What is a radiation dose?

When ionizing radiation penetrates the human body or an object, it deposits energy. The energy
absorbed from exposure to radiation is called a dose. Radiation dose quantities are described in
three ways: absorbed, equivalent, and effective.

Dose Quantaties
Dose Quantaties: Absorbed dose, energy deposited in a kilogram of a substance by radiation.
Equivalent dose, absorbed dose weighted for the degree of the effect of different radiations
(radiation weighting factor wr). Effective dose, equivalent dose weighted for susceptibility to
effect of different tissues (tissue weighting factor wt).

Absorbed dose
The amount of energy deposited in a substance (e.g., human tissue), is called the absorbed
dose. The absorbed dose is measured in a unit called the gray (Gy). A dose of one gray is
equivalent to a unit of energy (joule) deposited in a kilogram of a substance.

Equivalent dose
When radiation is absorbed in living matter, a biological effect may be observed. However, equal
absorbed doses will not necessarily produce equal biological effects. The effect depends on the
type of radiation (e.g., alpha, beta, gamma, etc) and the tissue or organ receiving the radiation.
For example, 1 Gy of alpha radiation is more harmful to tissue than 1 Gy of beta radiation.

A radiation weighting factor (wR) is used to equate different types of radiation with different
biological effectiveness. This weighted absorbed quantity is called the equivalent dose and is
expressed in a measure called the sievert (Sv). This means that 1 Sv of alpha radiation will have
the same biological effect as 1 Sv of beta radiation.

Because doses to workers and the public are so low, most reporting and dose measurements use
the terms millisievert (mSv) andmicrosievert (Sv) which are 1/1000 and 1/1000000 of a sievert
respectively. These smaller units of the sievert are more convenient to use in occupational and
public settings.
To obtain the equivalent dose, the absorbed dose is multiplied by a specified radiation weighting
factor (wR). The equivalent dose provides a single unit which accounts for the degree of harm of
different types of radiation.

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Effective dose

Tissue/Organ sensitivity
Tissue/Organ sensitivity. Tissue weighting factor wt. Gonads, 0.2. Bone marrow, 0.12. Colon,
0.12. Lung, 0.12. Stomach, 0.12. Bladder, 0.05. breast, 0.05. Liver, 0.05. Oesophagus, 0.05.
Thyroid, 0.05. Skin, 0.01. Bone surface, 0.01.

Different tissues and organs have different radiation sensitivities. For example, bone marrow is
much more radiosensitive than muscle or nerve tissue. To obtain an indication of how exposure
can affect overall health, the equivalent dose can be multiplied by a factor related to the risk for
a particular tissue or organ. This multiplication provides the effective dose absorbed by the body.
The unit used for effective dose is also the sievert.

Source: CNSC Radiation Protection Regulations

As a simple example, if someone's stomach and bladder are exposed separately to radiation, and
the equivalent doses to the tissues are 100 and 70 mSv respectively, the effective dose is: (100
mSv x 0.12) + (70 x 0.05) = 15.5 mSv. The risk of harmful effects from this radiation is equal to
15.5 mSv received uniformly through the whole body.

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Dose from background radiation

Radiation has always been present all around us. In fact, life has evolved in a world containing
significant levels of ionizing radiation. It comes from space, the ground, and even within our
bodies. The doses due to natural background radiation vary depending on location and habits.
Dose from cosmic radiation
Regions at higher altitudes receive more cosmic radiation. According to a recent study by Health
Canada, the annual effective dose of radiation from cosmic rays in Vancouver, British Columbia,
which is at sea level, is about 0.30 mSv. This compares to the top of Mount Lorne, Yukon, where
at 2000 m, a person would receive an annual dose of about 0.84 mSv. Air travel also increases
exposure to more cosmic radiation, for a further average dose of 0.01 mSv per Canadian per
year.

Dose from terrestrial radiation

There are also natural sources of radiation in the ground. For example, some regions receive
more terrestrial radiation from soils that are enriched with uranium. The average effective dose
from the radiation emitted from the soil (and the construction materials that come from the
ground) is approximately 0.5 mSv a year. However, the dose varies depending on location and
geology, with doses reaching as high as 260 mSv in Northern Iran or 90 mSv in Nigeria. In
Canada, the estimated highest annual dose is approximately 2.3 mSv measured in the Northwest
Territories.

