The friction twisting of

continuous filament yarns

K. Greenwood*

An overview of friction twisting of continuous filament yarns is presented.

Starting from the older pin twisting process, the development of friction
twisting is traced up to the present day when yarn rotational speeds of
5 million r/min are possible. One of the main problems encountered in
friction twisting is the generation of a normal force between yarn and
rotating disc sufficient to supply a frictional force to twist the yarn, without
inducing excess tension in it. Solutions to this are presented leading to an
analogy with the simple capstan, from which relations are derived for the
friction between yarn and disc and for the tension in the yarn. Finally,
a current development for friction twisting using belts is described.

Keywords: yarn preparation processes, friction twisting

Friction twisting forms part of the false-twist texturing yarn and Y the forward velocity of the yarn. Thus the net
process for continuous filament yarns. In this process, the change in the value of N is given by:
yarn is twisted into a helical configuration, it is heat-set in
n
that state and is then cooled and untwisted. During all these dU = dL ( ~ - r ) (2)
stages, the yarn moves forward in the direction of its own
axis; the general scheme of things is outlined in Fig 1. The
The change dN can also be expressed in terms of the twist
yarn is fed into the system by the feed rollers and is taken
change d T by differentiating Eq (1) with p constant. By
away by the take-up rollers; the surface speed of these
rollers determines the forward speed of the yarn. Between
the feed rollers and the twister lie a heater and a cooling
zone which constitute the 'processing zone', and between
the twister and the take-up rollers is the 'take-up zone'.
The function of the twister is two-fold: it twists the yarn I
in the processing zone and simultaneously untwists the G Feed r o l l e r s
yarn in the take-up zone so that the yarn leaves the machine
without twist.
The present discussion is mainly concerned with the func-
tioning of the twister which rotates the yarn around its own
axis. How this is done depends on the nature of the twister
but the effect of the yarn rotation on the yarn twist in the
processing zone is common to all types of twister. It can be
Heater
described in comparatively simple mathematical terms by
Processing p
considering the balance between twist gains and losses in zoRe
the processing zone when a small yarn element of length dL
passes through the zone - twist is defined as the number of
turns per unit length of untwisted yarn and it is assumed
that the turns are uniformly distributed along the length of
the yarn in the zone.
Yarn
By def'mition, the total number of turns (N) in the process- Cooling zone
ing zone is given by:
N =pT (1)
where p is the length of the zone and T is the twist of the / Twieter
yarn in it. Entry of a length dL into the processing zone Take-up
does not affect the value of N since that yarn has no twist; zone
exit of a similar length of yarn from the twister, however, T a k e - u p rollers
causes a twist loss of TdL turns. This twist loss is compen-
sated by the rotation of the yarn which leads to a twist gain
equal to (n/Y)dL where n is the rotational speed of the
*Department of Textiles, UMIST, PO Box 88, Manchester
M60 1QD, UK Fig 1 Processing zone o f a false-twist machine

