Fauna: W R Branch

CHAPTER 3
FAUNA
W R Branch
Coastal & Environmental Services

P O Box 934
Grahamstown
6140
South Africa
Coastal & Environmental Services. Corridor Sands Chongoene Export Facility EIA, Volume 2: Specialist Reports
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY................................................................................................. 105
SUMRIO EXECUTIVO .................................................................................................. 111
3. FAUNA............................................................................................................................. 117
3.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................... 117
3.1.1 Geographical and socio-economic setting................................................. 117
3.1.2 Faunal studies and conservation................................................................ 117
3.2 METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................. 118
3.2.1 Field surveys ............................................................................................. 118
3.2.2 Threatened and sensitive species............................................................... 118
3.2.3 Limitations and cautions ........................................................................... 118
3.2.4 Habitat diversity ........................................................................................ 119
3.3 RESULTS ............................................................................................................ 119
3.3.1 Amphibians ............................................................................................... 119
3.3.2 Reptiles ...................................................................................................... 121
3.3.3 Birds .......................................................................................................... 123
3.3.4 Mammals ................................................................................................... 126
3.4 KEY ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES ................................................................... 127
3.4.1 Introduction............................................................................................... 127
3.4.2 Impacts associated with the base case ....................................................... 128
3.4.3 Issue 1 Loss of biodiversity.................................................................... 128
3.4.4 Issue 2 Habitat impacts .......................................................................... 132
3.4.5 Issue 3 Operational impacts ................................................................... 134
3.5 COMPARISON OF THE PROPOSED ALTERNATIVES ............................... 137
3.6 IMPACTS ASSOCIATED WITH CURRENT LAND USE.............................. 138
3.6.1 Issue 1 Loss of biodiversity.................................................................... 139
3.6.2 Issue 2 Habitat impacts .......................................................................... 140
3.7 CONCLUSIONS................................................................................................. 142
3.7.1 Faunal diversity and current land use........................................................ 142
3.7.2 Impacts associated with the CEF facility.................................................. 143
3.8 EVALUATION OF ALTERNATIVE PROJECTS ............................................ 143
3.9 REFERENCES .................................................................................................... 144
APPENDIX A: Birds recorded from the Chibuto ? Xai-Xai Region............................... 145

APPENDIX B: Mammals of the Chibuto ? Xai-Xai Region.......................................... 149
Fauna: Branch 103

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Introduction
Much of the fauna and flora within the region of the proposed Chongoene Export Facility
(CEF) is typical of a disturbed area. It consists of a mosaic of agriculture and secondary
growth with fragments of primary vegetation. The fauna is depauperate, with large mammals
mostly locally extinct and the remaining fauna comprising small, cryptic species or those
tolerant of human activity.
A mixture of natural and disturbed plant communities were observed that provided a variety
of faunal habitats, namely:
Grassland, Thicket and Palm Savanna
Dune Thicket and Dense Dune Bush
Wetlands
Fallow and cultivated lands
Amphibians
Mozambique has a diverse amp hibian fauna and 33 amphibian species may possibly occur in
the Chibuto Xai- Xai region. There are no endemic Mozambican amphibians and no
Mozambican amphibians are listed as threatened. However, several frogs have restricted
ranges although all extend into adjacent regions. The extensive wetland habitats in the vicinity
of the MHS provide suitable habitat for many amphibians. The main project action likely to
adversely impact on the amphibians is habitat destruction associated with vegetation clearance
for the development. This may be exacerbated by changes in water hydrodynamics, siltation
and water turbidity accompanying construction and extraction of water for the materials
handling and storage facility. If the latter are mitigated then the loss of habitat is likely to be
relatively small in extent and therefore unlikely to significantly destroy or fragment
amphibian populations.
Reptiles
Reptiles play an important role in nutrient cycling within ecosystems and in population
control of their prey. Due to the uniform habitats in the Chibuto Xai-Xai region, only a
limited number of reptile species are likely to occur. Endemicity in Mozambican reptiles is
low, with only approximately 12 taxa endemic to the country. Most are associated with
disjunct popula tions on the various offshore islands. No terrestrial species in the region are
listed as threatened in the Red List 2000, but a number of other reptiles are listed on CITES
legislation (all in Appendix II). They are listed under general categories (Pythonidae,
Testudinidae, Varanidae, Cordylus or Chamaeleo) because elsewhere in Africa they have
been subject to over-exploitation. Monitor lizards are exploited for food and it is likely that
some large species have been locally eradicated or now occur in reduced numbers.
Birds
A diverse avifauna occurs in Mozambique and 140 species have been recorded from the
Chibuto Xai- Xai region. However, certain groups of birds once widespread in Mozambique
are absent or very uncommon in the region. They include hornbills, raptors and game birds.
Many are forest species, and their absence probably reflects hunting, persecution and the loss
of suitable habitat for nesting. Few (11) of the birds occurring in the Chibuto Xai- Xai region
are listed in threatened or near-threatened categories of international or regional summaries,
or considered locally threatened. The long history of agriculture in the region has probably
had a significant impact on waterfowl and forest and woodland birds. A light- mantled sooty
albatross collected during the survey is the first record for Mozambique. However, this is an
exceptional Antarctic vagrant to the region and its presence does not impact the project.
Fauna: Branch 105

Mammals
Approximately 120 mammal species once occurred in southern Mozambique. However,
viable populations of few of the larger species now remain in the Chibuto Xai-Xai region.
Small mammals and bats dominate the remaining mammal fauna. None these are endemic and
few (3) are listed as threatened in international or regional summaries. Threatened species
include the red squirrel, suni and red duiker, which survive in small populations in the dune
thicket adjacent to MHS and jetty.
Key environmental issues

Impacts associated with construction of the CEF involve the clearing and fragmentation of
vegetation for the haul road and MHS site. Impacts resulting from the operation of the facility
include road mortalities.
Ten impacts of moderate to low severity result from the proposed construction and operation
of the CEF facility. Although many (8) involve impacts of moderate severity in the short to
medium, or long term, all can be reduced to impacts of low severity if recommendations for
mitigation are implemented and impacts monitored (See table below). The correct mitigation
will ensure that all impacts will be of LOW overall significance. The moderate impact on
habitat loss and fragmentation can be reduced if wetlands and the dune thicket corridor are
avoided. Loss or fragmentation of these sensitive habitats will result in significant loss of
faunal diversity and species of special concern. These considerations have already been taken
into account and the DHR route has been aligned to minimise these impacts. Unmitigated
operational impacts, resulting from road traffic, increased dust levels and chemical pollution,
can negatively impact fauna, either via increased mortalities or degradation of habitats.
The predicted low severity of many of the probable faunal impacts of the CEF development
result, in large part, from the existing high impact of current land use practise on the local
fauna. The diversity of all faunal groups, except amphibians, has been reduced by extensive
habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation, and by a long history of unsustainable
exploitation. The most severely impacted group is that of large mammals, of which most
species are extinct in the region. However, the numbers and diversity of large reptiles and
birds in the region is also severely depleted. The only viable mitigation of these impacts
requires rapid and effective socio-economic upliftment, and the strict implementation of
national conservation laws.
Existing impacts
Of the six existing impacts resulting from current land use, only two are of moderate severity,
whilst the others are either of High (1) or Very High (3) severity (See table below). Because
of the extent of these faunal impacts, most will be difficult to mitigate and will therefore
remain of MODERATE to HIGH SIGNIFICANCE.
Evaluation of Alternative Projects