Dose from inhalation

The earth's crust also contributes to our levels of exposure. Radon gas, which is produced by the
earth, is present in the air we breathe. There are four decay products of radon with very short
half-lives that will irradiate the lungs if inhaled. Radon gas naturally disperses as it enters the
atmosphere from the ground. However, when radon gas enters a building (through the floor from
the ground), the concentration tends to build up. The worldwide average annual effective dose of
radon radiation is approximately 1.2 mSv.

Dose from ingestion

Finally, there are a number of sources of natural radiation that penetrate our bodies through the
food we eat, the air we breathe and the water we drink. Potassium-40 is the main source of
internal irradiation (aside from radon decay). The average effective dose from these sources is
approximately 0.3 mSv a year.

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Sources and Average Effective Dose from Natural Background Radiation in Selected
Canadian Cities

Canadian Total Cosmic Terrestrial Annual Radionuclides

City (mSv/y) radiation background inhalation in the body
(mSv/y) (mSv/y) dose (mSv/y)
(mSv/y)
CANADA 1.8 0.3 0.2 0.9 0.3

Whitehorse 1.9 0.5 0.2 0.9 0.3

Yellowknife 3.1 0.4 1.4 0.9 0.3

Victoria 1.8 0.5 0.1 0.9 0.3

Vancouver 1.3 0.5 0.1 0.4 0.3

Edmonton 2.4 0.5 0.3 1.3 0.3

Regina 3.5 0.4 0.3 2.4 0.3

Winnipeg 4.1 0.4 0.2 3.2 0.3

Toronto 1.6 0.4 0.2 0.8 0.3

Ottawa 1.8 0.4 0.2 0.9 0.3

Iqualuit 1.9 0.5 0.2 0.9 0.3

Qubec City 1.6 0.4 0.2 0.7 0.3

Montreal 1.6 0.4 0.3 0.7 0.3

Fredericton 1.8 0.3 0.3 0.9 0.3

Halifax 2.5 0.3 0.3 1.5 0.3

Charlottetown 1.8 0.3 0.2 0.9 0.3

St-John's 1.6 0.4 0.2 0.7 0.3

Sources: Gratsky et al., 2004, UNSCEAR 2008, Geological Survey of Canada

Worldwide dose levels from natural background radiation

The total worldwide average effective dose from natural radiation is approximately 2.4 mSv a
year. However, doses can vary greatly. The following figure shows how Canadian cities and the
Canadian average dose compare to other parts of the world.

Average annual effective dose from natural sources

Average annual effective dose from natural sources. Kerala Coast, India, 12.50 msv. Yanjiang,
China, 6.30 msv. U.S. average, 3 msv. Halifax, 2.50 msv. Worldwide average, 2.40 msv.
edmonton, 2.40 msv. Canadian average, 1.77 msv. Montreal, 1.62 msv. Toronto, 1.59 msv.
Vancouver, 1.25 msv.

Sources: Gratsky et al. 2004, UNSCEAR 2008, NCRP 160 2009

Dose from artificial sources of radiation

Artificial sources of radiation (commercial and industrial activities) account for approximately 0.6
mSv of our annual radiation exposure. X-rays and other diagnostic and therapeutic medical
procedures account for approximately 1.2 mSv a year (UNSCEAR 2000). Consumer products like
tobacco and smoke detectors account for another 0.1 mSv of our exposure to radiation each
year.

In all, natural radiation accounts for approximately 60% of our annual dose. Medical procedures
account for roughly 40% of our annual radiation.

There is no difference between the effects caused by natural or man-made radiation.

Typical organ doses from various radiological examinations

Study Type Relevant Organ Dose (mSv)

Dental x-ray Brain 0.011

Chest x-ray Lung 0.11

Screening mammography Breast 32

Adult abdominal CT Stomach 102

Neonatal abdominal CT Stomach 202

1
Ionizing Radiation Exposure of the Population of the United States", NCRP Report No. 160,
2009
2
Brenner and Hall (2007)
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Dose limits
The Canadian Radiation Protection Regulations set limits on the amount of radiation the public
and nuclear energy workers may receive.

