EH2208O

DESIGN PROJECT II (MARCH 2017)

PRODUCTION OF 20,000 METRIC TONNES OF

POLYTETRAFLUOROETHYLENEPER YEAR

CHAPTER 3: CONTINUOUS STIRRED TANK REACTOR

(R-102)

STUDENTS NAME:
NOOR AMILIA BINTI KHOSIM
2014231358

SUPERVISOR:
MS CHRISTINA VARGIS

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA
SHAH ALAM
 CHAPTER 3

DESIGN OF MAJOR EQUIPMENT

DESIGNED BY: NOOR AMILIA BINTI KHOSIM

3.5.1 POLYMERIZATION REACTOR (R-102)

3.5.1.1 Introduction

In the production of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), water from Stream 15 and

tetrafluoroethylene (TFE) from Stream 16 entered R-102 to produce PTFE. Due to the
phase of the reactants are in liquid, continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) is preferable
and is chosen. It is assumed that CSTR is a well-mixed vessel that operates on a steady
state condition to achieve high yield product. CSTR is equipped with an impeller to avoid
the reactant to coagulate and to ensure complete mixing.

3.5.1.2 Chemical Design

Based on Figure 3.1, the streams and the reactor involved in the production of PTFE
from TFE and water is shown. The conversion of TFE to PTFE is 80%.

Water

TFE

PTFE

Figure 3.1: The streams and the reactor involved in the production of PTFE.

388
 The reaction between TFE and water is illustrated as below. The reaction needed
an initiator in order for the polymerization reaction to occur. The initiator chosen for this
process is benzoyl peroxide. Initiator is commonly mistaken as catalyst. The difference
between initiator and catalyst is initiator is consumed completely whereas catalyst has
the same amount after process has completed.

()
C2F4 (l) + H2O (l) (C2F4)100 (s)

()
TFE + Water PTFE

There are few assumptions made in designing R-102 such as:

1. The reaction is irreversible.

2. The reaction is isothermal.
3. The reaction is exothermic reaction.
4. The reaction is a first-order reaction.
5. Perfect mixing is assumed (temperature, composition and conversion effluent are
same as fluid in reactor).
6. The reaction rate, k is obtained from a valid journal.
7. The reaction is assumed as constant-volume as changes is solute do not affect
the overall density of the solution significantly. This is important exception is
applied for polymerization process (Fogler, 2014).
8. The radical reactions (initiation, propagation and termination) are neglected for
ease of calculation process. Only main reaction (polymerization) is taken.

3.5.1.2.1 Chemical Design Calculations

In order to determine the dimensions such as volume of reactor, diameter and

height/length of a reactor, there are few steps required to be calculated beforehand. The
steps to be followed are in Figure 3.2.

389
 1. 2.
3.
Determination Determination
Determination
of Initial of Volume of
of Space TIme
Concentration Reactor

6. 5. 4.
Determination Determination Determination
of Jacketed of Reactor of Rate of
Vessel Design Dimension Reaction

Figure 3.2: Steps in designing polymerization reactor, R-102.

Step 1: Determination of Initial Concentration

The R-102 is designed to produce 80% yield of PTFE. Table 3.1 shows the collected
data from mass balance calculation and Table 3.2 displays the initial concentration
calculated.

Table 3.1: Collected data from manual calculation.

Component TFE (A) Water (B) PTFE (C)
Mass flow (kg/h) 3094.10 246.24 3340.34
Molar flow (kmol/h) 31.87 13.66 21.16
Density (kg/m3) 2200 1000 2200
Conversion 80%

Initial concentration, CO:

( )
, = ( )
3
( )

Table 3.2: Initial concentration calculations.

Component Calculations
A
31.87 ( )
= 2200 ( 3 ) = 22.66
3
3094.10 ( )

390
 B
13.66 ( )
= 1000 ( 3 ) = 55.47
3
246.24 ( )

C = 0 ( )

Step 2: Determination of Reactor Volume

The volume of CSTR can be expressed as a function of F AO, X and rA. In a CSTR, the
composition, temperature and conversion of the effluent stream are the same as the fluid
within the reactor because perfect mixing is assumed. The volume of reactor was
decided to be 5.5 m 3 or 5500 L.

, =
( )

0.0304 (0.8)
= = 0.00442 3
5.5 3 .

1 106
0.00442 = 1.2283
3 . 3600 3 .

Step 3: Determination of Rate of Reaction

The reaction occurred in R-102 is as followed,

Tetrafluoroethylene + Water Polytetrafluoroethylene

A+BC

The limiting and excess reagent is calculated beforehand. By assuming the initial
amount of TFE and water are 100 g each, the calculations are made as follows.

Assuming 100 g of TFE,

1 1 2 18.02 2
100 = 0.18 2
100.02 100 1 2

The calculation revealed that 0.18 g of the original 100 g of water will react before
the limiting reagent is expanded. Thus, the excess reagent is water and 99.82 g of water
will remain when the reaction reaches completion.