Materials transfer systems
The above-surface conveyor system allows continued animal movement through the
underlying dune thicket corridor. It has less environmental impact provided the closed
transport system is carefully designed to prevent material loss, animal entry, and reduce visual
impact.
Rail or road transport

Although more negative faunal impacts appear to result from the use of a dedicated haul road
rather than a rail link, the greater disruption to animal movements by the latter is potentially
more serious. However, habitats in the region are highly degraded and the fauna depauperate.
106 Fauna: Branch
Faunal impacts of both alternatives are comparable in the long term, and a choice between the
alternatives depends on non- faunal considerations.
Alternative diesel import

New and greater environmental impacts are associated with ship-to- mine transfer of diesel.
Whilst the use of existing public road facilities results in a slight increase in the current
environmental impacts, these are less than those involved in new options. Diesel transport
using existing routes has less faunal impacts and is therefore preferred.
Fauna: Branch 107

Summary of issues relating to the Fauna resulting from the proposed Corridor Sands Chongoene Export Facility project.
WITHOUT MITIGATION WITH MITIGATION

ISSUE/IMPACTS
RISK TEMPORAL SPATIAL CERT. SEVERITY SEVERITY SIGNIF.
Issue 1 - Loss of biodiversity
Study area: Moderate severe Slight
Impact 1: Loss of faunal diversity May occur Short to medium term Probable LOW
District: Slight Slight
Study area, District &
Impact 2: Loss of species of special concern May occur Short to medium term Probable Moderately severe Slight LOW
Regional
Impact 3: Threats to animal movement May occur Short to medium term Study area Probable Moderately severe Slight LOW
Impact 4: Alien fauna May occur Medium to long term Study area Probable Slight Slight LOW
Issue 2 - Habitat impacts
Will definitely
Impact 1: Habitat loss Medium to long term Study area Probable Moderately severe Slight LOW
occur
Will definitely
Impact 2: Habitat fragmentation Long term Study area Probable Moderately severe Slight LOW
occur
Issue 3 - Operational impacts
Will definitely
Impact 1: Increased dust levels Medium term Study area Probable Moderately severe Slight LOW
occur
Impact 2: Increased fire risk Unlikely Medium term Study area Probable Moderately severe Slight LOW
Will definitely
Impact 3: Chemical pollution Medium term Study area Probable Moderately severe Slight LOW
occur
Impact 4: Changes in water flow dynamics May occur Medium term Study area Probable Slight Slight LOW
108 Fauna: Branch

Summary of the existing Faunal impacts resulting from the current land use patterns
ISSUE/IMPACTS
Issue 1- Loss of biodiversity
Impact 1: Loss of amphibian diversity Will definitely
Moderately severe Slight
Medium to long term Study area Probable LOW
occur
Impact 2: Loss of reptile diversity Will definitely
Moderately severe Moderately severe MODERATE
Medium to long term Study area Probable
occur
Impact 3: Loss of bird diversity Will definitely
Severe Moderately severe MODERATE
occur
Impact 4: Loss of mammal diversity Will definitely
Very severe Severe
Medium to long term Study area Probable HIGH
occur
Impact 1: Habitat loss Will definitely
Very severe Severe
occur
Impact 2: Habitat fragmentation Will definitely
Very severe Severe
occur
Fauna: Branch 109

Coastal & Environmental Services. EIA da Instalao de Exportao de Chongoene da Corridor Sands,
2 o Volume: Relatrios Especializados
SUMRIO EXECUTIVO
Introduo
Muita da flora e fauna contida na regio da Instalao de Exportao de Chongoena (CEF)
proposta tpica de uma rea perturbada. A regio consiste de um mosaico de agricultura e
crescimento secundrio com fragmentos de vegetao primria. A fauna encontra-se
empobrecida, com a maioria de mamferos de grande porte extinta a um nvel local, a fauna
remanescente consistindo de espcies de pequeno porte, ocultas ou tolerantes da actividade
humana.
Notou-se uma mistura de comunidades de plantas naturais e perturbadas que proporcionaram

uma variedade de habitats faunais, nomeadamente:
Prado, Mata e Savana de Palmeiras
Mata Dunar e Arbustos Dunares Densos
reas pantanosas
Terras em pousio e cultivadas
Anfbios
Moamb ique possui uma fauna anfbia diversa sendo possvel existirem 33 espcies anfbia
na regio do Chibuto Xai-Xai. No existem anfbios endmicos a Moambique e no h
anfbios moambicanos listados como ameaados. Contudo, vrias rs possuem variedades
limitadas apesar de todas elas se estenderem por regies adjacentes. Os habitats extensivos
das reas pantanosas nas proximidades da MHS (Instalao de Manuseio e Armazenagem de
Materiais) proporcionam habitats adequados para muitos anfbios. A actividade principal do
projecto que ir provavelmente resultar num impacto adverso sobre os anfbios a destruio
do habitat associado com a remoo de vegetao para o desenvolvimento. Isto pode ser
agravado por mudanas na hidrodinmica da gua, assoreamento e tur vao da gua que ir
seguir construo e extrao de gua para o manuseio de materiais e a instalao de
armazenagem. Se estes aspectos forem mitigados ento a perda do habitat ir, provavelmente,
ser pequena em extenso e portanto com pouca possibilidade de destruir significativamente ou
fragmentar as populaes anfbias.
Rpteis
Os rpteis desempenham um papel importante na reciclagem de nutrientes dentro de
ecossistemas e no controlo da populao das suas presas. Devido aos habitats uniformes na
regio do Chibuto Xai-Xai, espera-se encontrar somente um nmero limitado de espcies de
rpteis. Endemicidade relacionada a rpteis moambicanos baixa, com s aproximadamente
12 categorias de classificao endmica ao pas. A maioria est associada com populaes
disjuntas nas vrias ilhas ao largo da costa. Nenhuma das espcies terrestres da regio esto
listadas como ameaadas na Lista Vermelha 2000, mas um nmero de outros rpteis
encontram-se listados na legislao da CITES l (todos no Apndice II). Eles esto listados sob
categorias gerais (Pythonidae, Testudinidae, Varanidae, Cordylus ou Chamaeleo) por terem
sido sujeitos a explorao excessiva em outros lados da frica. Varanos so explorados para
alimento e provvel que algumas espcies de grande porte tenham sido erradicadas ao nvel
local ou ocorrem presentemente em nmeros reduzidos.
Aves
Moambique possui uma avifauna diversa e 140 espcies tm sido registadas na regio do
Chibuto Xai-Xai. Contudo, certos grupos de aves que numa altura estavam espalhados em
Moambique no se encontram presentes ou so muito raros na regio. Estes incluem calaus,
aves de rapina e de caa. Muitos deles so espcies florestais, e a sua ausncia
Fauna: Branch 111