TRIBOLOGY international 0301-679X/85/030157-07 $03.00 1985 Butterworth & Co (Publishers) Ltd 157
Greenwood - friction twisting of yarns
.c
C
Speed ratio
c is pressed against a rotating disc and twisted by frictional
#
O.
I-"
Length of yarn processed
Fig 2 Development of twist when a pin twister is started up
combining Eq (2)with the differentiated Eq (1), one
obtains:
n
dT_ 1 ( Y _T) (3)
dL p friction twister is neither possible nor desirable. So, with
The ratio of rotational to longitudinal speed of the yarn
n / Y will be referred to as the speed ratio. Although its
physical nature is quite different from that of T, it has the
same dimensions. From Eq (3) it follows that the yarn
twist T can only be stable when it is equal to the speed
ratio.
Before the advent of friction twisting, rotation of the yarn
was achieved by means of a device called the pin twister
whose salient property was that its rotational speed was
directly adjustable and that it imparted to the yarn a
rotational speed identical to its own. This meant that the
rotational speed of the yarn itself and hence its speed ratio
was a machine setting and therefore constant. Under these
circumstances, Eq (3) can be solved by analytical methods
leading to:
n L
T= ~ [ 1 - e x p ( - -)] (4)
P shown in Fig 4 is still that most widely used. Underlying
and
TO = n / Y (5)
where To is the stable value of T which, according to
Eq (4) is reached when a length L of yarn of approximately
five times the value o f p has passed through the machine.
This value is usually around 2 m and hence some 10 m of
yarn has to be processed before the twist (and hence the
yarn quality) reaches its stable value. This is a negligible
length from a commercial point of view.
Eq (4) itself has the well-known form of an exponential
equation describing the increase in T from zero to its stable
value TO as shown in Fig 2. It should be emphasized that
while Eq (3) applies to all forms of the false-twist process,
Eq (4) only applies to pin twisting. The latter had the great
advantage of a positive and simple control of twist but
because of its 1: 1 ratio of twister speed to yarn speed,
it imposed severe speed limitations on the whole process.
This will become clear when one realizes that present-day
false-twist machines require yarn rotational speeds in the
region 2 - 5 million r/rain. Nobody, however, has ever been
able to design a pin twister which could operate much
158
above 800 000 r/min under industrial conditions. This vast
discrepancy between modern speed requirements and the
actual speed potential of the pin twister led to the develop-
ment of friction twisters, particularly in the last ten years.
Principle of friction twisting
The idea of friction twisting is illustrated in Fig 3. The yarn
contact with the moving surface. Because the disc diameter
is very much larger than that of the yarn, the rotational
speed of the yarn is much higher than that of the disc.
A disc, for instance, rotating at 10 000 r/min can generate
a yarn rotational speed in excess of 2 million r/rain. At first
sight, Fig 3 may suggest that the rotational speed of the
yarn could be calculated quite easily and accurately
provided the rotational speed of the disc and the two
relevant diameters were known. This, however, would only
be true if one could be sure that there was no significant
slip between the yarn and the disc surfaces. In theory, it is
possible to design and operate the system in such a way
that there is no slip, but in any practical situation, there is
no means of knowing whether slip occurs or not, and
experience to date suggests that slip-free operation of a
friction twisting, one has lost the simple and direct control
of twist which was possible with pin twisting.
In order to rotate and thereby twist the yarn, the twister
must overcome the torsional rigidity of the yarn by means
of a frictional force applied to the yarn surface. There must
therefore be a normal force pressing the yarn against the
twister, the most readily available source of such a force
being the tension in the yarn. One of the major problems
encountered in the early days of friction twisting was the
need to operate at very high yarn tensions to generate the
necessary normal and frictional forces, but this tended to
damage the yarn. To overcome this problem, attempts were
made to find alternative sources of a normal force (e.g. an
auxiliary frictionless anvil roller) but these attempts were
soon abandoned in favour of the approach outlined in
Fig 4. Only very recently has the idea of generating an
independent normal force been revived but the principle
this principle is the realization that the normal force
between the yarn and the twister depends not only on the
yarn tension but also on the angle-of-wrap. An alternative
to increasing the yarn tension is therefore to increase the
angle-of-wrap (provided that this itself does not lead to
Fig 3 Basic principle of a disc-type friction twister
June 85 Vol 18 No 3
 G r e e n w o o d - friction twisting o f yarns

The above argument has been dealt with briefly here

because it is well-known. It is quoted simply to enable
Yarn comparison between the capstan and the friction twister
which can be treated as a modified capstan system as shown
in Fig 6. The modified capstan, unlike the conventional one,
does not have its axis at right angles to the yarn axis and
while the conventional capstan is stationary, the modified
one rotates around its axis. (Friction twisters based on the
design outlined in Fig 6 have been developed but have not
found general industrial application. The basic principle,
however, is the same as with the stacked-disc twisters).
--~)
At first sight, the main difference between the capstan and
the twister appears to be that the capstan is stationary and
the twister moves. This distinction is however, superficial
since, even with the capstan, the yarn itself moves and,
on grounds of Newtonian relativity, one could regard the
capstan as a moving body without changing the physics
of the system. The real difference between the capstan
and the friction twister concerns the direction of move-
ment of the twister (or capstan) surface relative to the
yarn axis. With the capstan, this direction is always parallel
Fig 4 Basic principle o f a stacked-disc friction twister

a prohibitive increase in tension). With one disc, the maxi-

mum angle-of-wrap is limited, in theory, to 180 but the I
practical limit is around 60 . This limitation, however, can
easily be overcome by using multiple discs as shown in o

