Cell and Cell Structure

I. Overview

Organization of the cell:

 Cell Membrane
Cytoplasm
Cytosol
Organelles
Nonmembranous: Cytoskeleton, Microvilli, Centrioles, Cilia, Flagella, Ribosomes
Membranous: Mitochondria, Nucleus, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi Apparatus, Lysosomes, Peroxisomes,
Vesicles

II. Plasma Membrane (Cell Membrane)

 "Fluid Mosaic Model" - plasma membrane is composed of a double layer (bilayer) of
phospholipid molecules with proteins that float/move among the phospholipids, yet the
plasma membrane is stable.
Diagram of the cell membrane:

Proteins function....
 1. As cell markers for recognition by immune system
2. As receptors (e.g for hormones)
3. As catalysts
4. Transportation
Proteins in the membrane...
1. integral proteins (maintain selective transport)
2. peripheral proteins (catalyst and mechanical function)
The plasma membrane also contains a myriad of biological compounds such as glycoproteins,
glycolipids, and proteoglycans (all referred to as glycocalyx) that extend outward from the
plasma membrane.

III. Cytoplasm

Cytoplasm is the material found inside the cell and is divided into two subdivisions: cytosol
and organelles.
Cytosol (intracellular fluid) contains dissolved nutrients, ions, soluble and insoluble
proteins, and waste products.
Organelles are structures that perform specific functions within the cell and are classified as
membranous and non-membranous.
Mitochondria Rod-like, double membrane, inner membrane folded into projections called cristae; Site of ATP synthesis.
Dense particles consisting of two subunits, each composed of ribosomal RNA and proteins; can be free or it can
Ribosomes
be attached to ER; site of protein synthesis
Coiling membrane system with ribosomes attached; proteins synthesized are packaged into vesicles for transport
E. R. (rough)
to the golgi apparatus
E. R. (smooth) Coiling membrane system lacking ribosomes; synthesizes lipids and carbohydrates
Stack of smooth membrane sacs adjacent to the nucleus; modifies synthesized proteins, then packages the proteins
Golgi apparatus
(e.g. lysosomes & peroxisomes) in vesicles for transport around/out of cell
Lysosomes Membranous sacs containing hydrolytic enzymes used in cell digestion
Membranous sacs containing oxidative enzymes (e.g. peroxidase) that degrade toxic compounds such as
Peroxisomes
hydrogen peroxide
Vesicles Membrane bound sac that transports cellular material
Microfilaments Filaments containing the contractile protein actin; part of the cytoskeleton and functions in intracellular movement
Protein fibers that provides strength, stabilize the position of organelles, and transport materials within the
Intermediate filaments
cytoplasm
Hollow tubes composed of the globular protein tubulin; microtubules provide strength and rigidity and anchoring
Microtubules
major organelles
Large and long strands of myosin protein found in muscle cells that interact with thin actin filaments to produce
Thick filaments
muscle contraction
Cylindrical structure composed of nine triplets of microtubules; centrioles direct the movement of DNA during
Centrioles
cell division as well as form the bases of cilia and flagella
Microvilli Small, finger-shaped projections of the cell membrane that actively absorb fluid and nutrients
Cilia Cell surface projections composed of microtubules; cilia move to propel substance across the cell surface
Flagella Larger and longer cilia that provides cellular locomotion (e.g. human sperm)
Nucleus Structure housing genetic information and is surrounded by a membrane (nuclear envelope)
IV. Membrane Transport Processes

Transportation of materials across the cell membrane is determined by the components in the membrane that impart
permeability.
Most cell have selective permeability, free passage of some materials and restricts the passage of others
Permeability may be based on size, electrical charge, molecular shape, solubility, etc... Passage across the membrane is
classified as active (requiring energy) and passive (not requiring energy)
Membrane transport processses:
Passive
Diffusion - net movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
 Osmosis - diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane.
 Facilitated diffusion - diffusion of a substance with the aid of a membrane carrier.