provavelmente uma reflexo de caa, perseguio, e a perda de habitat adequado para
nidificao. Poucas aves (11) que ocorrem na regio do Chibuto Xai- Xai esto listadas nas
categorias de ameaada ou quase ameaada nos sumrios internacionais ou regionais, ou so
consideradas ameaadas ao nvel local.. Uma histria prolongada de agricultura na regio tem
provavelmente tido um impacto significante sobre a ave aqutica e aves florestais e de regies
arborizadas. Um albatroz-sombrio apanhado durante o estudo foi a primeira prova em
Moambique. Contudo, este um nmada Antrtico excepcional para a regio e a sua
presena no tem impacto sobre o projecto.
Mamferos
Houve uma altura em que cerca de 120 espcies de mamferos ocorreram no sul de
Moambique. Agora h contudo poucas populaes viveis das espcies de maior porte que
permanecem na regio do Chibuto Xai-Xai. Mamferos de pequeno porte e morcegos
dominam a fauna mamfera remanescente. Nenhum destes so endmicos e poucos (3) esto
listados como ameaados nos sumrios internacionais ou regionais. Espcies ameaadas
incluem o esquilo vermelho, o suni (veado pequeno) e o duiker vermelho (antlope
pequeno Africano com chifres voltados para trs), que sobrevivem em populaes pequenas
na mata dunar adjacente MHS e ao Desembarcadouro
Questes ambientais principais

Os impactos associados com a construo da instalao CEF envolve a remoo e
fragmentao da vegetao para a estrada do transporte e o local da MHS. Os impactos
resultantes da operao da instalao inclui mortalidades rodovirias.
A construo e operao proposta da instalao CEF resulta em dez impactos de severidade

moderada a baixa. Apesar de muitos (8) serem impactos de severidade moderada de curto a
mdio prazo, ou de longo prazo, todos eles podem ser reduzidos a impactos de severidade
baixa se as recomendaes de mitigao forem implementadas e os impactos monitorizados
(Ver tabela a seguir). Uma mitigao correcta ir assegurar que todos os impactos sero duma
significncia geral BAIXA. O impacto moderado sobre a perda e fragmentao do habitat
pode ser reduzido se as reas pantanosas e o corredor da mata dunar forem evitados. A perda
ou fragmentao destes habitats sensveis resultar numa perda significativa de diversidade
faunal e de espcies de preocupao especial. Estes aspectos j fo ram tomados em
considerao e o percurso da DHR (Estrada de Transporte Dedicada) tem sido alinhado para
minimizar impactos dessa natureza. Impactos operacionais no mitigados de aumento em
nveis de poeira e poluio qumica resultantes de trfego rodovirio, podem ter um impacto
negativo sobre a fauna, atravs dum aumento em mortalidades ou degradao de habitats.
A severidade prevista baixa de muitos dos impactos faunais provveis do desenvolvimento da

CEF resulta, principalmente, do impacto elevado actual da prtica corrente do uso da terra
sobre a fauna local. A diversidade de todos os grupos faunais, excepto dos anfbios, tem sido
reduzida pela perda extensiva, fragmentao e degradao dos habitats, e por uma histria
prolongada de explorao insustentvel. O grupo que sofre impactos mais severos o de
mamferos de grande porte, dos quais a maioria de espcies se encontram extintas na regio.
Contudo, os nmeros e diversidade de rpteis e aves de grande porte da regio j esto
severamente esgotados. A nica mitigao vivel destes impactos necessita dum
melhoramento socioeconmico rpido e efectivo, e uma implementao rigorosa das leis de
conservao nacionais.
Impactos actuais
Dos seis impactos actuais resultantes do uso actual da terra, somente dois so de severidade
moderada, enquanto os outros so de severidade Alta (1) ou Muito Alta (3) (Ver tabela a
112 Fauna: Branch
seguir). Devido extenso destes impactos faunais, a maioria ser difcil de mitigar e
permanecero portanto a um nvel de SIGNIFICNCIA MODERADA a ALTA.
Avaliao dos Projectos Alternativos

Sistemas de Transferncia de Materiais
O sistema de tapete transportador sobre a superfcie permite a continuao da deslocao de
animais atravs do corredor principal da mata dunar. O mesmo possui impacto ambiental
reduzido desde que o sistema de transporte fechado seja cuidadosamente projectado para
evitar perda de material, a entrada de animais, e reduzir o impacto visual.
Transporte ferrovirio ou rodovirio

Apesar de parecer que mais impactos faunais negativos iro resultar do uso de uma estrada de
transporte dedicada do que duma ligao ferroviria, o distrbio de maiores propores da
deslocao de animais causado pela segunda opo, eventualmente mais grave. Contudo, os
habitats da regio encontram-se extremamente degradados e a fauna empobrecida. Os
impactos faunais das duas alternativas so comparveis a longo prazo, e a escolha entre as
alternativas depende de consideraes no faunais.
Alternativa de Importao de Diesel

Impactos ambientais novos e maiores esto associados com a transferncia do diesel de navios
para a mina. Apesar do uso das instalaes rodovirias pblicas actuais resultarem num
aumento ligeiro dos impactos ambientais actuais, estes so em menor quantidade que os
envolvidos nas opes novas. O transporte do diesel utilizando percursos actuais produz
menos impactos faunais e portanto preferido.
Fauna: Branch 113