Fig 4. The angles-of-wrap of individual discs are additive I o=

Yarn [
and so this 'stacked-disc' arrangement allows an increase in
the angle-of-wrap almost without limit. Fig 4 shows two
stacks of discs but normally three stacks are used. At first
sight, Fig 4 suggests that the yarn, in spite of being wrapped ( -)
around the discs remains in a plane with the axis of the
discs. This s not the case, however; for reasons discussed
later, the yarn path over an individual disc on a modern
friction twister has the configuration shown in Fig 5. I
The practical result of the stacked-disc arrangement shown I
in Fig 4 is that the total angle-of-wrap is usually consider- I
ably in excess of 360 . Such large angles-of-wrap are
commonly encountered in the use of capstans and since the Fig 5 Detailed view o f the yarn passing over one disc
latter represent a system well-known to workers in the field
of friction, it will be useful to discuss the geometry and
physics of friction twisters by analogy with the capstan.
Yarn

The capstan analogy

In the conventional capstan system, the yarn (or rope)
travels in the direction of its own axis and around a cylin-
drical body (the capstan) which is stationary. Before it
reaches the capstan, the yarn has a tension S1 and it leaves
the capstan with a tension $2. At any point of contact
between the yarn and the capstan, the yarn tension equals
S and generates a normal force equal to Sir per unit length
of yarn where r is the capstan radius. Over any small incre-
ment de of the angle of wrap, the total normal force is
therefore qual to Sda, giving rise to a frictional force d F
equal to S # d e . This incremental frictional force opposes
the forward movement of the yarn and leads to an increase
dS in yarn tension. It follows that:
dS
-- = S/~ (6)
de
The solution to Eq (6) is the well-known capstan equation:
$2 = S1 e u~ (7) Fig 6 Modified capstan, acting as a friction twister