391
 The rate of reaction is r = -kCACB and it is assumed as the first-order reaction.
Water is in excess and the CB can be cancelled out. Hence, the rate of reaction is r = -
kCA. In order to proceed with the calculation process, the reaction rate constant, k must
first be determined.

Reaction rate constant is merely independent of the concentrations of the species

involved in the reaction. It is strongly dependent on temperature. Arrhenius suggested
that the temperature dependence of the specific reaction rate, k A could be correlated by
an equation of

() = /

where A is pre-exponential factor, E is activation energy (J/mol or cal/mol), R is gas

constant (J/mol.K or cal/mol.K) and T is absolute temperature, K. From research
conducted by Goldfarb et al. (1968), the kinetics data for TFE obtained are listed in Table
3.3.

Table 3.3: Kinetics data (Goldfarb et al., 1968).

Rate constant, k k1 = 4.7 x 1018 e-80500/RT sec-1
* k1 as the reaction is first-order reaction at 500C
Activation energy, Ea 80 500 cal/mol
Gas constant, R 1.97822 cal/mol.K

Kinetic calculation:

2 1 1
ln = ( )
1 1 2

2 80500 1 1
ln = ( )
4.7 1018 1.97822 773.15 323.15

2 = 6.9359 1014 1

However, the k value is too small to be used as it will result in a high volume of reactor.
Another alternative is chosen to calculate k.

Table 3.4: Stoichiometric table for flow system.

Species Initially Change (mol) Remaining (mol) Concentration (kmol/m3)

A FAO = (1 ) = (1 )

392
 B FBO
( ) = ( ) = ( )


C FCO ( ) = ( + ) = ( + )

Table 3.5: Final concentrations calculations using stoichiometric table for flow system.
Species Initially Change (mol) Remaining (mol/h) Concentration
(kmol/m3)
A FAO = (1 ) = (1 )
= (30.39)(0.8) = 30.39(1 0.8) = 22.66(1 0.8)
= 24.31 = 6.078 = 4.532
B FBO
= ( ) = ( )

= (30.39)(0.8) = 30.39(2.44 0.8) = 22.66(2.44 0.8)

= 024.31 = 49.84 = 37.16

C FCO=0 = ( + ) = ( + )

= (30.39)(0.8) = 30.39(0 + 0.8) = 22.66(0 + 0.8)

= 24.31 = 24.31 = 18.13

where,

55.47 3
= = = = 2.44
22.66
3

0
= = = 3 =0
22.66
3

= 1 ( )

6
1.2283 10 3 .
= =

4.532
3

= 2.7103 107 1

393
Step 4: Determination of Space Time

Space time is the duration necessary to produce one reactor volume of fluid based on
the inlet conditions. It is also known as mean residence time or holding time. Space time
is obtained by dividing reactor volume by the volumetric flow rate entering the reactor.

3094 246.24 3
= + = 0.000459

2200 3 1000 3

5.5 3
= = 11982.57 = 3.33
3
0.000459

The space time for the production of PTFE in a 5.5 m 3 of vessel is found to be
3.33 hours. The space time calculated is accepted as it falls within the allowable range
as mentioned in Table 3.6.

Table 3.6: Typical space time for industrial reactors (Fogler, 2014).
Reactor type Mean residence time range Production capacity
Batch 15 min to 20 h Few kg/day to 100,000
tons/yr
CSTR 10 min to 4 h 10 to 3,000,000 tons/yr
Tubular 0.5 s to 1 h 50 to 5,000,000 tons/yr

Step 5: Determination of Reactor Dimension

According to Ebnesajjad (2013), the polymerization reactor of PTFE consists of a

horizontal cylinder with length-to-diameter ratio of 10:1. By substituting this ratio into the
volume of cylindrical vessel equation, the diameter and the length of the reactor can be
found.

L:D = 10:1

10
= = 10
1

= 0.1

394
 2
, =
4

(0.1)2
=
4

0.013
=
4

0.013
5.5 =
4

3 5.5 4
= = 8.88
100

= 0.1 = 0.1 (8.88 ) = 0.88

The reactor is in a horizontal configuration as displayed in Figure 3.3. The height

of the reactor is equivalent to the diameter of the reactor (H =D). The length and
diameter of R-102 are as follow:

D = 0.88 m

L = 8.88 m

Figure 3.3: A typical polymerization reactor (Ebnesajjad, 2013).

Step 6: Jacketed Vessel

Jacketed vessels are used for heating or cooling a batch of liquid or for
evaporating the liquid for concentrating and for solid separation by evaporation. The

395
vessel can either be closed or opened to the atmosphere. The jacket functioning as
circulation of cooling medium or provide hot water or steam for heating purpose. The gap
between the jacket and the vessel is usually uniform and can be ranging from 20 to 50
mm width.

Figure 3.4: Schematic diagram of jacketed vessel with agitator.

Figure 3.5: A typical reaction vessel.

For R-102, steam is used as heating medium with 25C entering as hot water as
its inlet temperature and 100C as steam as outlet temperature to increase the
temperature within the reactor. Due to the high pressure present in the reactor which is
2900 kPa and heat transfer from jacket to the surface of the reactor is required, the
half-pipe jacket is chosen. Half-pipe jackets are formed by welding sections of pipe, cut

396
in half along the longitudinal axis to the vessel wall. The pipe is usually wound round the
vessel in a helix.

