by the biomass and some extracellular enzyme activity begins.

Therefore, the fill period should

be include in the effective sludge age when the process is operated in this manner.
Consistent definitions of sludge age have not been used in the literature. The reader is
cautioned to check the definitions of sludge age used when making comparisons among
different stidies.

17.8.2 Fixed Film Activated Sludge Process

Incorporating fixed medium into the reactor provides a surface on which microorganisms can
attach and grow. The microorganism on the medium surface are not washed out of the system
with the liquid and higher sludge ages and biomass concentrations are obtained in the reactor.
Submerged fixed media will be used with aeration supplied by diffused aerators. Mass
balances for substrate and biomass are made in the normal manner. Hamoda (1989) studied a
bench scale system fed synthetic, sugar based waste. Biomass washout was determined by
plotting HRT versus SRT at different influent COD concentrations. SRT depends on attached
and suspended biomass in the system. The slope of the best fit straight line for an ifluent COD
concentration is the washout factor, F.

= (17.43)

The washout factor was then plotted against influent COD concentration and a linear
relation ( F= 2.2 x 10-4 S0 ) was found.

17.8.3 Extended Aeration

Activated sludge processes with long HRTs ( on the order of 24 h ) are referred to as extended
aeration processes. A high sludge age is also maintaineed in the process. Extended aeration
processs are typically designed to handle domestic waste from small communities. Often the
operator will not be present an a continous basis.
The amount of sludge generated from low flow rates does not generate enough sludge
to be wasted on a regular basis. Also, the high sludge age gives rise to more endogenous decay
of sludge. Sludge is allowed to accumulate in the system until the sludge blanket in the clarrifier
rises to the point where excessive solids begin to washout with the clarified effluent. The time
between sludge removals may be 6 months or more.
The process is a continous flow process where the contents of the aeration basin are
CM. The long aeration time ensures a high removal of degradable organics; however, the high
sludge age promotes the formation of pinpoint floc, which does not settle as well as zoogleal
floc formed at lower sludge ages ( see Fig. 17.4 ). Consequently, effluent quality deteriorates
somewhat because of the presence of unsettled fines. The secondary clarifier may be a separate
unit from the aeration basin or an aeration clarifier unit ( Fig. 17.5 ) may be supplied. The
clarifier is separated from the aeration basin by a soolid baffle wall as shown in the figure. The
recirculation pattern causes the recycle off solids from the clarifier.
The process operation provides a practical solution for wastewater treatment for small
communities, schools, isolated residences ( such as hospitals or retirement complexes ), or
other small operations where a full time attendant is not warranted.

Figure 17.5 Extended aeration system with internal clarifier.

A high sludge age and a long average hydraulic time enable the process to cope with more
highly variable or intermittent flows from small operations and to maintain stable treatment. In
many extended aeration plants the influent to the aeration basin is not settled in primary
clarifier. Many commercial manufacturers supply extended aeration package plants.

17.8.4 Other Process Variations

Other process variations have been utilized for various situations. The sstep aeration process
depicited in Fig. 17.6 is a process modification that changes the environment in a PF reactor to
an environment that would be observed in a CM reactor. By introducing the influent along
several points in the reactor, more uniform environmental conditions are made to occur in the
reactor. In particular, loading rates and oxygen demand rates are, respectively, approzimately
the same at aany point in the reactor. Tthe flow regime remains PF in the ideal case.
If confentional process is operated with shorter detention times and higher F:M rations
it is referred to as a modified aeration process. Removal efficiencies in this process are lower.
However, if high mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) concentrations are maintainedwith
low detention times, process performance improves. Tthis variation is known as a high rate
process, F:M ratios are intermediate between the conventional and modified aeration process.
The contact stabilization process (Fig. 17.7a) economizes the volume required for
treatment. The influent is introduced into a small reactor or contact tank that also receives
biomass in a starved condition. Soluble substrate is readily adsorbedand absorbed by the
starved biomass. The mixed liquor leaving the contact reactor is settled and the biomass is
concentrated. The biomass is then sent to an aeration basin.

Figure 17.6 Step aeration activated sludge process

Figure 17.7 (a) Contact stabilization process. (B) COD uptake in the contact tank.