Resumo de questes relacionadas Fauna resultantes do projecto proposto da Instalao de Exportao de Chongoene da Corrido r Sands.
SEM MITIGAO COM MITIGAO
QUESTO / IMPACTOS
CERTEZ SIGNIFIC
RISCO TEMPORAL ESPACIAL SEVERIDADE SEVERIDADE
A NCIA
Questo nO 1 - Perda da biodiversidade
Moderadamente
rea em estudo: Ligeira
Impacto n o 1: Perda da diversidade faunal Pode ocorrer De curto a mdio prazo Provvel severa
Ligeira
BAIXA
Distrito:
Ligeira
rea em estudo,
Impacto n o 2: Perda de espcies de Moderadamente
Ligeira
Pode ocorrer De curto a mdio prazo Distrito e Provvel BAIXA
preocupao especial severa
Regional
Impacto n o 3: Ameaas deslocao de Moderadamente
Ligeira
Pode ocorrer De curto a mdio prazo rea em estudo Provvel BAIXA
animais severa
De Curto a Longo
Impacto n o 4: Fauna alheia Pode ocorrer rea em estudo Provvel Ligeira Ligeira BAIXA
prazo
o
Questo n 2 - Impactos sobre o habitat
Ocorrer de De Curto a Longo Moderadamente
Impacto n o 1: Perda do habitat rea em estudo Provvel severa
Ligeira BAIXA
certeza prazo
Ocorrer de Moderadamente
Impacto n o 2: Fragmentao do habitat Longo prazo rea em estudo Provvel severa
Ligeira BAIXA
certeza
o
Questo n 3 - Impactos operacionais
Impacto n o 1: Aumento em nveis de poeira Mdio prazo rea em estudo Provvel severa
Ligeira BAIXA
certeza
o
Impacto n 2: Aumento em risco de Moderadamente
Ligeira
Improvvel Mdio prazo rea em estudo Provvel BAIXA
incndios severa
Impacto n o 3: Poluio qumica Mdio prazo rea em estudo Provvel severa
Ligeira BAIXA
certeza
o
Impacto n 4: Mudanas na dinmica do Ligeira Ligeira
Pode ocorrer Mdio prazo rea em estudo Provvel BAIXA
fluxo das guas
114 Fauna: Branch

Resumo de impactos Faunais actuais resultantes dos padres actuais do uso da terra
SEM MITIGAO COM MITIGAO
QUESTO / IMPACTOS
SIGNIFIC
RISCO TEMPORAL ESPACIAL CERTEZA SEVERIDADE SEVERIDADE
NCIA
Questo no 1- Perda da biodiversidade
Impacto n o 1: Perda da diversidade Ocorrer de Moderadamente
Ligeira
De Curto a Longo prazo rea em estudo Provvel severa BAIXA
anfbia certeza
Impacto n o 2: Perda da diversidade Ocorrer de Moderadamente Moderadamente
De Curto a Longo prazo rea em estudo Provvel severa severa MODERADA
rptil certeza
Impacto n o 3: Perda da diversidade Ocorrer de
Severa
Moderadamente
De Curto a Longo prazo rea em estudo Provvel MODERADA
aviria certeza severa
Impacto n o 4: Perda da diversidade Ocorrer de
Muito severa Severa
De Curto a Longo prazo rea em estudo Provvel ALTA
mamfera certeza
Questo no 2 - Impactos sobre os habitats
Impacto n o 1: Perda do habitat Ocorrer de
Muito severa Severa
certeza
Impacto n o 2: Fragmentao do habitat Ocorrer de
Muito severa Severa
certeza
Fauna: Branch 115

Coastal & Environmenta l Services. Corridor Sands Chongoene Export Facility EIA, Volume 2: Specialist Reports
3. FAUNA
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.1.1 GEOGRAPHICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC SETTING
The proposed Chongoene Export Facility (CEF) forms part of the Corridor Sands Project,
situated in Gaza Province, southern Mozambique, north and east of the town of Chibuto (24
41'21"S, 33 32'04"E).
Mozambique has an approximate population of 18 691 000, with an average annual growth
rate of 2.5%, resulting in an increase of approximately 461 000 people per year (Anon, 1998).
The per capita annual income of only US$80 is the lowest recorded in the world. About 40%
of the population now live in the coastal districts, which represent less than 23% of the land
area, resulting in a higher population density along the coast than elsewhere (Chemane et al.,
1997). Original forest currently comprises 33.2% of the total land area, but it is estimated that
only 13.6% of original forest remains (Anon, 1998). Furthermore, only 3.7% of mangrove
forest (total 565 000ha), 7.5% of tropical forest (total 20 863 000 ha) and 6.6% of savanna (14
414 000 ha) is conserved (Anon, 1998).
The proposed CEF involves three individual components. A dedicated haul road (DHR) is
proposed to transport the products from the mining operations at the Chibuto mine site to the
coast and to transport supplies from the coast to the mine. At the coast the proposed
Chongoene load out facility (CLOF) will consist of a materials handling and storage facility
(MHS) and the offshore jetty for loading onto ships for export. Details of these facilities are
given in Chapter 1.
3.1.2 FAUNAL STUDIES AND CONSERVATION

Faunistically, Mozambique rema ins one of Africas most poorly known countries. Recent
scientific studies on Mozambique terrestrial vertebrates are very limited, and previous
synopses are outdated and thus of limited value. Amphibians were recently reviewed by
Poynton and Broadley (1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1991) and Channing (2001), but reptiles were
last reviewed by Peters (1882) following his original explorations in the early part of the 19th
century1 . Mozambiques birds have also never been adequately summarised, although
Clanceys (1996) updated compilation of birds from southern Mozambique is historically
useful. The most detailed recent compilation is Parkers (1999) Atlas of the birds of Sul do
Save, Southern Mozambique. The mammals were last reviewed by Smithers and Tello
(1976), with updated taxonomy following that of Smithers (1983, 1986), Skinner and
Smithers (1990), Wilson and Reeder (1993), Kingdon (1997) and Mills and Hex (1997).
A total of 11 protected areas occur in Mozambique (Anon, 1998), covering a total of 4.78
million hectares (6.1% of Mozambique). This figure is misleading in terms of conservation
ideals, as only the large reserves are fully protected (1.97 million hectares). Even this large
area is misleading, as the degree of control and protection afforded to the fauna and flora in
these reserves for the last two decades has been almost negligible. No Biosphere Reserves,
World Heritage Sites or Wetlands of International Importance have been proclaimed in the
country, even though there are a number of candidate sites (Stuart and Adams, 1990). No
conserved sites occur in the immediate Chibuto region. Existing reserves and scientific
1
Literature reviews undertaken for this study revealed that very few publications on Mozambican fauna have
been published recently and as a result most of the information cited in this study is dated, but it is the only
information available.
Fauna: Branch 117
programmes within the country were either destroyed or seriously disrupted during the
protracted civil war, and only recently have new programmes been initiated.
3.2 METHODOLOGY
3.2.1 FIELD SURVEYS