(a) (b)

Figure 3.6: (a) Schematic of half-pipe jacket, (b) Injection nozzle.

The pitch of the coils and the area covered can be selected to provide the heat
transfer area required. Standard pipe sizes are used; ranging from 60 to 120 mm outside
diameter. The half-pipe construction makes a strong jacket capable of withstanding
pressure better than the conventional jacket design.

Table 3.7: Values for half-pipe jacket calculation.

Parameter Value
R-102 diameter 0.88 m
Pipe diameter, dp 0.12 m
Pitch 0.20 m
Height of jacket (70% of R-102 height) 0.62 m
Spacing 0.02 m
Duty, Q 50324400 kJ/h
Temperature difference 348.15 K
Heat capacity of water 4.178 kJ/kg.K

Number of spiral:

397
 0.62
= = 3.1 3
0.20

Length of channel, L:

, =

, = 3 0.88 = 8.29

Cross-sectional area of channel:

= 0.20 0.02 = 0.004 2

Hydraulic mean diameter, de:

4
=

4 0.004
= = 0.0364
2(0.20 + 0.02)

Mass flow rate of water:

50324400
= = = 34597.42 = 9.61
4.178(348.15)

According to the steam table obtained from the Elementary Principles of Chemical
Processes by Felder and Rousseau (1986) , the physical properties of water at mean
temperature of 32.5C are as follow:

Density, (kg/m3) = 999

Viscosity, (Ns/m 2) = 7.5938 x 10-4
Pr = 5.1246
kf (W/mK) = 0.62104

Velocity through channel, u:

, =

398
 9.61
= = 2.40
999 0.004

Reynold number, Re:

999(2.40)(0.0364)
= = 114926.17
7.5938 104

Steam is not viscous thus,

= 0.023 0.8 0.33

= 0.023(114926.17)0.8 (5.1246)0.33 = 440.81

Heat transfer coefficient at the outside wall of the vessel, hj:

440.81(0.62104)
= = 7520.89 2
0.0364 .

Pressure drop through the jacket, P:

2
, = 8 ( )
2

0.62 (2.40)2
= 8(3.2 103 ) ( ) (999) = 1254.55 2
0.0364 2

Step 7: Baffle and Impeller Design

The dimension of reactor and the arrangement of baffles and impellers play an important
role as they influenced the mixing process in the reactor. Baffles are flat vertical strips
located radially along the tank inner wall to produce higher mixing and horizontal liquid
surface. Baffles are normally used for improving the mixing and reduce problems from
vortex formation.

Agitation is designed to raise fluid turbulence to homogenize fluid phase, to

increase heat transfer between a solid surface and a liquid phase, to create interfacial

399
area between two immiscible fluid phases and to maintain divided solid in suspension in
a fluid phase. Figure 3.7 and 3.8 shows types of impeller uses in the mixing operation.

Figure 3.7: Types of bladed-impeller uses in the mixing operation.

Figure 3.8: Typical types of turbine agitator.

Table 3.8: Types of agitation and their powers.

400
 Figure 3.9: Agitator arrangements and flow patterns.

Mixing vessels fitted with some form of agitator is a must for equipment for
blending liquids and preparing solutions. A typical arrangement of the agitator and
baffles in a stirred tank and the flow pattern generated is shown in Figure 3.9. The most
appropriate agitator for a certain application will depend on the type of mixing required,
the capacity of the vessel and the fluid properties, mainly the viscosity.

A mild agitation is needed for emulsion polymerization of PTFE in order to

produced small colloidal particles dispersed in the aqueous reaction medium;
precipitation of the resin particles is avoided. In addition, PTFE is highly viscous and
recommended agitator for this condition are paddle, anchor and helical ribbon agitators.
The agitator chosen for the mixing of polymer is hub-mounted flat-blade turbine with a
power of 0.10 kW/m 3.

For turbine agitator, impeller to tank diameter ratios of up to 0.6 are used with the
depth of liquid equal to the tank diameter. Once the length of the impeller is found, other
dimensions can be determined.

= 0.60
= 0.60

= 0.60

401

= 0.60
0.88
= 0.53

Figure 3.10: Dimension of stirred tank, impeller and baffles for turbine agitator.

3 1 1
=1 = = =
4 3 4
1 1 1
= = =1 =
10 5 5

Thus, the dimension of impeller and baffle are as follow:

ZL = 0.88 m Dd = 0.21 m DI = 0.29 m I = 0.53 m

W = 0.09 m b = 0.06 m ZI = 0.29 m m = 0.18 m

402
3.5.1.2.2 Summary of Chemical Design

Table 3.9: Summary of chemical design.