Where is resides for a much longer time and metabolism and stabilization of the captured
substrate occurs.
 The key to a successful operation is the residence time in the contact chaamber. After
the substrate is taken up by the microorganisms, metabolism initiates the release of secondary
byproducts and results inn a typical COD variation with time as shown in Fig. 17.7b. Over-or
underdesign of the contact time will result in effluent quality deteriation. Contact basin
retenttion times are in the range of 0.5-1 h (Metcalf and Eddy, 1991). Aeration times for the
sludge in the stabilization basin are typically in the range of 3-6 h.
Effluent quality from this process will not be as that achieved in conventional processes
because of the nature of the interplay between uptake and releaseof COD in the contact phase
and release of small amounts of COD from the biomass while it is in the clarifier. However the
volume requirements of the process will be approximately 50% of a conventional process
(Metcalf and Eddy, 1991).
The deep sshaft activated sludge process (Fig. 17.8) is another variation that is used
where costs of land are high. There are a number of installations in Japan. These reactors may
extend 150 m (500ft) into the ground (Sandford and Chisolm,1997). A mixture of sewage and
air travels down in downcomer and upward in a riser. The higher pressure achieved i the shaft
improve oxygen transfer rates and more oxygen can be dissolved with beneficial effects on
substrate stabilization. DO levels can range 25 to 60 mg/L in the shaft. Microorgaanism
metabolic rates are not affected by the high pressures. The nature of flow in the reactor is PF
(Sandford and Chisolm,1997). Temperature is nearly constant throughtout the year in deep
shaft reactor.
Separation of the biomass from the mixed liquor is amenable to flotation (see Section
20.6.2). The effluent from the deep shaft reactor is supersaturated with air when exposed to
atmospheric pressure. The release of dissolved air from the mixed liquor forms bubbles that
float suspended solids to the surface.

Figure 17.8 Deep shaft activated sludge process

Pure Oxygen Activated Sludge Process

Pure oxygen activated sludge processes are conventional activated sludge configurations but
relatively pure oxygen as opposed to air is supplied to the aeration basin. Larger plants
(>40.0000 m3/d or 10.5 Mgal/d) generate the oxygen cryogenically whereas smaller plants use
a selective sorption process, pressure swing adsorption. Because the gas flow rates are
significantly reduced, supplemental mixing must supplied in the mixed liquor to keep solids in
suspendion. The aeration basins are also covered to minimize the escape of the oxygen-rich
gas above the basin; however, some gas must be exhausted to remove carbon dioxide produced
in the process. Nevertheless, there will be an accumulation of CO2 in the mixed liquor, which
results in a decrease of pH. Buffering may be required with alkalineagents, particulary if
nitrification is desired.
Higher DO concentrations will be maintained in the aeration basin compared to an air
activated sludge process. The generally accepted minimum DO concentration for an activated
sludge process is2.0 mg/L (?Parker and Merrill, 1976). At this concentration mass transfer of
oxygen to the flocs will not be limiting factor. Higher DO concentrations in a pure oxygen
activated sludge process will have some influence on the flora that are established.

Powdered activated Carbon Activated Sludge Process

Carbon may be added to a conventional activated sludge process to enhance treatment

particulary with respect to removal or recalcitrant an toxic substances. The process is known
as the PAC (or PACT) process because powdered activated carbon is used (Fig. 17.9). In
addition to adsorbing various constituents, the carbon provides a support surface for
microorganism. The adsorbed compounds are exposed to the biomass on the carbon surface for
the sludge age as opposed to the HRT. Sludge production is higher in a PACT process because
of carbon additives.

Design Parameters and Operating Conditions for Activated Sludge Processes

Typical design parameters and operating conditions for various modifications oc activated
sludge processes aree summarized in Table 17.3. The rangers given are suitable.
TABLE 17.3 Design Parameters and Operating Conditions for Activated Sludge Processesa
F:M MLTSS
Process Kg BOD5/kg Loading rate mg/L
modification x , d MLVSS-d kg BOD5/m3-d d , h r, [0]
Conventional 5-15 0.2-0.4 0.3-0.6 4-8 1500-3000 0.25-0.5
Tapered aeration 5-15 0.2-0.4 0.3-0.6 4-8 1500-3000 0.25-0.5
Step aeration 5-15 0.2-0.4 0.6.1.0 3-58 2000-3500 0.25-0.75
Modifield aeration 0.2-0.5 1.5-5.0 1.2-2.4 1.5-3 200-500 0.05-0.15
Contact 5-15 0.2-0.6 1.0-1.2 0.5-1.0b 1000-3000b 0.5-1.5
e c
stabilization 3-6 4000-9000
Extended aeration 20-30 0.05-0.15 0.1-0.4 18-36 1500-5000 0.5-1.5
High rate aeration 5-10 0.4-1.5 1.6-16 2-4 3000-6000 1-5
Pure Oxygen 3-10 0.25-1.0 1.6-3.3 1-3 3000-8000 0.25-0.5
a rd
From Metcalf and Eddy (1991), Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal, Reuse, 3 ed., G. Tchobanoglous and F. L. Burton, eds., McGraw-
Hill, Toronto, used with permission of McGraw-Hill,Inc.
b
Contact unit
e
Solids stabilization unit.
 Figure 17.9 Bench scale CM (left) and PAC (right) activated sludge systems.