TR I BO LOGY international 159

Greenwood- friction twisting of yarns
Y yarn axis. These two velocity components give rise to a
l,
I . D cos ~k
\ i \ surface relative to the yarn surface is found by connecting
2'rrRn~ "~/'.
dFb! ~ I
....... ---.I-
I O sin ~k -.. dF
I "~
It_ "~
dF,
Fig 7 Velocity and force vectors at a point o f contact
between the yarn and the friction twister
to the yarn axis and opposite to the running direction of
the yarn; with the friction twister, it is inclined to the
yarn axis. The angle of incline tended to be approximately
90 with the early twisters, but in modern twisters it is
usually around 65 to 70 (Fig 5). This angle will be
referred to as the twister angle.
Clearly, the prime reason for increasing the magnitude of
the twister angle from zero to the values quoted above is
to twist the yarn, which the capstan cannot do. The need
for a non-zero twister angle does not, however, provide
sufficient information for choosing the actual value ; an
angle of 90 , which appeared to be an obvious choice to
the first designers of friction twisters, proved to be a poor
one. The consequences of choosing a particular twister
angle emerge clearly when one analyses the situation with
regard to velocities and forces along the line of contact
between the yarn and the twister.
Analysis of the velocity and force relations
The analysis presented here is essentially the same as that
used by other workers in the field. 1-4 Before going into
detail, it will be useful to point out some basic differences
between the analyses o f friction twisting and of pin twist-
ing. The pin twisting analysis follows the development of
twist in the processing zone from its initial zero value to its
stable value by means of simple mathematical expressions
(Eqs (4) and (5)). Until recently, however, all analyses of
friction twisting confined themselves to the ultimate stable
conditions without considering the route by which these
conditions are reached.
A similar approach is adopted here but the initial analysis
is presented in a form applicable to both stable and transient
conditions. Criteria for deciding whether the described
conditions are stable or transient are quoted and certain
conclusions are drawn regarding each of these cases.
Fig 7 is a velocity and force vector diagram describing
conditions at a point of contact between the yarn and
twister surfaces, ie within a small incremental angle of
wrap da. The yarn surface has a velocity component Y in
the direction of the yarn axis (Fig 7). The magnitude of
160
this component is determined by the surface speed of the
take-up rollers. Since the yarn rotates around its own axis
due to the action of the friction twister, the yarn surface
also has a velocity component 2rRn at right angles to the
resultant yarn surface velocity v, shown in Fig 7. The direc-
tion and magnitude of the slip velocity Q of the twister
the end points of vectors v and D. The magnitude of Q is
comparatively unimportant but its direction is of great
importance because it is also the direction of the frictional
force d F between the yarn and the twister. This direction
is expressed in terms of the angle 3', which can be described
as the drag angle, since it expresses the direction in which
the twister 'drags' the yarn surface. The important point
to bear in mind here is that it is the direction of Q and
not that o l D which determines the direction of the drag.
The magnitude of 3' can be deduced from Fig 7 by simple
trigonometry and is given by:
D sin ~ - 27rRn
tan 3' = (8)
D cos~ - Y
The right-hand side of Eq (8) contains parameters which
are all either machine settings or yarn properties, with the
exception of the rotational speed n of the yarn. This can
either be an independent or a dependent variable depending
on whether one is dealing with stable or with transient
conditions. Reference to Fig 7 shows that the numerator
of the above expression is the component at right angles
to the yarn axis of the slip velocity Q. This component
must always be positive since the movement of the yarn
surface in that direction is entirely due to the action of the
twister, and the yarn surface cannot move faster than the
twister surface. The situation is different, however, with
regard to the denominator which represents the component
o f Q parallel to the yarn axis. The movement o f the yarn
in this direction is due to the take-up rollers and therefore
the yarn can move faster or slower than the twister or at
the same speed. This means that the denominator can be
either positive or negative and 3' can have any value between
zero and 180 depending on the relative velocity of the
yarn and the twister in the direction of the yarn axis.
Since the drag angle 3' determines the direction of the fric-
tional force dE, it also determines the relative magnitude of
its two components dFt and d E b. The first o f these provides
the twisting action of the twister and the second its braking
action, ie its effect on the yarn tension. It is this tension
effect which needs to be considered first.
T h e generalized capstan equation
In analysing the tension effect o f the friction twister, the
argument leading to the capstan equation forms a useful
starting point. Recall that the normal force acting on a yarn
element within an incremental angle of wrap d a is given by
Sdtx where S is the yarn tension. Hence the incremental
frictional force d F is equal to S/advt. In the friction twister,
however, as distinct from the capstan, it is not the whole
of this frictional force but only its component d F b which
acts in the direction o f the yarn axis and influences the
yarn tension. From trigonometry, it follows that:
d F b = d F cos3' (9)
Therefore:
dS = - d F b = - d F cos7 = -S/a cos7 d a "(10)
June 85 Vol 18 No 3