Equipment Data Sheet Equipment: Polymerization Reactor (R-102)
Description: Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor
Operating Data
Parameter Value Unit
Temperature, T 55 C
Pressure, P 3190 kPa
Radius, r 0.44 m
Diameter, D 0.88 m
Length, L 8.88 m
Space time, 11988 s
Volume, V 5.50 m3
Jacketed Vessel
Height, H 0.62 m
Outer pipe diameter, dp 0.12 m
Inlet temperature, Tin 25 C
Outlet temperature, Tout 100 C
Heat transfer coefficient, hj 7520.89 W/m2.K
Pressure drop, P 1254.55 N/m2

3.5.1.3 Mechanical Design

The common information needed in order to design a pressure vessel or reactor is listed
as below.

1. Vessel function.
2. Process materials and services.
3. Operating and design temperature and pressure.
4. Materials of construction.
5. Vessels dimensions and orientation.
6. Type of vessel heads to be used.
7. Openings and connections required.
8. Specification of heating and cooling jackets or coils.
9. Type of agitator.
10. Specification of internal fittings.

403
 A vessel must be able to withstand a maximum pressure that could occur in
operation. Pressure at a relief device is set as the design pressure for vessels under
internal pressure which is usually at the range of 5 to 10% above the normal working
pressure. Meanwhile, vessels subject to external pressure should be designed to resist
the maximum differential pressure that is likely to occur. These vessels must be
designed for a full negative pressure of 1 bar unless they are fitted with an effective
vacuum breaker (Sinnott, 2005).

The strength of metals decreases with increasing temperature. Hence, maximum

allowable design stress is dependent on the material temperature. The design
temperature at which design stress is determined should be taken as the maximum
working temperature of the material with due allowance for uncertainty that might arise
while predicting vessel wall temperatures.

Commonly, reactors are made from plain carbon steels, low and high alloy steels,
other alloys, clad plate and reinforced plastics. Selection of a suitable material must be
taken into consideration for fabrication as well as the compatibility of the material with the
working environment.

A structure must be designed to resist gross plastic deformation and collapse

under all the conditions of loading. Loads can be classified as major loads and subsidiary
loads. Examples of major loads are design pressure, maximum weight of the vessel and
contents under operating conditions or under hydraulic test conditions, wind loads,
earthquake and loads supporting by, or reaction on the vessel. Subsidiary loads are

1. local stresses caused by supports, internal structures and connecting pipes,

2. shock loads caused by water hammer or by surging of the vessel contents,
3. bending moments caused by eccentricity of the centre of the working pressure
relative to the neutral axis of the vessel and;
4. stresses due to temperature differences and differences in the coefficient
expansion of materials.

Formal stress analysis is to determine the effect of the subsidiary loads is only
required in the codes and standards where it is not possible to demonstrate the
adequacy of the proposed design by other means. All the loads mentioned above will not
be subject simultaneously. Figure 3.11 shows the process flow path in designing a
typical vessel or a reactor.

404
 2. Determination 3. Determination 5. Determination
1. Determination 4. Determination
of design of material of of corrosion
of design pressure of design stress
temperature construction allowance

8. Determination 6. Determination
7. Determination
10. Determination 9. Determination of vessel design of minimum
of head and
of vessel support of stress analysis subject to practical wall
closure suitability
combine loading thickness

11. Dtermination
12. Determination 13. Determination
of base ring and
of nozzle pipe size of manhole
anchor.

Figure 3.12: Steps in mechanically design polymerization reactor, R-102.

3.5.1.3.1 Mechanical Design Calculations

Step 1: Determination of design pressure

As the reactor is under internal pressure, a safety precaution is applied in this step by
increasing the operating pressure by 10% from the normal operating pressure as
suggested by American Petroleum Institute, API RP 520. This step is to avoid spurious
operation of the relief valve during minor process upsets. The operating pressure for
R-102 is 2900 kPa or 29 bar. The calculations for design pressure are as below.

10
2900 = 290
100

(2900 + 290) = 3190

0.001
, = 3190 2 = 3.19 /2
1

Step 2: Determination of design temperature

The operating temperature for R-102 is 50C. However, this temperature cannot be used
as any uncertainty may be occurring during process. In order to avoid this situation, the
operating temperature is increased by 10% and is taken as the design temperature.

, = 50 1.1 = 55

405
Step 3: Determination of material of construction

Many criteria have to be considered when choosing engineering materials. However, for
chemical process plant, the main criterion is usually the ability to resist corrosion. The
most economical material that satisfies both process and mechanical requirements
should be selected as this material will gives the lowest cost over working life of the
plant, allowing for maintenance and replacement. The most important characteristics to
be taken into mind when choosing a material of construction are:

1. Mechanical properties
(a) Strength tensile strength
(b) Stiffness elastic modulus
(c) Toughness fracture resistance
(d) Hardness wear resistance
(e) Fatigue resistance
(f) Creep resistance
2. The effect of high and low temperatures on the mechanical properties
3. Corrosion resistance
4. Any special properties required (thermal conductivity, electrical resistance,
magnetic properties)
5. Ease of fabrication forming, welding and casting
6. Availability in standard sizes plates, sections and tubes
7. Cost

Table 3.10: A guide to the fabrication properties of common metals and alloys.