For a wide variety of wastewaters; however, some industrial wastewaters may require longer
HRTs.

17.9 SLUDGE PRODUCTION IN ACTIVATED SLUDGE SYSTEMS

The sludge produced in an activated sludge process or any biological treatment process is a
functionof the substrate characteristics, sludge, age, and other environmental conditions,
particularly temperature of the mixed liquor. The rate of production of biological solids is given
by Eqs.(17.4) or (17.27). Note that these equations describe the total production of biological
solids, which appear in the effluent from the secondary clarifier and in the waste sludge line
from the underflow of the secondary clarifier. An observed yield factor (a net yield factor as
discussed in Section 17.3.2) can be formulated for a process at given operating conditions.
PXb = (-Yrs - keXv) = -Yobs.b rsV (17.49)
Where
PXb is rate of biological sludge production
Yobs.b is the observed yield factor for biological solids

Sludge age affects the concentration of MLVSS and temnperature and other
environmental factors affect both the yield factor and the endogenous decay coefficient.
The rate of total solids production from a biological treatment process will be higher
than the rate calculated from Eq. (17.49) because this equation only describes biological VSS
production and there is normally a significant amount of solids in the influent to the aeration
basin. Degradation of influent solids has been discussed in Section 17.6.2. The rate of
production of solids from a biological process is
+
= + 0 = obs.t (17.49)
b

Where
is rate of sludge production
fb is the ratio of VSS : TSS for biological solids
ft is the fraction of influent TSS that was not degraded
Yobs: is the observed yield factor for total solids

Studies are needed to determine the factor ft in Eq. (17.50). It is a function of the
degradable portion of the influent VSS : TSS ratio for the influent. An example will illustrate
the factors on which ft depends

Example 17.3 Sludge Production in an Activated Sludge Process

An activated sludge process is treating primary settled effluent that has a BOD5 of 150 mg/L
and TSS concentration of 90 mg/L in a flow of 25000 m3/d (6.61 Mgal/d). The detention time
in the aeration basins in 5 h. MLVSS is 2100 mg/L and the effluent endogenous decay
coefficient is0.05 d-1. The VSS : TSS ratios for biolofgical solids and influent SS are 0.80 and
0.50, respectively. Find the observed biological yield factor and the range of the observed yield
factor for total solids. Also find the possible range for rate of total solids production.
The rate of substrate removal (Eq. 17.15) is
(0 ) (150 20)mgL 24 h
= = ( ) = 624 mgL /d
5 d

The volume of the aeration basins is

m3 1d
= d = (25000 ) (5 h) ( ) = 5208 m3 = 5.21 106 L
d 24 h

Applying Eq. (17.49),

+ 0.68(624 mgL/d) + 0.05 d1 (2100 mgL)
. = =
624 mg /d
= 0.512 mg VSS/mg BOD5
 The rate of biological solids production is
mg VSS mg BOD5 L 1 kg
= . = (0.512 ) (624 ) (5.21 106 L) ( 6 )
mg BOD5 d 10 mg
= 1.67 x 103 kg/d

If none of the influent VSS were degradable then f1i = 1 in Eq. (17.50) and the
maximum theoretical solids production would occur.
+ 0 0.512 mg 5 (1)(90 24
. = = = ( )
0.80mg mg VSS (5)(624 /

= 0.640 mg TSS/mg BOD5 + 0.692 mg TSS/mg BOD5 = 1.332 mg TSS/mg BOD5

mg VSS mg BOD5 L 1 kg
= . = (1.332 ) (624 ) (5.21 106 L) ( 6 )
mg BOD5 d 10 mg
= 4.33 x 103 kg/d