Integration of Eq (10) leads to:
$2 = $1 e-US cos'r (11)
Eq (11) can be regarded as a generalized form of Eq (7)
(the capstan equation) and it reduces to this form when
the drag angle 3' equals zero or 180 , i.e. when the slip
velocity vector Q is parallel to the yarn axis and either
positive or negative. According to Eq (8), this would be
the case not only when the twister is stationary (the more
probable practical case) but also when yarn and twister
surfaces have the same velocity component at right angles
to the yarn axis (highly improbable in practice).
Twisting action of the frictional force
The twisting action is carried out by the twisting
component dFt which is given by:
dFt = dFsin3' (12)
As before, d F is given by Sladot but having established the
variation of yarn tension along the line of contact with the
twister by means of Eq (10), it is now possible to express
S in terms of the entry tension Sx by an equation similar
to Eq (11), ie:
S = $1 e - ~ ' cos~' (13)
where ct' represents the total angle of wrap between the
entry point of the yarn and the point where tension S is
reached. Therefore:
dFt = Sla sinT de~ = Sl e-US' csVla sinT da (14)
By integrating Eq (14), one can determine the total twist-
ing force Ft which is given by:
Ft = -$1 tan3' (e -us cosy _ 1) (15)
Eq (15) can also be written in the form:
Ft = (St - $ 2 ) tan3' (16)
At first sight, it may seem that F t becomes indeterminate
when 3' = 90 since tan7 = oo while $2 - $1 = 0 (see
Eq (1 I)).
This is not the case, however, because when 3' = 90 , the
differential equation takes the form:
d F t = S1/a da (17)
and this leads to:
Ft = Sl#a (18)
Torque and twist - criteria for stability
It would seem that with the development of Eqs (I 5) or
(18) the analysis of friction twisting is nearly complete
since it is now possible to express the available twisting
force F t in terms of various machine settings such as the
twister angle and speed, the yarn speed and radius, the yarn
tension etc. Insofar as most of these parameters do not
appear explicitly in these two equations, they are there
implicitly because they determine the drag angle 3' in the
manner described by Eq (8). All that seems to be necessary
now is to find the yarn twist which is generated by a given
twisting force F t . If one wanted to establish the required
relationship between twisting force and twist, for yarns of
different radii, one would have to start off by finding a
twist-torque relationship and one would have to divide the
torque corresponding to a given level of twist by the yarn
radius in order to find the corresponding value of F t .
TRIBOLOGY international
G r e e n w o o d - f r i c t i o n t w i s t i n g o f yarns
(Clearly, the larger the yarn radius, the smaller is the value
of F t required to produce a given torque.) If, however, one
is content to confine the analysis to yarn of one radius
only, one can ignore torque and look for a direct relation-
ship between twisting force and twist. Experimental results
suggest that this relationship can be expressed reasonably
well over a practical range of conditions by:
F t = kT* (19)
where k is an empirical constant involving the yarn radius.
Eq (19) stipulates an equilibrium between the internal yarn
torque due to the torsional rigidity of the yarn and the
external torque applied by the twister, and therefore (inertia
effects in the yarn being negligibly small) it must always be
satisfied. This means that when the twist has any given
value T, the combination of all the parameters which deter-
mine Ft, according to Eq (15) or (18), must be such as to
produce the value of F t derived from Eq (19). Leaving aside
Eq (18) which refers to a special case and examining
Eq (15) only, one finds that these parameters include the
drag angle 3' which in turn is dependent on the rotational
speed n of the yarn itself (see Eq (8)). Thus, the existence
of a given twist level, all other variables having been fixed,
determines the rotational speed of the yarn and, somewhat
paradoxically, the higher the twist, the lower must be the
rotational speed. On the other hand, stable conditions can
only exist when T = n/Y. Thus, the criterion for stability is
that the rotational speed dictated implicitly be Eq (19)
must simultaneously satisfy Eq (5). This raises and helps
answer the question as to how stable conditions are reached
when the twister is started and the yarn has zero twist.
Transient conditions at the start of twisting
It is not proposed here, to present a full analysis of this
problem since this is the subject of another paper, s The
problem does not, in fact, lend itself to a complete analyti-
cal solution and can only be solved numerically with the
aid of computer techniques. For the present, it is proposed
to confine the discussion to a qualitative description of the
initial development of twist from zero to its stable value.
That development is governed by Eq (3) which applies both
to pin andto friction twisters. In the case of the pin twister,
this equation can easily be solved because the speed ratio
is a constant. For the friction twister, the solution is based
on the fact that the rotational speed of the yarn and hence
its speed ratio n / Y is a function of T which is written here
f ( T ) as it is rather complicated. Eq (3) thus takes the form:
dT 1
- [ f(T) - r ] (20)
dL p
The solution of this differential equation starts from the
fact that the yarn initially has zero twist, requiring F t to
be zero, which is the case when the drag angle is also zero,
ie when 2nRn = D sin ~0. Thus, the initial speed ratio
