Professional Documents
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SUSTAINABILITY
Definition....................................................................................................................................... 35.1
Characteristics of Sustainability .................................................................................................... 35.1
Factors Impacting Sustainability ................................................................................................... 35.2
Primary HVAC&R Considerations in Sustainable Design ............................................................ 35.2
Factors Driving Sustainability into Design Practice ..................................................................... 35.4
Designing for Effective Energy Resource Use ............................................................................... 35.5
35.1
Copyright 2013, ASHRAE
This file is licensed to Rabee Taleb (rabee_t@hotmail.com). Publication Date: 6/1/2013
the way technologically for the built environment and related indus- on the other hand, depends on the nearly constant temperature of the
tries to make their fair-share contribution to sustainability. Such pro- near-surface earth for use as an energy source or sink, and thus can
grams include (1) ASHRAEs net-zero energy buildings (NZEB) be used on almost any project if other factors align in its favor.
thrust; (2) the U.S. Green Building Councils (USGBC) Leadership Climatic conditions may often provide another source of re-
in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Green Building newable energy. In arid climates, air systems using evaporative
Rating System; (3) the American Institute of Architects (AIA) cooling (both direct and indirect) can supplement conventionally
2030 Challenge (AIA 2011); (4) the Green Building Institutes powered cooling and refrigeration systems.
(GBI) Green Globes (www.thegbi.org/greenglobes); and (5) the Designers should be familiar with the characteristics of com-
U.S. Environmental Protection Agencys (EPA) ENERGY mon traditional (nonrenewable) energy resources (natural gas,
STAR program (www.energystar.gov/). heating oil, electricity) from the standpoint of their use in relevant
There is little ASHRAE, within its technological purview, can do building applications. Designers are typically very familiar with
directly about other, nontechnological barriers. It can, however, set a the relative per-unit cost as it affects the operating cost of the
good example in its area of expertise and can also encourage, advise, building being designed. Other energy characteristics traditionally
and inspire other sectors to do their part to move towards sustaina- taken into account by the designer might also include ease of han-
bility. Examples include ASHRAEs guidance provided to the U.S. dling and use, cleanliness, emissions produced, and local avail-
government on effective building energy efficiency programs, as ability, because these also have a direct effect on design and
well as its many publications such as the Advanced Energy Design installation. Until recently, designers had little reason to consider
Guides (AEDGs), the ASHRAE GreenGuide, and its numerous stan- an energy resources characteristics beyond the site line of the
dards and guidelines. project at hand.
However, recent public focus on the impacts of building energy
FACTORS IMPACTING SUSTAINABILITY use on the environment has changed that approach. Designers now
The major factors impacting global sustainability are the follow- must consider a resources broader characteristics that may affect
ing: the regional, national, and global environment, such as its origin
(domestic or foreign), security, future availability, emissions char-
Population growth and migration acteristics, broad economics, and social acceptability. Though
Food supply responsible designers may not be able to do much about such fac-
Disease control and amelioration tors, they should be aware of them; indeed, that awareness may
Energy resource availability affect decisions within the designers control.
Material resource availability and management For instance, familiarity with an energy resources emissions
Fresh water supply, both potable and nonpotable characteristics, whether at the well head, mine mouth, or generating
Effective and efficient usage practices for energy resources and station, may influence the designer to make the building more
water energy efficient, or provide the designer with arguments to convince
Air and water pollution the owner that energy-saving features in the building would be
Solid and liquid waste disposal worth additional capital cost. Furthermore, as owners and develop-
ers of buildings become more aware of sustainability factors,
Land use
designers must stay informed of the latest information and impacts.
The preceding are only broad categories, yet they encompass One way to reduce a projects use of nonrenewable energy,
many subsidiary factors that have received public attention recently. beyond energy-efficient design itself, is to replace such energy use
For instance, climate change/global warming, carbon emissions, with renewable energy. Designers should develop familiarity with
acid rain, deforestation, transportation, and watershed management how projects might incorporate and benefit from renewable energy.
are important factors as well. However, each of these can be viewed Many kinds of passive design features can take advantage of natu-
as a subset of one or more of the listed major areas. rally occurring energy.
