.
Last electrode is located = 200.0 m.
Source: TerraDat & ETH (1998)
Figure 19. Topography and Electrical C-log in the Corral del Veleta cirque.
We can distinguish three areas depending on the snow residence time. The first one is located
between the debris-mantled slope and the eastern and central walls of the cirque. There snow can
be found all the year. The second one is situated in creeks and between the debris-mantled slope
and the western wall of the cirque. In these places the snow only remains in very wet years.
Finally, the third one covers the central zone of the debris-mantled slope and the western side of
the cirque. Here, the snow tends to disappear every summer.
467.5 468.0
3.250
00
4.101.5 3.3 4.101.5
os
3.250
a ch
3.299,0 os M
eL
3.352,5 3.319,5 ro d
Pico del Veleta 3.323,5 C er
3.398
3.350
3.298,5 3.324,5
3.300
467.5 468.0
Figure 20. Evolution of the snow cover in the Corral del Veleta area in summer (from 1998 to 2004).
31
Sierra Nevada massif glacial geomorphology
Table 6. Snow cover in the debris-mantled slope of the Corral del Veleta cirque during September
________________________________________________________________________________
Time of residence Percentage of covered area Years
Maximum time >65 % 1996, 1997
Intermediate time 25/65 % 1998, 2001, 2004
Minimum time <25 % to 0 % 1995, 199, 2000, 2002, 2003
________________________________________________________________________________
Conclusions
After 10 years of study it seems that the increase in the number of slope movements is related to
the absence of snow cover during summer time although there are differences depending on the
zone of the debris-mantled slope (picture 9). The existence of frozen layers within the substratum
and the amount of fine-grained sediments are also important factors for the development of slope
movements.
The debris-mantled slope that connects the bottom and the vertical walls of the cirque can be
divided into three zones depending on the activity of the slope processes. The western zone is not
affected by slope movements except for the bed of the creeks where snow tend to remain. Slope
movements, especially debris flows and landslides, often take place in the central zone. Processes
in the eastern zone arent as active as the ones that happen in the central zone. The movements
tend to be slow and they are associated with frost heaving, thermokarstic collapses and solifluction
flows.
32
A. Gmez Ortiz et al.
The obtained data indicate that the northern wall of the Corral del Veleta cirque is undergoing a
transition from an old glacial period to a present deglaciated paraglacial period. In the former,
cirque walls were affected by unloading and gelifraction processes that supplied a big amount of
debris. The material was evacuated by the glacier forming moraine ridges. During the latter, a
debris-mantled slope was generated.
At the beginning of the XX century, during this transition period we can distinguish a post-glacial
stage in which the Corral de la Veleta glacier mass balance became negative. As a result, the
glacier was unable to transport the supplied materials that came from the cirque walls leading to an
incipient debris-mantled slope. The thickness of the debris was minimum in comparison with the
thickness of the ice mass. Solar radiation at the toe of the cirque walls was minimum. Therefore,
the ice melted at a slower rate than at the top of the cirque walls. The slope was affected by slow
slope movements and processes such as frost heaving, thermokarstic collapses and solifluction
flows.
In a later period, the debris-mantled slope already appeared but in an early phase of development.
Although the debris layer was thicker, there were important frozen beds very close to the surface.
As a result, their permanence or melting depended on the snow cover variation. Slope movements
were fast, catastrophic and they had a very irregular distribution.
In the last period the frozen layers disappeared and the slope reached its mature phase. The slope
became a real accumulation area and its morphogenetic activity was controlled by the debris
supply and the snow cover.
33
Sierra Nevada massif glacial geomorphology
and stones that constitute its surface may reach 10 m thick. It occupies an area of 3700-4000 m2.
Its central and frontal parts are characterized by the existence of arcuate ridges and lobes. Its
origin, present morphology and dynamics are associated with the continuous supply of rock debris
from the eastern wall of the Corral del Veleta cirque, the intervention of cold processes in the
debris and the successive and different slope movements that affect it. We are especially
interested in its evolution, movement, geometric configuration, the temperature of its layers and
the temperature of the permafrost top (picture 10).
Picture 10. Corral del Veleta cirque and Corral del Veleta rock glacier.
34
A. Gmez Ortiz et al.
We have used Sanjos Blasco (2003) and Sanjos Blasco et al. (2004) methodology and
techniques (Geodetic, topographical and photogrammetric monitoring) in the central and frontal
parts of the rock glacier in order to determine its movement (figure 21). The installation of
straight rods in its perimeter, transverse lines and points allow us to measure vertical (subsidence)
and horizontal (advance) topographical variations once a year since 1995 (table 7). The average
subsidence of the glacier indicates that during 2002-2003 and 2003-2004 the volume-loss was
1500 m3 and 336 m3 respectively.
In 1999, a drillhole were carried out in the rock glacier front at an altitude of 3.107 m reaching the
permafrost top. Thermal sensors of the datalogger tiny-talk type (-35/+70C temperature range,
and in past years UTL-1) were installed inside at depths of 0m, -0.15 m, -0.40 m, -0.9 m and 1.9
m. We used Ramos (1998) methodology for data capture (table 8 and figure 22).
lagoon 3130
31
20
31
10
31
00
30
90
4.101,6
2
3
4
5 6
7 8
9
SCV
10
25
24 11
0 10 20 30 m
12
23 13
Perimeter
22
14 15
Transect
Resistivity
Reference bar
Topographical base
467,7
Figure 21. Topography and measurement points of the Corral del Veleta rock glacier.