The following report is based on a compilation of existing knowledge of the fauna obtained
during the Corridor Sands Project (Branch 2000, 2001a, 2001b), and a field survey of the
Corridor Sands DHR and CLOF (5-10 June 2003). During this visit, all habitats represented in
the development sites and along the DHR that were accessible were inspected, and the
presence of terrestrial vertebrates confirmed by the collection of voucher specimens and/or
the presence of characteristic tracks and signs. No representative collections were made,
although vouchers had been collected in the Chibuto Xai-Xai region during previous field
work associated with the Corridor Sands project (Branch, 2000, 2001a, 2001b).
3.2.2 THREATENED AND SENSITIVE SPECIES

No Red Data Books have been prepared for Mozambique, and so potentially threatened
species were assessed from their status in Red Data Books from adjacent South Africa (e.g.
Barnes, 2000; Branch, 1988; Smithers, 1986), and from their inclusion in international lists of
threatened species (e.g. CITES legislation; the IUCN Red List 2000 of threatened animals
(Hilton-Taylor 2000); Birds to Watch 2 (Collar et al., 1994); and 1998-99 World Resources
(Anon., 1998)). The threatened categories follow those listed in the Red List 2000 appendix
(Mace 2000).
CITES, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora, entered into force on 1 July 1975 and now has a membership of 146 countries,
including Mozambique. These countries act by banning commercial international trade in an
agreed list of endangered species and by regulating and monitoring trade in others that might
become endangered. Species, higher groups (genera or even families), or populations can be
placed in various appendices (Appendix I-III), that increasingly regulate trade in the listed
animals.
3.2.3 LIMITATIONS AND CAUTIONS

Duration and extent of the field surveys
The survey was undertaken in the middle of winter, during an unseasonable cold snap
associated with a cold front that moved through the region. Little amphibian or reptile activity
was noted. In addition summer migrant bird species were absent during the survey, and the
importance of the extensive seasonally flooded areas for summer visitor migrant birds,
including many wading species, could not be assessed.
Dr Branch, however, has considerable experience working in southern Mozambique and has a
broad knowledge of the region as he has been involved in the Chibuto Mine EIA as well as
the railway and power line EIAs for Corridor Sands Limitada.
Scientific knowledge
Few scientific studies on the vertebrates of Mozambique have been undertaken. The
taxonomic identification of some Mozambican species is provisional, particularly smaller,
cryptic species such as frogs, fossorial lizards and small rodents. The significance of possible
populational variation cannot therefore be assessed. Decisions on the conservation status of
vertebrates in the region are also subjective, and often based on comparison with the status of
118 Fauna: Branch

species in adjacent countries. Where applicable, specific attention has been paid to endemic or
rare species known from, or likely to occur in, southern Mozambique.
3.2.4 HABITAT DIVERSITY

Much of the region is currently cultivated, forming a mosaic with original habitats (albeit
usually degraded) and fallow land. The following major vegetation communities were
identified in the Chibuto Xai-Xai region (Chapter 2). They differ in importance for the
various vertebrate faunal groups.
Grassland, Thicket and Palm Savanna
Dune Thicket and Dense Dune Bush
Wetlands
Fallow and cultivated lands
The latter cover much of the study area, particularly inland, and occur as a mosaic throughout
the study area as a result of traditional shifting subsistence cultivation patterns. Younger
fallow lands are dominated by grasses, but a large number of weedy species are also present.
The older fallow land community is dominated by more shrubs and is characterised by large
cashew trees.
3.3 RESULTS
3.3.1 AMPHIBIANS
Amphibians are important components of wetland systems, particularly ephemeral systems
from which fish are either excluded or of minor importance. In these habitats, they are
dominant predators of invertebrates, many of which may impact significantly on humans (e.g.
as vectors of disease, such as mosquitoes and bilharzia snails) or their livestock and/or crops.
They are important, often neglected components of terrestrial vertebrate faunas, and are well
represented in sub-Saharan Africa, from which approximately 630 species have been recorded
(Poynton, 1999; Schitz, 1999; and subsequent updates). Currently amphibians are of
increasing scientific concern as global reports of declining amphibian populations continue to
appear (Phillips, 1994; and reference therein). Although there is no consensus on a single
cause for this phenomenon, there is general agreement that the declines in many areas, even in
pristine protected parks, are significant and do not represent simple cyclic events. Frogs have
been aptly called bioindicator species, whose abundance and diversity is a poignant reflection
of the general health and well being of aquatic ecosystems. This is reflected in the growing
use of tadpoles as bio- indicators to monitor water quality (Channing, 1998).
Amphibians in a regional context

Mozambique has a diverse amphibian fauna. In an IUCN review of Biodiversity in Sub-
Saharan Africa and its Islands, Stuart and Adams (1990) listed 62 amphibian species
occurring in Mozambique. This figure was later repeated (Anon, 1998), but without
supporting documentation. The superficial treatment of amphibians in the Biological
Diversity of Mozambique report (Hatton, 1998) is also confused, indicating that as many as 79
species from Mozambique are recorded in the literature, of which no less than 28 species are
claimed to be endemic. This is excessive and the last authoritative review of the countrys
amphibian fauna (Poynton and Broadley, 1985-1991; Channing, 2001) recognised only 53
species and subspecies occurring in the country, none of which were endemic to the country.
Up to 46 species occur on the coastal plain south of the Zambezi River (Poynton and
Broadley, 1991), but no frogs were specifically recorded from Chibuto or Xai-Xai although a
number were recorded from two quarter-degree grids in the region (2433AA and 2433CD),
Fauna: Branch 119

including Breviceps adspersus, Ptychadena mascareniensis, P. mossambica, Leptopelis

mossambicus, Kassina maculata, Hyperolius tuberlinguis, H. marmoratus taeniatus, Bufo
garmani, and Phrynobatrachus acridoides. Despite the few existing records from the region,
the coastal area of southern Mozambique is likely to have a relatively high amphibian
diversity.
Amphibians present in the Chibuto Xai-Xai region

Of the 33 amphibian species that may occur in Chibuto and the surrounding area, the presence
of 20 were confirmed in previous surveys (Branch 2000, 2001a, 2001b). A further 11 species
probably occur in the region, whilst another two species are possibly present (see Branch
2000 for a species list). Most amphibians are restricted to the extensive network on wetlands
and lakes adjacent to the coastal region, and along the Jantique River drainage. During the
field survey, undertaken in the dry winter season, few amphibians were located, including
Bufo gutturalis, Hyperolius argus, H. marmoratus, Kassina maculata, Afrixalus fornasini, and
Ptychadena sp. All were present in the wetlands in the vicinity of the MHS.
Threatened and endemic amphibians