406
Table 3.11: Mechanical properties of common metals and alloys (typical values at room
temperature)

There are several materials that can be used as the material of constructions
such as iron and steel, stainless steel, nickel, monel, Inconel, copper and copper alloys,
aluminium and its alloys, lead, titanium, tantalum, zirconium, silver, gold and platinum.

The most frequently used corrosion resistant materials in the chemical industry are
stainless steels. Nickel is added into stainless steel to improve the corrosion resistance
in non-oxidising environments. Stainless steel is divided according to their microstructure
into three categories:

1. Ferritic: 13 20% Cr, <0.1% C, with no nickel

2. Austenitic: 18 20% Cr, >7% Ni
3. Martensitic: 12 10% Cr, 0.2 0.4% C, up to 2% Ni

There are several types of stainless steel and are listed in table below.

Table 3.12: Types of stainless steel and their descriptions.

Type Descriptions
304 Also known as 18/8 stainless steel
Most generally used stainless steel
Contains minimum Cr and Ni
304L Low C version of type 304
Used for thicker welded sections
321 A stabilized version of 304

407
 Stabilized with titanium to prevent carbide precipitation during
welding
Slightly higher strength than 304L
Suitable for high temperature use
347 Stabilized with niobium
316 Molybdenum is added to improve corrosion resistance in reducing
conditions
316L A low C version of type 316
309/310 Alloys with high Cr content
Give greater resistance to oxidation at high temperatures

Carbon steel is an alloy made from iron and carbon. Other elements such as
manganese, silicon and copper also can be found in the carbon steel in a low
percentage of 1.65%, 0.60% and 0.60%. Carbon steel can be divided into four groups
based on their compositions.

Table 3.13: Classes of carbon steel.

Types of carbon steel Compositions
Low 0.05 0.25% of carbon and up to 0.45% of manganese
Mild steel, low cost, easy to shape
Medium 0.29 0.54% of carbon and up to 0.60 1.65% of
manganese
Ductile and strong
High 0.55 0.95% of carbon and up to 0.30 0.90% of
manganese
Strong and holds shape very well
Very high 0.96 2.1% of carbon
High carbon content
Extremely strong

For the production of PTFE, carbon steel is chosen as the material of

constructions as the material is cheaper compared to stainless steel and it suits the
PTFE operating conditions.

408
Step 4: Determination of design stress

Design stress is necessarily required in order to check if the selected material of

constructions can withstand without failure under standard test condition. The test is
based on the yield stress or tensile stress of the material at the design temperature. In
order to calculate the design stress, Table 3.14 is referred.

Material of construction : Carbon Steel

Design temperature : 55C

Tensile strength : 360 N/mm2

Design stress, :
50 55 135
=
50 100 135 125

= = 134 /2

Table 3.14: Typical design stresses for plate.

Step 5: Determination of corrosion allowance

Corrosion allowance is the additional thickness of metal added to allow for material lost
by corrosion and erosion or scaling. The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel, ASME BPV
Code Sec. VIII D.1 states that the vessel user shall specify corrosion allowances (Part
UG-25).

409
 For carbon and low-alloy steels, a minimum allowance of 2.0 mm should be used
as severe corrosion is not expected. Meanwhile, for more severe condition, it should be
increased to 4.0 mm. For this production of PTFE, 2.0 mm is chosen as the corrosion
allowance.

Step 6: Determination of minimum practical wall thickness

A minimum wall thickness is required to ensure that any vessel is sufficiently rigid to
withstand its own weight and any incidental loads. Table 3.15 shows a general guide of
wall thickness of any vessel.

Table 3.15: A general guide of wall thickness of any vessel

As calculated in the Section 3.5.2.1, Step 5, the diameter of the reactor, R-102 is
0.88 m 1 m. Hence, the minimum thickness of wall is 5 mm. However, to be more
accurate, the minimum thickness of the wall also can be calculated by using the formula
below.

, = +
2 1.2
Where,
Pi : Design pressure. N/mm 2
Di : Internal diameter of reactor, m
S : Typical design stress, N/mm 2
CA : corrosion allowance, mm

3.19(880)
, = + 2 = 12.63
2(134)(1) 1.2(3.19)

Step 7: Determination of head and closure suitability

The ends of a cylindrical vessel are closed by heads of various shapes. The principal
types used are:

410
 1. Flat plates and formed flat heads
2. Hemispherical heads
3. Ellipsoidal heads
4. Torispherical heads

Figure 3.13: Domed heads a) hemispherical, b) ellipsoidal and c) torispherical

Hemispherical, ellipsoidal and torispherical heads are often called as domed

heads and they are formed by pressing or spinning; large diameters are fabricated from
formed sections. In order to determine which head is the best, calculations for three
types of heads are were conducted.