The research of the Corral del Veleta rock glacier demonstrates the relationship between the
thermal evolution of the ground (with or without snow cover) and the instability of the rock
debris. The dynamics of the rock glacier is deduced by the vertical and horizontal displacement of
the rock debris layer and the volume balance. The different mechanical response of the debris
layer to canges in the superficial and internal temperature may explain its dynamics.
35
Sierra Nevada massif glacial geomorphology
Temperature (C)
Extreme min. Mean Extreme Max.
-30 -20 -10 -5 0 5 10 20 30 40
800 800
400 400
0 0
-15 -15
Thermal sample level (cm)
-40 -40
-50 -50
-90 -90
-190 -190
Figure 22. Sub-surface temperatures of the Corral del Veleta rock glacier and Verro de los Machos pass and air
temperatures of the Veleta summit.
Picture 11. Cerro de los Machos pass and Picacho del Veleta peak
36
Table 8. Extreme and average temperatura values for air and ground surface, in the Corral del Veleto cirque, Collado de los Machos Peak and meteorological reference
sites
37
Sierra Nevada massif glacial geomorphology
The altiplanation terraces of Sierra Nevada are highly eroded, individualized and isolated due to
the later retreatment of glacial cirque walls. The Machos cryoplanation terrace that is limited by
Valdeinfierno and Corral del Veleta cirques is a good example. In addition, this surface host the
most interesting patterned ground of Sierra Nevada and the best ones of the Iberian Peninsula. The
patterned ground occupies 0.5 ha and it includes different forms depending on the topographical
gradient. Sorted circles and stone roses occur when the slope angle is less than 3. If it is between
3 and 6 the circles deform and become sorted stripes. All of them resulted from frost heaving
(Tricart & Cailleux, 1967). The stones that constitute them are metric and decimetric size (picture
12). The surroundings of patterned grounds show terraces, vegetation stripes, stone lobes and
block fields at slope angles between 6 and 9. When the slope increases the previous forms grade
into block lobes. When the slope angle exceeds 20 the resulted forms are closely associated to
gravitational processes as it occurs in the boundaries between the terrace and Valdeinfierno and
Veleta cirques.
In contrast to other cryoplanation terraces of Sierra Nevada, lichen and psicroxerophite grass have
settled on Macho terrace patterned grounds. Therefore, they are inherited forms that were
generated in cirques and headwaters during the last phases of the Pleistocene glaciarism.
Picture 12. Detailed picture of Machos cryoplanation terrace patterned ground field
Thanks to Pace Project, a vertical electrical sounding survey was carried out in the Cerro de los
Machos peak in 1999 in order to determine the existence of permafrost. The electric logs points
38
A. Gmez Ortiz et al.
out the probable existence of discontinuous permafrost between 1 m and 4 m deep. The maximum
values of resistivity were 100.000 Ohm/m (Terradat & ETH, 1998-99) (figura 23). Datalogger
type thermal sensors (NTC100 thermistor Tiny-Talk model and TMC-1T thermistor UTL-1
model) were installed at -5 cm, -10 cm and -50 cm deep. We only have the continuous and daily
data of the 1999-2000 and 2003-2004 field surveys from November to August (table 8). We
observed in the table that the thermal profiles show a constant and positive mean temperature of
0.4C. This value may be in agreement with the existence of permafrost 1 m under the surface.
Other important data are the large number of days in which the temperature was negative or it
ranged around 0C during the 2003-2004 survey (table 9 and figure 24).
5.0
We can see from the table 9 that the air temperature was 102 days bellow 0 C and 115 days
ranging around 0 C. For the same period, ground temperature shows negative values 195 days at
-50 cm deep and 162 days at -10 cm deep. In addition, freeze and thaw cycles occurred 2 days at -
50 cm deep and 47 days at -10 cm deep. These temperature data demonstrate that the ground
freezes while there is a snow cover and it melts during the postnival period. On the other hand, the
fluctuation of temperature values around 0 C (47 days at -10 cm deep and 2 days at -50 cm deep)
suggests that the snow cover does not exert an insulating effect probably due to the deflaction of
the snow cover.
PV: air temperature in the Veleta peak (3396 m) 4 m over the ground; CV-rg: bore-hole in the Corral del Veleta rock
glacier (3107 m); CM-pg: Paterned ground in Cerro de los Machos pass (3297 m).
39
Sierra Nevada massif glacial geomorphology
Temperature (C)
Extreme min. Mean Extreme Max.
-30 -20 -10 -5 0 5 10 20 30 40
800 800
Thermal sample level (cm)
400 400
0 0
-10 -10
-50 -50
Figure 24. Sub-surface temperatures of the Cerro de los Machos pass and air temperatures of the Veleta summit.
All these data do not allow ensuring the existence of permafrost in the Cerro de los Machos peak.
Therefore, we will need to control the temperature at deeper layers in the coming future.
Acknowledgements
We are sincerely grateful to E.U. ENV4-Ct97-0492 and Spanish Government BSO0745 research
projects and to David Serrano Gin for his graphical support. Servei de Paisatge from Universitat
de Barcelona is thanked for it special collaboration, as well as Parque Nacional de Sierra Nevada
for it stakeholder.
40
A. Gmez Ortiz et al.
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