No Mozambique amphibians are listed as threatened in the Red List 2000 (Hilton-Taylor,
2000), or in other regional Red Data Books (Branch, 1988; Branch and Harrison, 2003).
Stuart and Adams (1990) claim that there are five amphibians of conservation concern in
Mozambique, including ...two endemics, two shared with South Africa, and one with
Malawi. It is not clear which species they are referring to, and on what basis they consider
species to be endemic (e.g. 100% presence, 95% presence, etc.). Several species with
restricted ranges do occur in Mozambique, but all extend into adjacent regions. The only
range-restricted species occurring in the Chibuto region is the golden leaf- folding frog
(Afrixalus aureus) which is known from coastal lowlands from KwaZulu-Natal to southern
Mozambique (Poynton and Broadley, 1987). It was recorded during a previous survey
(Branch, 2000) from a small pan near the Jantique River, and it probably occurs in the
extensive wetlands adjacent to the MHS, and at small wetlands along the route of the DHR.
Habitat associations of amphibians in the Chibuto Xai-Xai region

Most amphibians are dependent upon temporary or permanent water sources for breeding.
However, three Mozambique frogs, the Mozambique rain frog (Breviceps mossambicus),
Bushveld rain frog (Breviceps adspersus) and the shovel- footed squeaker (Arthroleptis
stenodactylus), undergo direct larval development. These species burrow in sandy soils and
lay small clutches of large eggs in waterlogged soil, and do not have a free-swimming tadpole
stage. They are therefore not dependent upon standing or flowing water.
Many species breed in seasonally inundated pans and vleis occurring in the wetlands and
drainage lines. Frogs linked to permanent water sources include the Tropical platanna
(Xenopus muelleri) and larger grass frogs (e.g. Ptychadena oxyrhynchus, P. mossambicus).
Fallow lands retain a high amphibian diversity, particularly for terrestrial, burrowing species
(e.g. Bufo, Phrynomantis, Breviceps spp.). The mostly disturbed habitats of the Chibuto
Xai-Xai region probably still retain high amphibian diversity and viable populations, with the
loss of only a few forest specialists (e.g. the shovel- footed squeaker, Arthroleptis
stenodactylus).
Existing impacts on amphibians

Exploitation
The level of exploitation of frogs for food in the region is unknown. Peters (1854) named the
Tropical bullfrog Pyxicephalus edulis after noting that it was eaten by local Mozambican
tribes. The species is large enough to form a viable, albeit seasonal, protein source, but it was
120 Fauna: Branch

not utilised by local people at Chibuto (Branch, 2000). This may reflect religious norms of the
Muslim community, and also the ready availability of other protein sources (e.g. fish).
Habitat destruction
Few forest specialist amphibians occur in southern Mozambique, and thus few species will
have been impacted by the extensive loss of wooded habitats due to slash-and-burn
agriculture, which is common throughout the region. Few wetlands appear to be affected by
current land use practices, although utilisation of reeds for thatching and basket making may
have localised impacts. A more serious impact may arise directly (increased larval mortality)
or indirectly (reduced insect food resources) from the use of pesticides to control mosquitoes
to prevent malaria.
3.3.2 REPTILES
Reptile faunas form a significant component of terrestrial vertebrate diversity in Africa. With
the exception of land tortoises, all terrestrial reptiles are carnivorous, although some larger
lizards do supplement their diet with vegetable matter in certain seasons. Reptiles therefore
play an important role in ecosystems in nutrient cycling and in population control of their
prey items. Most snakes are specialist feeders, taking specific and limited food classes. They
are usually habitat generalists, occup ying a wide range of habitats and vegetation types,
provided their primary prey is present. Lizards, in contrast, take mainly insect prey and niche
separation usually occurs via habitat selection and/or diel activity (e.g. most geckos are
nocturnal).
Reptiles in a regional context

The reptile fauna of Mozambique was last reviewed over a century ago (Peters, 1882) when
large tracts of the country were still unexplored. Although this remains the situation for much
of northern Mozambique, the reptile fauna of southern Mozambique is better known (Branch,
1998; Broadley, 1990a&b, 1992, 1994, 1995a&b, 1996, 1997; Broadley and Broadley, 1997;
Broadley and Wallach, 1997a&b). Review of the above publications indicates that
approximately 153 reptile species occur in southern Mozambique. Although totals of 170 and
167 species are listed for Mozambique by Stuart and Adams (1990) and Hatton (1998),
respectively, these figures are not supported by documentation. Endemicity in Mozambique
reptiles is surprisingly low, with only approximately 12 taxa endemic to the country, with
most being associated with isolated populations on various offshore islands, particularly the
Bazaruto Archipelago (Broadley, 1990b; 1992).
Reptiles in the Chibuto Xai-Xai region

Due to the rela tive uniformity of habitats in the Chibuto Xai-Xai region, and the absence of
rock outcrops, only a small proportion of these reptiles are likely to occur in the region. Of
possibly up to 66 species that could occur in the Limpopo floodplain region (including 20
lizards, two worm lizards, 39 snakes, four tortoises and terrapins, and one crocodile), the
presence of only 26 reptile species has been confirmed during previous surveys (Branch 2000,
2001a, 2001b) in the region. This includes 14 lizards, nine snakes and a tortoise, whilst two
other species (puffadder and crocodile) are reliably reported to be present (see Branch 2000
for species lists).
Threatened and endemic reptiles

The lack of a national Red Data List for Mozambique means that an assessment of the
conservation status of the reptile fauna must be made by comparison with international lists
and/or those from adjacent countries (e.g. Branch, 1988). Only five Mozambique reptile
species are listed as threatened in the Red List 2000 (Hilton-Taylor, 2000); all are sea turtles
found in the adjacent coastal waters. An additional three reptiles are listed on CITES
Fauna: Branch 121
legislation (all in Appendix II). All have been listed in general categories (Pythonidae,
Testudinidae, or Chamaeleo) because elsewhere in Africa, species within these groups have
been subject to over-exploitation, either for the skin trade (pythons) or pet trade (chameleons
and tortoises). No endemic species occur in the study area.
Habitat associations of reptiles in the Chibuto Xai-Xai region

A rich diversity of reptiles may inhabit fallow lands, especially lizards. Although few snakes
were collected during surveys (Branch 2000, 2001a, 2001b), it is probable that many species,
particularly small, terrestrial, nocturnal species, remain common in the region. A lack of
habitat specificity is characteristic of snakes. However, the diversity of large snakes (>1m) in
the region is probably greatly reduced, especially the diurnal venomous species, e.g. mambas
and some cobras, which are usually killed on sight. Freshwater habitats (wetlands and
drainage lines) included specialist species, e.g. the Nile crocodile, terrapins, Nile monitor and
frog-eating water snakes (e.g. Crotaphopeltis hotamboeia).
Existing impacts on reptiles