Filtration - movement of water and solutes through a semipermeable membrane from a region of higher
hydrostatic pressure to a region of lower hydrostatic pressure
Active
Active transport - movement of a substance (with the aid of a membrane carrier) through a membrane against
its concentration gradient.
Exocytosis - substances enclosed in a vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane, the vesicle then ruptures,
releasing the substances outside the cell.
 Endocytosis (types):

Phagocytosis - the cell membrane extends outward and encloses large particles which are then
transported into the cell

Pinocytosis - particles attach to the cell membranes which collapses, causing particles to be taken into
the cell.
Receptor-mediated - pinocytotic movement initiated by protein receptors on the plasma membrane.
Movement of particle may be....
Symport - movement of two or more different kinds of material in the same direction across the
cell membrane
Uniport - movement of one type of material in one direction across the cell membrane
Antiport - moving two types of material across the cell membrane in opposite directions

V. Cell Division (Cell Life Cycle)

Multicellular organisms develop from a zygote, which is formed by the fusion of a sperm and an egg (gametes). Each gamete has half
a half compliment of chromosomes (haploid number) and when combined gives rise to a zygote with a complete set (diploid number)
of chromosomes. In order for the zygote to develop into a multicellular organism, it must repeatedly undergo cellular divisions. The
series of events a cell (or zygote) undergoes that ultimately produces a new cell is called the cell cycle.

The cell cycle is divided into two major stages: Mitosis and Interphase. Interphase is subdivided into three phases: S, G1, and G2
phases. During the S phase, DNA is duplicated in order to provide a full compliment for the new cell, called a daughter cell. The G
phases are periods of growth and differentiation of a cell. The cell spends 90% of its time in interphase.
Mitosis, in comparison to interphase, is subdivided into four phases: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase. During
prophase, chromosomes (consisting of DNA and proteins) become distinguishable in the nucleus. In early prophase, the nuclear
membrane breaks down, and the chromosomes condense and become distributed throughout the cytoplasm. At high magnifications,
sister chromatids may be detected. Chromatids, which are joined to each other in a region called the centromere, are identical copies
made during DNA replication. The chromosomes may be sorted or arranged with the aid of contractile fibers called mitotic spindle
fibers. By late prophase the chromosomes are drawn toward the middle of the cell.

In metaphase, sister chromatids become arranged toward the center of the cell (equatorial plate) in a plane at right angles to the long
axis of the spindle. Once all chromatids are aligned at the equatorial plate, anaphase begins. The pair of chromosomes that comprise
the chromatid are separated and transported to the polar (opposite) ends of the cell. Telophase will begin. During this stage in plant
cells a cell plate will form and divide the original cell into two daughter cells. In animal cells, the cytoplasm pinches inward forming
the cleavage furrow. Towards the end of telophase, in both plant and animal cells, the nuclei begin to reorganize, chromosomes uncoil,
and the nuclear membrane reforms. and uncontrolled mitosis?
VI. Protein Synthesis

Diagram Diagram
 Ribonucleic acid (RNA) links DNA's genetic instructions for making proteins to the process of protein synthesis
It copies or transcribes the message from DNA and then translates that message into a protein.
RNA, like DNA, is a nucleic acid or polymer of nucleotides
RNA structure differs from DNA in the following ways:
The five carbon sugar in RNA nucleotides is ribose rather than deoxyribose
The nitrogenous base uracil is found in place of thymine
The linear sequence of nucleotides in DNA ultimately determines the linear sequence of amino acids in a protein.
Nucleic acids are made of four types of nucleotides which differ in their nitrogenous bases
Hundreds or thousands of nucleotides long, each gene has a specific linear sequence of the four possible bases.
Proteins are made of twenty types of amino acids linked in a particular linear sequence (the protein's primary structure).
Information flows from gene to protein through two major processes, transcription and translation.
Transcription - the synthesis of RNA using DNA as a template
 A gene's unique nucleotide sequence is transcribed from DNA to a complimentary nucleotide sequence in messenger
RNA (mRNA).
The resulting mRNA caries this transcript of protein-building instructions to the cell's protein-synthesizing machinery.
Translation - synthesis of a polypeptide, which occurs under the direction of messenger RNA (mRNA)
During this process, the linear sequence of bases in mRNA is translated into the linear sequence of amino acids in a
polypeptide.
Translation occurs on ribosomes, complex particles composed of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and protein that facilitate the
orderly linking of amino acids into polypeptide chains.
Signals are contained in the RNA to start and stop translation.