1. Hemispherical head:

=
4 0.4
3.19(880)
= = 5.25
4(134)(1) 0.4(3.19)

Including the CA of 2 mm,

5.25 + 2.0 = 7.25 mm

2. Ellipsoidal head:

=
2 0.2

411
 3.19(880)
= = 10.50
2(134)(1) 0.2(3.19)

Including the CA of 2 mm,

10.50 + 2.0 = 12.50 mm

3. Torispherical head:
0.885
=
0.1
0.885(3.19)(880)
= = 18.58
(134)(1) 0.1(3.19)
Including the CA of 2 mm,
18.58 + 2.0 = 20.58 mm

Table 3.16: Minimum thickness ratio between wall and head

Type of head and Hemispherical Ellipsoidal Toripsherical
closure
Thickness 7.25 mm : 12.63 mm 12.50 mm : 12.63 20.58 mm : 12.63
mm mm

Based on Table 3.16, the minimum thickness of wall, e is used as benchmark to

determine which head is suitable as the end of a cylindrical vessel or reactor, R-102. It
can be seen ellipsoidal has the closest value to the e and this will ease the process of
manufacturing and installation of head to the R-102. Thus, ellipsoidal is chosen as the
domed head.

Step 8: Determination of vessel design subject to combine loading

The main contributors of dead weight loads are:

1. The vessel shell

2. The vessel fittings
3. Internal fitting
4. External fitting
5. Auxiliary equipment which is not self-supported
6. Insulation
7. The weight of liquid to fill the vessel

412
Weight of cylindrical vessel with domed closure or dead weight, W v:

, = ( + 0.8 )

The column is divided into five sections with the thickness increasing by 2 mm
per section such as 10, 12, 14, 16 and 18 mm. Thus, the weight of cylindrical vessel is
determined by using the average thickness which is 14 mm.

, = 1.15 7850 0.894 9.81(8.88 + 0.8(0.8925))(0.014)

= 33.41

Weight of insulation, W i:

Insulation is needed to prevent heat loss. For the production of PTFE, fiberglass is
chosen as the insulator as it can withstand temperature ranging from -30C to 540C.
The design temperature, 55C is in the range. The insulation is assumed to be
approximately 75 mm.

, = ( 103 )

, = (0.894)(8.88)(14 103 ) = 0.35 3

, =

, = 0.35 100 9.81 = 343.35 = 0.3434

The weight of insulation is doubled in order to allow fittings.

= 2 0.3434 = 0.69

413
Total weight, Wt:

= +

= 33.41 + 0.69 = 34.10

Wind load:

Bending moment at any plane of vessel,

2
=
2

Where,

Fw : wind loading per unit length of reactor

x : height or length of reactor

Dynamic wind pressure:

= 0.05 2 = 1280 /2

Wind load per unit length of reactor,

Where,

Pw : dynamic wind pressure

DEFF : diameter reactor + 2(thickness vessel + thickness insulation)

= 0.88 + 2(0.014 + 0.075) = 1.058

= 1280(1.058) = 1354.24 /

Thus,
1354.24(8.882 )
= = 53393.89
2

414
Earthquake loading

The movement of the earths surface during an earthquake produces horizontal shear
forces on tall self-supported vessels, the magnitude of which increases from the base
upward. The total shear force on the vessel will be given by

= ( )

where,

ae = the acceleration of the vessel due to the earthquake (for vertical vessel = 0.6,
for horizontal vessel = 0.7)

g = the acceleration due to gravity

Wv = total weight of the vessel and contents

33.41
= 0.7 ( ) = 2.38
9.81

Step 9: Determination of stress analysis

Longitudinal pressure stress,

=
4

2.90(880)
= = 45.57 /2
4(14)

Circumferential pressure stress,

=
2

2.90(880)
= = 91.14 /2
2(14)

Dead weight stress,

=
( + )

34.10 103
= = 0.8672 /2
(880 + 14)14

415
Bending stress,

= ( + )
2

= ( 4 4 )
64

= + 2

= 880 + 2(14) = 908

= (9084 8804 ) = 3.9292 109 4
64

53393.89 103 908

= ( + 14) = 6.3597 /2
3.9292 109 2

Principal stress:

The resulted longitudinal stress is

= +

Since w is compressive stress, hence the negative sign.

Therefore,

, = 45.57 0.8672 + 6.3597 = 51.06 /2

, = 45.57 0.8672 6.3597 = 38.34 /2

51.06
38.34

91.14 91.14

The greatest difference between the principle stresses will be on the downwind side.

= ,

416

= 91.14 40.08 = 51.06 2 < 134
2

Critical buckling stress,

= 2 104 ( )

14
= 2 104 ( ) = 308.37 /2
908

The maximum compressive stress will occur when the vessel is not under pressure,

+ = 0.8672 + 6.3597 = 7.23 /2

The design is satisfactory as the value is below the critical buckling stress.

Step 10: Determination of vessel support

Horizontal vessels are usually mounted on two saddles supports. The supports must be
designed to carry the weight of the vessel and contents and any superimposed loads
such as wind loads. Supports will impose localized loads on the vessel wall and the
design must be checked to ensure that the resulting stress concentrations are below the
maximum allowable stress design stress.

Figure 3.14: Horizontal cylindrical vessel on saddle supports.

417
Table 3.15: Standard steel saddles (adapted from Bhattacharyya, 1976) for vessel up to
1.2 m.

Figure 3.15: Saddles configuration.