This file is licensed to Rabee Taleb (rabee_t@hotmail.com). Publication Date: 6/1/2013
Sustainability 35.3
FACTORS DRIVING SUSTAINABILITY INTO Next, in the early 1990s, came the much more controversial issue
DESIGN PRACTICE of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and their potential for causing
global warming. In response to these threats, some countries signed
HVAC&R designers face many challenges as they assimilate
and accepted the Kyoto Protocol (UNFCCC 1998), which placed
sustainability into their engineering practices. These challenges
future limits on these emissions, but most large-emitter countries
include climate change, a fast-changing regulatory and legal envi-
did not. By 2011, when follow-up climate talks occurred in Durban,
ronment, and evolving standards of care. New tools, technologies,
South Africa, overall global GHG emissions not only had not been
and approaches are required for well-prepared HVAC&R engineers.
reduced but had increased. No new GHG emission reduction targets
The challenges and the responses are creating new opportunities,
came out of those talks, although the countries agreed to look at the
just as changing project processes are allowing or requiring engi-
limits issue again in 2020 and to set up a green fund to help poor
neers to participate in projects in new ways.
nations deal with climate change.
Climate Change Despite the lack of effective global action, evidence of climate
change is compelling. The Fourth Assessment Report commis-
In addition to their causal role (IPCC 2007), energy systems are
sioned by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC
exposed to significant vulnerabilities resulting from climate change.
2007) concluded that warming of the climate system is unequivo-
Increased volatility in weather profoundly affects HVAC&R prac-
cal and that there is very high confidence that the net effect of
tice. Historical weather data and extremes may inadequately
human activities since 1750 has been one of warming. This conclu-
describe conditions faced by a project built today, even over a mod-
sion has also been supported by the National Academy of Sciences
est building lifespan.
(NAS 2010), which concluded that Climate change is occurring, is
In 1988, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
caused largely by human activities, and poses significant risk for
and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) established the
and in many cases is already affectinga broad range of human and
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (www.ipcc.ch)
natural systems.
to study and report on the scientific issues, potential impacts and
The predominant greenhouse gas pollutant is carbon dioxide,
mitigation methods associated with climate change. A series of pub-
which mainly results as a by-product of fossil fuel combustion in the
Licensed for single user. 2013 ASHRAE, Inc.
Sustainability 35.5
annual CO2 equivalent emissions in addition to overall energy sav- to increase market share while exceeding current regulatory con-
ings and other requirements. The component of such emissions straints and anticipating future regulations. More details on design
from electricity use depends on the mix of fuels used to generate considerations are provided in the section on Designing for Effec-
that electricity. In addition to regional variations, the overall fuel tive Energy Resource Use.
mix is projected to change, as shown in Figure 3. Integrating sustainability into HVAC&R system design can
Emissions considerations alone are not the only driver for design result in built environments that respect the greater environment and
decision making. Energy prices and societal pressures continue to provide safe and comfortable indoor environments. The three occur-
mount. Examples of recent drivers include rences of the letter i in sustainability can be thought of as represent-
ing key concepts in sustainable design: interactive, iterative, and
Antiquated electric transmission and distribution infrastructure
integrated. Design processes that require greater interaction
and plans to develop a smart grid to improve it
between team members and more iterative analysis to improve
Power plants being forced to become cleaner and more efficient,
design solutions can be undertaken by teams through what has
expediting closure of cheap, dirty generators
become known as integrated design.
Mandates imposed on utilities to provide more renewable energy
Sustainability is inherently multidisciplinary. Recognizing this,
to customers
teams often assemble a broad array of experts in a collaborative,
Influence of commodities trading markets on spot and future
interdisciplinary approach to achieve the highest levels of sustain-
prices
ability possible. This integrated design approach is addressed in
Constrained natural gas reserves and growth in demand continu-
Chapter 58 of the 2011 ASHRAE HandbookHVAC Applications
ing to increase volatility in the natural gas market
and in ASHRAE (2010).
Climate change, through environmental pressures to reduce car-
bon emissions in the face of increased demand for electricity, and Other Opportunities
infrastructure damage from more frequent storms
Growing impatience from some elements, both domestically and In addition to designing HVAC&R systems, engineers may
internationally, over the perceived slow pace of acceptance of sus- increasingly be called upon to help address issues ranging from
transportation to irrigation to on-site renewable energy. The
Licensed for single user. 2013 ASHRAE, Inc.