In Canada, the effective dose limits for the public is 1 mSv in one calendar year. Regular
reporting and monitoring demonstrates the average annual effective doses to the public from
activities licensed by the CNSC range from 0.001 to 0.1 mSv per year.

Facility Maximum annual dose to members of the public as a result of

airborne and waterborne emissions, by year (millisieverts, mSv)

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Nuclear
Generating
Stations

Point Lepreau 0.0005 0.0005 0.0006 0.0007 0.0018

Gentilly-2 0.0040 0.0056 0.0057 0.0009 0.0006

Darlington 0.0011 0.0008 0.0011 0.0014 0.0013

Pickering 0.0057 0.0061 0.0028 0.0026 0.0041

Bruce 0.0016 0.0020 0.0025 0.0021 0.0027

CNL Chalk River 0.1200 0.0980 0.0990 0.0726 0.1350

Laboratories

Data taken from licensees' environmental monitoring data reports, as submitted to the CNSC.

The effective dose limits for a nuclear energy worker is set at 50 mSv in any one year and 100
mSv in five consecutive years. The dose limit for pregnant workers is 4 mSv from the time the
pregnancy is declared to the end of the term. In addition, licensees must ensure that all doses
are as low as reasonably achievable, social and economic factors being taken into account
( ALARA). Regular reporting and monitoring demonstrate the average annual doses to the most
exposed workers (e.g., industrial radiographer) are approximately 5 mSv per year.

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How radiation dose limits are set

Canadian regulations follow the recommendations of the International Commission on
Radiological Protection, which comprises some of the world's leading scientists and other
professionals in the field of radiation protection, and also uses many of the standards and guides
of the International Atomic Energy Agency.

In Canada, the regulations, standards and practices to protect people and workers from radiation
that are not regulated by the CNSC are implemented by Health Canada, Human Resources and
Skills Development Canada, the Department of National Defence, and provincial/territorial
governments.

In addition, the Federal-Provincial-Territorial Radiation Protection Committee (FPtrPC) develops

guidelines with respect to ionizing and non-ionizing radiation and works to harmonize radiation
protection regulations across Canada. Co-chaired by the CNSC, Health Canada and the
provinces, the FPtrPC provides a national forum on radiation protection issues.

> Percentage Depth Dose

One way of characterizing the central axis dose distribution is to normalize dose at depth with
respect to dose at a reference depth. The quantity percentage (or simply percent) depth dose may
be defined as the quotient, expressed as a percentage, of the absorbed dose at any depth d to the
absorbed dose at a fixed reference depth d0, along the central axis of the beam

P.D.D = (Dd / Ddo ) X 100

Figure (a) shows the setup measurement for P.D.D

The percentage depth dose (beyond the depth of maximum dose) increases with beam energy.
Higher-energy beams have greater penetrating power and thus deliver a higher-percentage depth
dose (Fig. 9.3). If the effects of inverse square law and scattering are not considered, the percentage
depth dose variation with depth is governed approximately by exponential attenuation. Thus, the
beam quality affects the percentage depth dose by virtue of the average attenuation coefficient .2
As the decreases, the more penetrating the beam becomes, resulting in a higher percentage depth
dose at any given depth beyond the build-up region
For a sufficiently small field one may assume that the depth dose at a point is effectively the result of
the primary radiation, that is, the photons that have traversed the overlying medium without
interacting. The contribution of the scattered photons to the depth dose in this case is negligibly
small or 0. But as the field size is increased, the contribution of the scattered radiation to the
absorbed dose increases. Because this increase in scattered dose is greater at larger depths than at
the depth of Dmax, the percent depth dose increases with increasing field size. The increase in
percent depth dose caused by increase in field size depends on beam quality. Since the scattering
probability or cross section decreases with energy increase and the higher-energy photons are
scattered more predominantly in the forward direction, the field size dependence of percent depth
dose is less pronounced for the higher-energy than for the lower-energy beams.

Photon fluence emitted by a point source of radiation varies inversely as a square of the distance
from the source. Percent depth dose increases with SSD because of the effects of the inverse
square law.

Questions:

1. P.D.D increases with

a) Field size

b) SSD

c) Energy of the beam

d) All

2. Dose maximum for the Co60 is at

a) 1.5 cm

b) 0.5 cm

c) 0.2 cm

d) 1.0 cm

Answer:

1. d) All

2. b) 0.5 cm