Exploitation
The leve l of exploitation of reptiles as food in the region is unknown. Nile monitors (Varanus
niloticus) were collected for food in the Chibuto region (Branch, 2000). Local villagers
acknowledge regularly catching monitors for food, and also retaining the skins for sale. The
Southern African python (Python natalensis) is also killed for food, the skin retained for sale,
and the fat used for medicinal purposes.
Habitat destruction
The impact of large-scale clearance of forested and wooded habitats on reptiles in the Chibuto
region is unknown, but it is likely to have reduced both reptile biomass and diversity. This
impact will be exacerbated by the burning of grasslands and fallow fields during the dry
season, and may impact reptiles directly (via increased mortality) and indirectly (by reducing
food for prey items such as insects and small rodents).
Reptiles of medical significance

Venomous snakes
Southern Mozambique has a rich snake fauna, including at least 18 venomous species (Spawls
and Branch, 1995). Snakes with medically significant venom are now uncommon in the
Chibuto Xai-Xai region, and local villagers reported snakebite to be rare (Branch, 2000).
Boomslang (Dispholidus typus) and twig snakes (Thelotornis mossambicanus) were still
reported to be relatively common in coastal bush around the MHS and wetlands in the region.
The species responsible for most bites are probably the Mozambique spitting cobra (Naja
mossambica), the puffadder (Bitis arietans) and southern burrowing asp (Atractaspis
bibronii).
Crocodiles
Large Nile crocodiles are now rare in the Chibuto area, although they still occur in the major
permanent water sources in the region. Interviews with local fishermen and villagers in the
region indicated that crocodile numbers and size had decreased in recent years. However,
crocodile attacks still occurred in the region and they thus took due care near water. Summer
floods may bring crocodiles downstream from more pristine habitats upstream on the
Limpopo and Changane rivers. Crocodiles were reported to occasionally occur in Lake
Ualute.
122 Fauna: Branch

3.3.3 BIRDS
A diverse avifauna occurs in Mozambique. Although a few birds are commensal, rapidly and
successfully adapting to altered environments, the majority of birds are sensitive to
disturbance and either migrate away from, or suffer greater mortality within, degraded
habitats. However, because of their high mobility, birds are capable of rapidly recolonising
rehabilitated habitats, provided suitable microhabitats become available.
Birds in a regional context

No recent review of all Mozambique birds exists. Existing bird field guides to the
subcontinent cover birds south of the Zambezi, and a checklist to species in southern
Mozambique has recently been updated (Clancey, 1996). Parker (1999) has also produced an
atlas of the birds of Sul do Save, Mozambique (i.e. that region south of the Save River). He
mapped the distribution of 525 species that were observed during the atlassing period
(December 1994 to March 1998, with a few earlier observations dating from 1980). Clancey
(1996) recorded 568 species as occurring in the southern half of the country, but many of his
records were based on supposition of birds likely to occur in the region based on their
presence in neighbouring states. Parker (1999) does note a further 32 additional species that
have been recorded from southern Mozambique, of which 14 are vagrant sea birds observed
in the coastal region. Stuart and Adams (1990) list 666 birds as occurring in total in
Mozambique, but do not give their status (e.g., resident breeding, summer migrant, vagrant,
etc). Hatton (1998) records 581 species for the country. A review of World Resources (Anon,
1998) lists 498 breeding birds, of which none are endemic. Most birds with restricted ranges
are associated with the inland escarpment region. Although the coastal plain lacks rocky and
upland habitats, it still possess varied habitats with a diverse and rich resident bird fauna. The
extensive seasonal wetlands may also attract numerous summer waterfowl and Palaearctic
wader migrants.
Birds present in the Chibuto Xai-Xai region

A total of 109 bird species were identified during surveys in the Chibuto region (Branch,
2000). Most (76, 70%) were common residents, whilst others were uncommon residents (17,
16%), common Palaearctic migrants (12, 11%), common Intra-African migrants (3, 2%), or
rare Intra-African migrant (1, 1%). A further 30 birds were added during the present survey,
whilst another threatened species (black coucal) was reported to occur in the region. A total of
140 species have thus been recorded from the Chibuto Xai-Xai region during the various
surveys associated with the Corridor Sands project (Appendix A).
Most species present in the region were wide-ranging and relatively tolerant of human
disturbance; e.g. cattle egret, Hadeda ibis, yellow-billed kite, Cape turtle dove, speckled
mousebird, pied crow, black-eyed bulbul, blue waxbill, etc. These are species with some of
the highest estimated densities in southern Mozambique; blue waxbill, 71 birds/100ha; Cape
turtle dove, 80 birds/100ha; and black-eyed bulbul, 41 birds/100ha (Parker, 1999).
Parker (1999) has commented on the low bird diversity over much of southern Mozambique,
and relates this to the relative uniformity of habitats. Branch (2000) noted that certain groups
of birds, otherwise widespread in Mozambique, were absent or very uncommon in the
Chibuto region (e.g. hornbills, raptors and game birds). Distribution maps of six species of
hornbill found in southern Mozambique (Parker, 1999) all have a gap in the Chibuto region,
even though some species (e.g. crowned and trumpeter hornbills) may be expected to occur in
the region. These are mainly forest species, and their absence probably reflects the loss of
suitable habitat for nesting (lack of tree holes) and/or the loss of food sources (felling of
indigenous fruiting trees). The absence of most small raptors (sparrowhawks, goshawks, etc.)
and larger eagles may be due again to the loss of their prey items, but they may also have
Fauna: Branch 123
been persecuted as a threat to livestock (goats and chickens). It was reported (M. Rees, pers.
com., Chikwirimiti) that fish eagle have not been observed at Lake Ualute since 1993,
although they were regularly observed prior to that. The reduction in game birds may also be
due to sustained hunting pressures, as local villagers acknowledged catching them whenever
possible.
Threatened and endemic birds