the first objective is always to reduce the power required to the Design Process for Energy-Efficient Projects
bare minimum necessary to provide the desired performance, start- Consider energy efficiency at the beginning of the building
ing with the buildings heating and cooling loads (a power term, in design process, because energy-efficient features are most easily and
kilowatts) and continuing with the various systems and subsys- effectively incorporated at that time. Seek the active participation of
tems. all members of the design team, including the owner, architect,
engineer, and often the contractor, early in the design process. Con-
Simplicity sider building attributes such as building function, form, orientation,
Complex designs to save energy seldom function in the manner window/wall ratio, and HVAC system types early in the process,
intended unless the systems are continually managed and operated because each has major energy implications. Identify meaningful
by technically skilled individuals. Experience has shown that long- energy performance benchmarks suited to the project, and set proj-
term, energy-efficient performance with a complex system is sel- ect-specific goals. Energy benchmarks for a sample project are
dom achievable. Further, when complex systems are operated by shown in Table 1. Consider energy resources, on-site energy
minimally skilled individuals, both energy efficiency and perfor- sources, and use of renewable energy, credits, utility rebates, or car-
mance suffer. Most techniques discussed in this chapter can be bon offsets to mitigate environmental impacts of energy use.
implemented with great simplicity. Address a buildings energy requirements in the following
sequence:
Self-Imposed Budgets 1. Minimize the impact of the buildings functional require-
Just as an engineer must work to a cost budget with most designs, ments by analyzing how the building relates to its external envi-
self-imposed power budgets can be similarly helpful in achieving ronment. Advocate changes in building form, aspect ratio, and
energy-efficient design. The series of Advanced Energy Design other attributes that reduce, redistribute, or delay (shift) loads.
Guide series from ASHRAE are a source for guidance on achievable The load calculation should be interactive so that the effect of
design budgets. For example, the following are possible categories those factors can be seen immediately.
of power (or power-affecting) design budgets for a mid-rise office 2. Minimize loads by analyzing external and internal loads
Licensed for single user. 2013 ASHRAE, Inc.
Table 1 Example Benchmark and Energy Targets for University Research Laboratory
Lit/
Gross Conditioned
Building area, m2 15 793 10 266
Electricity Electricity for Electricity for Electricity Electricity for
for Ventilation In-Building for Plug Unidentified Total Cogenerated Grid
Electric Lighting (Fans) Pumps Loads Loads Electricity Electricity Electricity
Design load, W/m2 5.60 5.38 6.46 10.4 28.0
Peak demand, W/m2 4.52 5.38 4.52 7.86 0.0017 22.3
Peak demand, kW 71 85 72 124 20 372
(Projected submetered peak)
Annual consumption, kWh/yr 218 154 346 598 191 245 891 503 175 200 1 823 000 966 000 857 000
(Projected submetered reading)
Annual use index goal, kWh/yr 1.28 2.04 1.12 5.24 1.03 10.72
Annual use index goal, site MJ/m2 grossyr 4378 6956 3838 17 893 3516 36 583
Annual use index, kWh/m2 grossyr* 27.0 to 35.7 48.2 to 74.0 included 47.3 to 61.0 NA 158.7 to
elsewhere 192.8
Annual use index, site MJ/m2 grossyr* 97.3 173.6 170.1 571.1 to
694.0
*From Labs21 program of U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). See http://www.epa.gov/lab21gov/index.htm.
This file is licensed to Rabee Taleb (rabee_t@hotmail.com). Publication Date: 6/1/2013
Sustainability 35.7
Examine design solutions that consider time (i.e., when energy (but always above the indoor dew point). In a building with time-
use occurs), because sufficient energy may already be present varying internal heat generation, consider thermal mass for control-
from the environment (e.g., solar heat, night cooling) or from ling radiant comfort. In the perimeter zone, thermal mass is more
internal equipment (e.g., lights, computers) but available at effective when it is positioned inside the envelopes insulation.
times different from when needed. Active (e.g., heat pumps Effective control of solar radiation is critical to energy-efficient
with water tanks) and passive (e.g., building mass) storage design because of the high level of internal heat production in
techniques may need to be considered. most commercial buildings. In some climates, lighting energy
Examine design solutions that consider the anticipated use of consumption savings from daylighting techniques can be greater
space. For example, in large but relatively unoccupied spaces, than the heating and cooling energy penalties that result from
consider task or zone lighting. Consider transporting excess additional glazed surface area required, if the building envelope is
energy (light and heat) from locations of production and avail- properly designed for daylighting and lighting controls are
ability to locations of need instead of purchasing additional installed and used. (In other climates, there may not be net sav-
energy. ings.) Daylighting designs are most effective if direct solar beam
Never reject waste energy at temperatures usable for space radiation is not allowed to cause glare in building spaces.