(n/Y)o is given by:
(~_)n _ D sin~ (21)
-// - Y 27rR
The D / Y ratio is a widely used term in industrial practice.
For any such ratio and any given twister angle 4, the initial
speed ratio is the highest possible. In accordance with
Eq (3), this leads to the highest rate of twist increase. As
the twist builds up and the required value of F t increases,
the corresponding increase in the value of the drag angle is
obtained by a gradual reduction in the speed ratio. Thus,
161
Greenwood - f r i c t i o n t w i s t i n g o f yarns
c zero so that the drag angle was always larger than 90 lead-
o.
y-
# friction twisting was the realization that by making the
Length of yorn processed
Fig 8 Development o f twist when a friction twister is
started up
the speed ratio diminishes while the twist increases and
stable conditions are reached when both parameters have
converged to an identical value. The manner in which they
approach each other is shown in Fig 8.
Twist contraction and the apparent capstan
paradox
It is common practice with modern friction twisters to
choose the D / Y ratio and the twister angle to be such that
D cos~ -~ Y so that the drag angle is approximately 90
and there is very little change in the yarn tension as the
yarn passes over the twister. Under these conditions,
a phenomenon concerning the angle of wrap can be
observed which, at first sight will seem paradoxical to any-
one familiar with the properties of the conventional capstan;
particularly if a friction twister o f the type shown in Fig 6
is used which bears a close resemblance to a capstan.
With a conventional capstan, any increase in the angle of
wrap leads to an increase in the tension ratio $2/$1 and this
is in fact the main reason for using the capstan. With a
friction twister, however, the reverse is true when it operates
under the conditions referred to above. As the angle of
wrap is increased, the ratio $2/S~ diminishes. The reason
for this is the phenomenon o f twist contraction which has
not been referred to up to now. When a yarn is twisted,
it contracts lengthways to a marked extent and at the levels
of twist used in the false-twist process this contraction may
be in excess o f 30% of the original length. In the false-twist
machine where the yarn is moving forward while it is being
twisted, the twist contraction causes a reduction in the
forward velocity of the yarn. Therefore, when the twist is
increased by increasing the angle o f wrap, the resulting
increase in the twist contraction of the yarn leads to a
reduction in the magnitude of Y in Fig 7, which in turn
reduces the drag angle 7 and hence also diminishes the
tension ratio in accordance with Eq (11).
This effect is not only of academic interest since it can be
used to design a twist control system. All one has to do is
to monitor the tension ratio by means of suitable tension
transducers and to adjust the angle o f wrap automatically
whenever a change in the tension ratio indicates a departure
from the desired twist level.
162
Past, present and future
The early designers of friction twisters seem to have over-
looked the fact that the direction in which the frictional
force acts is very different from the direction o f movement
of the twister. They realized that the frictional force should
preferably act approximately at right angles to the yarn axis
and they tried to achieve this by making the twister itself
move in that direction. This meant that D cos~0 was always
ing to a high tension ratio which could only be kept within
acceptable limits by very high twister speeds. Perhaps the
most decisive step towards the recent rapid advance o f
twister angle substantially smaller than 90 , it is possible to
reduce the drag angle to the optimum value of around 90
where virtually the whole of the available frictional force
serves to twist the yarn and is not dissipated in increasing
or decreasing the yarn tension. Of similar importance was
the development of twister surfaces which combine good
wear properties with a high coefficient of friction, and the
advent of partly-orientated feeder yarns. At the present,
the stacked-disc type o f friction twister is still dominant
but important developments are afoot which overcome the
unsatisfactory situation where the normal force between
yarn and twister is generated by the yarn tension. One such
recent development is sketched in Fig 9. This is generally
referred to as the belt twister where the yarn passes
between two belts which move relative to the yarn axis
in a similar direction as the disc twister. The normal force,
however is produced by the pressure o f the belts against
the yarn. Other twisters using similar principles are in the
pipeline and the next few years should see some more
advances. It is doubtful, however, whether the roughly
five-fold increase in production speed which occurred in
the seventies and early eighties can be matched by future
speed increases. The ultimate dream of putting the false-
twist machine in series with the extrusion unit is still a
long way off.
References
1. Arthur D.F. and Weller A.F. The principles of friction twisting.
J. Textile Inst., 1960, 51, p. T66
2. Thwaites J.J. The mechanics of friction twisting. J. Textile
Inst., 1970, 61, p. 116
3. Klein W. and Trummer A. Draw-texturising techniques. Textile
Manufacturer, 1973, 100, p. 16
4. Denton M,J. Tension ratio and slip in friction twisting.
J. Textile lnst., 1975, 66, p. 303
Yarn
Fig 9 Basic principle o f a belt-C:pe friction twister
June 85 Vol 18 No 3
 G r e e n w o o d - f r i c t i o n t w i s t i n g o f yarns