The diameter of the vessel is 0.88 m. Hence, the nearest diameter chosen is
0.90 m in Table 3.18, the dimension for the saddles. The contact angle between saddles
and the vessel is 120 as it should not be less than 120 but not more than 150.

Table 3.18: Saddles dimensions for vessel of 0.90 m in diameter.

Vessel Max. Dimension mm Bolt (mm)
dia. weight V Y C E J G t2 t1 Dia. Holes
(m) (kN)
0.90 65 0.63 0.15 0.81 0.34 0.275 0.095 10 6 20 25

418
 The skirt thickness must be able to withstand the dead-weight loads and bending
moments imposed on it by the vessel; it will not be under the vessel pressure. The
resultant stresses in the skirt will be

() =

() = +

where bs = bending stress in the skirt and ws = dead weight stress in the skirt.

4
=
( + )

=
( + )

The skirt thickness should be such that under the worst combination of wind and
dead-weight loading the following design criteria are not exceeded:

() < sin

() < 0.125 ( ) sin

where Ss = maximum allowable design stress for the skirt material

E = welded joint efficiency, if applicable

s = base angle of a conical skirt, normally 80 or 90

The skirt chosen is a straight cylindrical skirt ( = 90) of plain carbon steel with
maximum allowable stress of 89 N/mm 2 and Youngs modulus 200 000 N/mm 2 at
ambient temperature. The maximum dead weight load on the skirt will occur when the
vessel is full of water.

= ( (0.88)2 8.88 ) 1000 9.81 = 52983.07 = 52.98
4

, = 33.41

= 33.41 + 52.98 = 86.39

= 1354.24 = 1.3542

419
 (0.88 + 0.62)2
, = 1.3542 = 1.5234
2

First trial, Ds = 5 mm, tsk = 18 mm,;

4 1.5234 103 103

= = 937.03 /2
(5 + 18)(18)(5)

86.39 103
() = = 66.42 /2
(5 + 18)18

33.41 103
() = = 25.68 /2
(5 + 18)18

The test condition is with the vessel full of water for the hydraulic test. In
estimating total weight, the weight of liquid on the vessel has been counted twice. The
weight has not been adjusted to allow for this as the error is small and on the safe side.

() = 32.41 25.68 = 6.73 /2

() = 32.41 + 66.42 = 98.83 /2

The joint efficiency, E = 0.85.

() < sin

6.73 < 89 0.85 sin 90

6.73 < 75.65

() < 0.125 ( ) sin

18
98.83 < 0.125 (20 0000)( ) sin 90
5

98.83 < 90 000

Both criteria are satisfied and adding 2 mm of corrosion allowance gives a design
thickness of 20 mm.

Step 11: Determination of base ring and anchor bolt design

The loads carried by the skirt are transmitted to the foundation slab by the skirt base
ring (bearing plate). The moment produced by the wind and other lateral loads will tend

420
to overturn the vessel. A variety of base ring designs is used with skirt supports. The
simplest types suitable for small vessels are rolled angle and plain flange rings as shown
in Figure 3.16 (a) and (b).

Figure 3.16: Flange ring designs (a) Rolled-angle (b) Single plate with guesset

Figure 3.17: Flange range dimensions.

421
 Figure 3.18: Anchor bolt chair design.

The anchor bolts are assumed to share the overturning load equally, and the bolt
area required is given by:

1 4
= [ ]

where

Ab = area of one bolt at the roof of the thread, mm 2

Nb = number of bolts

fb = maximum allowable bolt stress, N/mm 2; typical design value 125 N/mm 2

Ms = bending (overturning) moment at the base, Nm

W = weight of the vessel, N

Db = bolt circle diameter, m

422
Approximate pitch circle:

() = + 2( + )

() = 880 + 2(14 + 75) = 1058 2000

Circumference of bolt circle:

= 2000

Recommended spacing between bolts = 600 mm

Minimum number of bolt required, Nb:

2000
= = 10.47 11
600

Bending moment at skirt base, Ms = 1.5234 kNm = 1523400 Nmm2

Total weight of vessel = 86.39 kN

1 4
= [ ]
()

1 4(1523400)
= [ 86390] = 2153.03 2
11(125) 2

Based on Figure 3.19, it can be estimated that the conventional bolt size is M24
bolts with 353 mm2 of root area.

Bolt root diameter, Db:

2153.03 4
= = 52.36

Total compressive load on base ring per unit length:

4
= 2 +
2

4(1523400) 86390
= + = 86.23 103 /
(5)2 2(5)

423
Minimum width of base ring, Lb:

1
= 3
10

where

Lb = base ring width, mm

fc = maximum allowable bearing pressure on the concrete foundation pad, which will
depend on the mix, used and will typically range from 3.5 to 7 N/mm 2 (500 to 1000 psi).
Taking the bearing pressure as 5 N/mm 2,

86.23 103
= = 17.25
5 103

Actual width required:

= + + 50

= 76 + 14 + 50 = 140

Actual bearing pressure on concrete foundation:

86.23 103
= = = 615.93
140 2

Actual minimum base thickness, tb:

3
=

where

Lr = distance from the edge of the skirt to the outer edge of the ring, mm

tb = base ring thickness, mm

fc = actual bearing pressure on base, N/mm2

fr = allowable design stress in the ring material, typically 140 N/mm 2

3(615.93)
= 76 = 276.11 = 0.28
140

424
Step 12: Determination of nozzle pipe size

Optimum duct diameter:

= 293 0.53 0.37

Pipe or nozzle thickness, tp:

=
20 +

where

G = mass flowrate of fluid in pipe, kg/s

= density of fluid in pipe (kg/m3)

Ps = operating pressure, N/mm 2

= design stress at operating temperature, N/mm 2

Feed TFE inlet, Stream 15:

G = 0.8594 kg/s

Total density, = 0.9538 x 2200 kg/m3 = 2098.36 kg/m3

= 293(0.8594)0.53 (2098.36)0.37 = 15.95

2.9(15.95)
= = 0.0172
20(134) + 2.9

, = + = 0.0172 + 2 = 2.0172

Feed water inlet, Stream 16:

G = 0.06833 kg/s

Total density, = 1 x 1000 kg/m3 = 1000 kg/m3

= 293(0.06833)0.53 (1000)0.37 = 5.48

2.9(5.48)
= = 0.0059
20(134) + 2.9

, = + = 0.0059 + 2 = 2.0059

425
Product PTFE outlet, Stream 17

G = 0.9278 kg/s (total of two inlet streams)

Total density of mixture,

= (0.6458)1000 kg/m 3+(0.2730)(2200 kg/m3)+(0.0116)(2200 kg/m 3) = 1271.92 kg/m3

= 293(0.9278)0.53 (1271.92)0.37 = 19.99

2.9(19.99)
= = 0.0216
20(134) + 2.9

, = + = 0.0216 + 2 = 2.0216

Jacket inlet and outlet

From calculation in chemical design, G = 11.62 kg/s

Total density of mixture, = 1000 kg/m3

2.9(83.45)
= 293(11.62)0.53 (1000)0.37 = 83.45 = = 0.0902
20(134) + 2.9

= + = 0.0902 + 2 = 2.0902

Standard flanges are available in a range of types, sizes and materials; and are
used extensively for pipes, nozzles and other attachments to pressure vessels. The
proportions of standard flanges are set out in various codes and standards. A typical
standard flange design is shown in Figure 3.17. The European standard BS EN 1092 is
also specified in BS 1560. Standard flanges are designated by class numbers or rating
numbers which correspond to the primary service (pressure) rating of the flange at room
temperature.

Standard flange with nominal pressure of 40 bar is chosen as the operating

pressure is 29 bar and the standard flange of 25 bar is unable to withstand. Hence, the
optimum duct diameter for Stream 15, 16, 17 and jacket are 15.95 (17.2), 5.48 (17.2),
19.99 (21.3) and 0.0902 (17.2) mm.

426
Table 3.19: Nozzle pipe size for each stream.
Stream Nom. Pipe Flange Raised Bolti- Drilling Neck
size o.d. face ng
d1 D b h1 d4 f No d2 k d3 h2 r
15 10 17.2 90 16 35 40 2 M12 4 14 60 28 6 4
16 10 17.2 90 16 35 40 2 M12 4 14 60 28 6 4
17 15 21.3 95 16 38 45 2 M12 4 14 65 32 6 4
Jacket 10 17.2 90 16 35 40 2 M12 4 14 60 28 6 4

Figure 3.19: Typical standard flanges and their codes and standards.

427
Step 12: Determination of manhole design

The purpose of designing a manhole is to allow technicians to inspect and conduct

maintenance for the vessel in case of malfunctioning. The installation must be following
the standard required and suitability of the vessel.

Actual manhole diameter, Dmo:

= + 2

= 880 + 2(14) = 908 = 0.908

428
3.5.1.3.2 Summary of Mechanical Design

Equipment: Polymerization reactor (R-102)

Equipment Data Sheet Description: Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor
Operating Data
Parameter Value
Operating pressure 29 bar
Design pressure 3.19 N/mm2
Design temperature 55C
Material construction Carbon Steel
Weight load
Weight of vessel 33.41 kN
Weight of insulator 0.69 kN
Total weight of vessel 34.10 kN
Wind loading
Wind load per unit length reactor 1354.24 N/m
Bending moment any plane vessel 53393.89 Nm
Analysis of stress
Longitudinal pressures stress 45.57 N/mm2
Circumferential pressure stress 91.14 N/mm2
Dead weight stress 0.8672 N/mm2
Longitudinal stress upwind 57.79 N/mm2
Longitudinal stress downwind 40.08 N/mm2
Elastic stability
Critical buckling stress 308.37 N/mm2
Maximum compressive stress 7.23 N/mm2
Vessel support
Type of support Saddles
Material Carbon steel
Nozzle
Inlet diameter 14.45 mm
Outlet diameter 20.07 mm
Heating system diameter 83.45 mm
Manhole design
Diameter 0.908 m

429
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3. Ebnesajjad, S. (2016). Expanded PTFE Applications Handbook: Technology,
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