conditioning or other practical purposes without calculating Design transparent parts of the building envelope to prevent solar
the economic benefit of energy recovery or treatment for reuse. radiant gain above that necessary for effective daylighting and
Consider or advocate design solutions that provide more com- solar heating. On south-facing facades (in the northern hemi-
fortable surface temperatures or increase the availability of sphere), using low shading coefficients is generally not as effec-
controlled daylight in buildings where human occupancy is a tive as external physical shading devices in achieving this
primary function. balance. Consider low-emissivity, high-visible-transmittance
Use easily understood design solutions, because they have a glazings for effective control of radiant heat gains and losses. For
greater probability of use by building operators and occupants. shading control, judicious use of vegetation may block excess
Where the functional requirements of a building are likely to gain year-round or seasonally, depending on the plant species
change over time, design the installed environmental system to chosen.
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Use lighting controls throughout so lighting is available when and never serve small seasonal loads (e.g., a large heating boiler
where it is needed, but not wasted when tasks are less critical or serving a summer-service water-heated load). Include specific
spaces are not fully occupied. Also consider user acceptance of low-load units and auxiliaries where prolonged use at minimal
control strategies to maximize energy saving. capacities is expected.
Only use lower-efficiency incandescent lamps in applications Select the most efficient (or highest-COP) equipment practical at
where their characteristics cannot be duplicated by other sources, both design and reduced capacity (part-load) operating conditions.
because manufacturing of most incandescent lamps will be dis- When selecting large-power devices such as chillers (including
continued during the life of the building. their auxiliary energy burdens), perform an economic analysis of
Carry lighting design through the rest of the buildings interior the complete life-cycle costs. See Chapter 37 of the 2011
design. Reduced light absorption may be achieved by using ASHRAE HandbookHVAC Applications for more information
lighter finishes, particularly on ceilings, walls, and partitions. on detailed economic analysis.
Other Loads. Keep fluid temperatures for heating equipment devices as low as
Minimize thermal impact of equipment and appliances on HVAC practical and for cooling equipment as high as practical, while
systems by using hoods, radiation shields, or other confining still meeting loads and minimizing flow quantities.
techniques, and by using controls to turn off equipment when not Energy Transport Systems.
needed. Where practical, locate major heat-generating equipment Energy should be transported as efficiently as possible. The fol-
where it can balance other heat losses. Computer centers or lowing options are listed in order of theoretical efficiency, from the
kitchen areas usually have separate, dedicated HVAC equipment. lowest energy transport burden (most efficient) to the highest (least
In addition, consider heat recovery for this equipment. efficient):
Use storage techniques to level or distribute loads that vary on a
time or spatial basis to allow operation of a device at maximum 1. Electric wire or fuel pipe
(often full-load) efficiency. 2. Two-phase fluid pipe (steam or refrigerant)
HVAC System Design. 3. Single-phase liquid/fluid pipe (water, glycol, etc.)
Consider separate HVAC systems to serve areas expected to oper- 4. Air duct
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ate on widely differing operating schedules or design conditions. Select a distribution system that complements other parameters
For instance, systems serving office areas should generally be such as control strategies, storage capabilities, conversion effi-
separate from those serving retail areas. ciency, and utilization efficiency.
Arrange systems so that spaces with relatively constant, weather- The following specific design techniques may be applied to ther-
independent loads are served by systems separate from those mal energy transport systems:
serving perimeter spaces. Areas with special temperature or
humidity requirements (e.g., computer rooms) should be served Steam Systems.
by systems separate from those serving areas that require comfort Include provisions for seasonal or nonuse shutdown.
heating and cooling only. Alternatively, provide these areas with Minimize venting of steam and ingestion of air, with design
supplementary or auxiliary systems. directed toward full-vapor performance.
Sequence the supply of zone cooling and heating to prevent Avoid subcooling, if practical.
simultaneous operation of heating and cooling systems for the Return condensate to boilers or source devices at the highest pos-
same space, to the extent possible. Where this is not possible sible temperature.
because of ventilation, humidity control, or air circulation Hydronic Systems.
requirements, reduce air quantities as much as possible before Minimize flow quantity by designing for the maximum practical
incorporating reheating, recooling, or mixing hot and cold air- temperature range.
streams. For example, if reheat is needed to dehumidify and pre- Vary flow quantity with load where possible.
vent overcooling, only ventilation air needs to be treated, not the Design for the lowest practical pressure rise (or drop).
entire recirculated air quantity. Finally, reset supply air tempera- Provide operating and idle control modes.
ture up to the extent possible to reduce reheating, recooling, or When locating equipment, identify the critical pressure path and
mixing losses. size runs for the minimum reasonable pressure drop.