5. Greenwood K. and Grigg P.J. The development of twist in a n Rotational speed of yarn
false-twist texturing machine with friction twister. J. Textile
Inst. {to be published) Q Speed of twister surface relative to yarn surface
R Yarn radius
v Resultant surface velocity of yarn
Nomenclature Y Forward velocity of the yarn
D Surface speed of twister 7 Angle between the directions of Q and Y
d F Incremental frictional force between yarn and twister (drag angle)
d F t Incremental twisting component of d F Angle between the directions of D and Y
d F b Incremental braking component of d F (twister angle)

Lubricants for extreme environments gives a basic account of the tribological

Current aerospace and engine tech-
nologies create extreme conditions of
temperature and pressure which impose
severe demands on the thermal/
oxidative stability of lubricants and
bearings.
A recent publication called 'Solid and
liquid lubricants for extreme environ-
ments' is therefore timely. It comprises
ten papers presented at the Symposium
on Lubricants for Extreme Environ-
ments (ASME/ASLE Lubrication
Conference, October 1982). Although
somewhat slow to appear, it should be
required reading for those involved in
lubrication research.
A major goal of the tribochemist is to
narrow the gap between the relatively
low oxidation temperatures of oils and
the thermal degradation temperatures
in the absence of oxygen. Molecular
structure modification and improved
oxidation inhibitors should both
contribute to the realization of this
goal. Progress though, depends on
increasing our knowledge of the
mechanisms and kinetics of oxidation
reactions. Lubricant oxidation there-
fore features a lot in the proceedings.
H.E. Sliney, Symposium Organizing
Chairman, says in his foreword that he
hopes the publication will provide an
information framework from which
the reader can select topics and
references for further study.
ASLE Special Publication SP-15,
American Society of Lubrication
Engineers, 838 Busse Highway,
Park Ridge, IL 60068, USA
Contents of SP-15
Sliney H.E. A commentary on solid
lubricants and wear-resistant solids for
use in extreme environments
McConnell B.D. and Mecklenburg K.R.
An overview of a program on solid-
lubricated rolling-element bearings
Fusaro L. Polyimide dry films and
composites in tribology
Spalvins T. Plasma deposition and
surface modification techniques for
wear resistance
Loomis W.R. Overview of liquid
lubricants for advanced aircraft
Macpherson P.B. Future requirements
for a helicopter transmission lubricant
Morales W. High-pressure liquid
chromatography: a brief introduction
and its application in analysing the
degredation of a C-ether (thio-ether)
liquid lubricant
Beerbower A. Environmental capabili-
ties of liquid lubricants
Snyder C.E. Jr and Gsehwender L.J.
Liquid lubricants for use at high
temperatures
Klaus E.E. and Lai C.W. Vapour-
deposited lubricants for extreme
conditions
Metal cutting brochure
Selecting a cutting fluid for a particular
application is becoming increasingly
complex as more products enter the
market. The choice depends on the
material, the machine operations, the
machine tool being used, and individual
company requirements.
Smallman Lubricants, which produces
the Crown range of metal cutting oils
and lubricants, has published a 16-page
brochure describing the function,
properties and testing of its products.
These include neat, soluble and
synthetic lubricants. The brochure
regimes encountered in metal cutting,
and the types of lubricant available to
facilitate machining under such
conditions.
The tests described include those for
viscosity, flash point, microbiological
properties, and condition monitoring
of in service lubricants. Also included
is a table of the lubricants best suited
to particular materials undergoing
different operations.
Smallman Lubricants Ltd, Great
Bridge Street, West Bromwich,
West Midlands B70 ODE, UK
Perfluoro polyether
lubricants
A perfluoro polyether lubricant allows
more than 5 million passages of a
magnetic tape past a read/write head.
This compares with 30 000 passages
for a more conventional lubricant.
This improvement in performance is
important even for systems in which
magnetic reading is not by direct
contact (Winchester disks). Head
'take-off' and 'landing' create
potentially costly problems which
make lubricants necessary.
This is one application described in a
32-page brochure from Montefluos
detailing its range of perfluoro poly-
ethers. These lubricants are said to
exhibit high thermal and chemical
stability, low volatility, non-
flammability and low surface tension.
These and other properties make the
products particularly suited to high
vacuum, chemically hostile environ-
ments.
The brochure is available from
Montedison (UK) Ltd, 718 Lygon
Place, Ebury Street, London
SW1W 0JR, UK

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