Provide controls to allow operation in occupied and unoccupied Air Systems.
modes. In occupied mode, controls may provide for a gradually Minimize airflow by careful load analysis and an effective distri-
changing control point as system demands change from cooling bution system. If the application allows, supply air quantity
to heating. In unoccupied mode, ventilation and exhaust systems should vary with sensible load (i.e., VAV systems). Hold the fan
should be shut off if possible, and comfort heating and cooling pressure requirement to the lowest practical value and avoid using
systems should be shut off except to maintain space conditions fan pressure as a source for control power.
ready for the next occupancy cycle. Provide normal and idle control modes for fan and psychrometric
In geographical areas where diurnal temperature swings and systems.
humidity levels permit, consider judicious coupling of air distri- Keep duct runs as short as possible, and keep runs on the critical
bution and building structural mass to allow nighttime cooling to pressure path sized for minimum practical pressure drop.
reduce the requirement for daytime mechanical cooling. Power Distribution.
High ventilation rates, where required for special applications, Size transformers and generating units as closely as possible to
can impose enormous heating and cooling loads on HVAC equip- the actual anticipated load (i.e., avoid oversizing to minimize
ment. In these cases, consider recirculating filtered and cleaned fixed thermal losses).
air to the extent possible, rather than 100% outside air. Also, con- Consider distribution of electric power at the highest practical
sider preheating outside air with reclaimed heat from other voltage and load selection at the maximum power factor consis-
sources. tent with safety.
HVAC Equipment Selection. Consider tenant submetering in commercial and multifamily
To allow HVAC equipment operation at the highest efficiencies, buildings as a cost-effective energy conservation measure. (A
match conversion devices to load increments, and sequence the large portion of energy use in tenant facilities occurs simply
operation of modules. Oversized or large-scale systems should because there is no economic incentive to conserve.)
This file is licensed to Rabee Taleb (rabee_t@hotmail.com). Publication Date: 6/1/2013
Sustainability 35.9
Domestic Hot-Water Systems. NAS. 2010. Advancing the science of climate change. National Academy
Choose shower heads that provide and maintain user comfort and of Sciences, Washington, D.C. Available from http://www.nap.edu
/openbook.php?record_id=12782&page=R1.
energy savings. They should not have removable flow-restricting
Townsend, T.E. 2006. The ASHRAE promise: A sustainable future. Inaugural
inserts to meet flow limitation requirements. address, ASHRAE Annual Meeting, Quebec City. http://www.ashrae.org
Consider point-of-use water heaters where their use will reduce /File%Library/docLib/eNewsletters/Society%Connections/20060822
energy consumption and annual energy cost. _sustainable.pdf.
Consider using storage to facilitate heat recovery when the heat to UN. 1987. Our common future: Report of the world commission on envi-
be recovered is out of phase with the demand for hot water or ronment and development. Annex to General Assembly document A/42/
427, Development and International Co-operation: Environment. United
when energy use for water heating can be shifted to take advan- Nations. http://www.un-documents.net/wced-ocf.htm.
tage of off-peak rates. UNEP. 2003. Montreal Protocol handbook for the international treaties for
Controls. the protection of the ozone layer, 6th ed., Annexes A, B, and C. Secretar-
Well-designed digital control provides information to managers iat for the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and
and operators as well as to the data processor that serves as the intel- the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer,
United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi.
ligent controller. Include the energy-saving concepts discussed pre-
UNFCCC. 1998. Kyoto protocol to the united nations framework conven-
viously throughout the operating sequences and control logic. tion on climate change. United Nations Framework Convention on Cli-
However, energy conservation should not be sought at the expense mate Change, New York. http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/
of adequate performance; in a well-designed system, these two kpeng.pdf.
parameters are compatible. See Chapter 7 of this volume and Chap-
ter 47 of the 2011 ASHRAE HandbookHVAC Applications for BIBLIOGRAPHY
more information on controls.
ASHRAE. 2004. Advanced energy design guide for small office buildings:
30% energy savings.
REFERENCES ASHRAE. 2006. Advanced energy design guide for small retail buildings:
30% energy savings.
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