Few birds observed in the Chibuto Xai- Xai region are listed in threatened or near-threatened
categories of the Red List 2000 (Hilton-Taylor, 2000), Birds to Watch (Collar et al., 1994), or
are considered in various conservation categories in the South African RDB (Barnes, 2000).
Parker (1999) considered 32 birds to be Locally Threatened in southern Mozambique (i.e. to
have a decreasing population estimated to consist presently of less than 1000 birds), however,
only four of these were recorded in the Chibuto Xai- Xai region. Only three localities for
Allens gallinule in southern Mozambique were recorded by Parker (1999), including one
near the Limpopo River mouth (2533AB). These were the first records for the species in the
region, and the population for southern Mozambique was estimated to be only approximately
200 birds. The species is a rare intra-African migrant, that breeds locally in summer and
winters further north in the tropics. Two adult males were observed on Lake Nunguane, near
Chibuto (Branch, 2000) and it is probable that the species also utilises the wetlands near the
MHS.
A number of birds of conservation concern were recorded during the current survey. An
African marsh harrier (Circus ranivorus) was observed constructing a nest in the main
wetland to the south of the DHR. This range-restricted harrier is endemic to southern Africa,
is declining in numbers, and is considered Vulnerable (Barnes, 2000). Nest construction was
occurring within 100m of a local road in a thick reed bed and was relatively tolerant of human
activity in the region.
A green coucal (Ceuthmochares aereus) was observed in coastal thicket near the jetty. This
species has a very restricted distribution in coastal bush in Mozambique, and the population is
believed to comprise <500 birds and is considered locally threatened (Parker, 1999). Black
coucal (Centropus grillii), another threatened Intra-African migrant, was reported to
seasonally inhabit the reedbeds of the larger wetlands in the coastal region near the CEF (M.
Rees, pers. com., Chikwirimiti).
The most surprising bird recorded during the current survey was a light- mantled sooty
albatross (Phoebetria palpebrata). This was forced ashore during a severe cold front (10 June
2003). Unfortunately the exhausted bird was caught at sunrise on the beach near the jetty site
by a local villager, towed home and subsequently eaten. The species has a circumpolar
distribution and breeds on sub-Antarctic islands. It is a very rare vagrant to South African
waters, and this the first record for Mozambique (V. Parker, pers. comm). It is of conservation
concern (Near Threatened, Red List 2000; Barnes, 2000) but is a non-breeding vagrant to
Mozambique and will not be impacted by the proposed development.
Habitat associations of birds in the Chibuto Xai-Xai region

Parker (1999) notes that the two most threatened avian habitats in southern Mozambique are
tall Brachystegia forest and coastal forest. Patches of the latter, as degraded coastal thicket
occurs in the vicinity of the MHS and jetty. These serve as isolated forest refugia for the
threatened green coucal.
Most birds were observed in a variety of habitats, although no forest specialists were
observed. Birds associated with wetlands and drainage lines included: little grebe, reed and
white-breasted cormorant, purple and grey heron, open-billed stork, white-faced duck, fulvous
124 Fauna: Branch
duck, white-backed duck, red-billed teal, African marsh harrier, black crake, African jacana,
moorhen, purple and Allens gallinule, wattled plover, malachite kingfisher, pied kingfisher,
black-backed cisticola and yellow-rumped widow.
Plate 3.1: A light- mantled sooty albatross (Phoebetria palpebrata). It was collected
on the beach near the proposed jetty and is the first record for Mozambique.
Open savanna specialists were also tolerant of disturbed and cultivated habitats, including:
Cape turtle dove, black-eyed bulbul, Shelleys francolin, mouse-coloured flycatcher, three-
streaked tchagra, black-crowned tchagra, scarlet-chested sunbird, blue waxbill, pin-tailed
whydah, yellow-eyed canary, etc.
Existing impacts on birds

Local hunting and subsistence utilisation
Due to the high human numbers and subsistence economy, exploitation of birds in the region
is high, and all villagers in the region reported killing birds for food. Observed examples of
utilisation for food included Shelleys francolin. Other birds (e.g. yellow-eyed canary) were
retained as pets. It is possible that the recent socio-economic upheaval has affected the
incidence of some birds in the area. The low numbers of weaver or bishop species (e.g.
spotted-back weaver, spectacled weaver, thick-billed weaver, fire-crowned bishop, etc.)
utilising reedbeds or trees in the wetlands was noticeable. Few adult birds or their
characteristic, long- lasting woven nests were observed. It is possible that the breeding
colonies have been locally eradicated. An animal dealer based at Lake Ualute (Chikwirimiti)
collects large numbers of seed-eating birds (yellow-eyed canary, blue waxbill, quail finch,
etc.) for the captive bird trade (see discussion in Parker, 1999).
Habitat destruction
The long history of subsistence agriculture in the region has significantly impacted the avian
forest specialist fauna that is likely to have occurred in the region, particularly species such as
parrots, barbets, hornbills and loeries (turacos). These species are dependent on fruiting trees
and hollow logs for nest holes. The increased utilisation of reedbeds for roofing and weaving
material is also likely to impact on birds such as small herons, rails, flufftails and crakes that
use wetland reedbed habitats. Other species utilise reedbeds for nesting (weavers and some
warblers) and roosting (many swallows).
Fauna: Branch 125

Seasonal fires
The impact of seasonal bush fires in grassland and bush clearance on bird communities is
unknown. Fires may temporarily destroy shelter, food resources and nesting material for
birds. However, most burning occurs during the dry winter months, when bird breeding is low
or absent and when migrant species have departed. It is therefore likely to have low initial
impact. Its long term effects on vegetation structure and diversity are likely to have greater
impacts. The promotion of grass species and open habitats is likely to result in an increase in
small, semi- migratory seed-eating species.
3.3.4 MAMMALS
Mammal conservation and popular attitudes are usually dominated by megaherbivores.
However, large game make up less than 15% of the mammal diversity and biomass in Africa.
In areas with a long history of human occupation this percentage is further reduced, and the
vast majority of mammals are small or medium-sized. Rodents are the most successful living
mammals and what they lack in size, they make up for in numbers and the biomass of small
mammal communities is often significant. Their role in ecosystems is similarly important.
Whilst new taxa in some groups (especially among bats, insectivores and rodents) await
discovery, in general African mammals, like birds, are relatively well-known. However, there
still remains confusion over the taxonomic status and relationships of numerous mammal
groups (genera and species). Systematic confusion is readily illustrated by comparison of the
conflicting taxonomic arrangements, particularly those of primates, prosimians, squirrels,
pangolins, warthogs, etc., in the recent major African mammal reviews by Smithers (1983),
Skinner and Smithers (1990), Mills and Hex (1997) and Kingdon (1997).
Mammals in a regional context

Over 1150 mammal species occur in Africa (Kingdon, 1997), and approximately 230
mammal species occur in Mozambique (Stuart and Adams, 1990; Hatton, 1998). The
mammal fauna of Mozambique was last reviewed by Smithers and Tello (1976), and updated
recent reviews of the southern provinces include: Smithers (1983), Skinner and Smithers
(1990), Wilson and Reeder (1993), Mills and Hex (1997) and Kingdon (1997). The greatest
diversity occurs in the Chiroptera (bats) and Rodentia (squirrels, rats and mice). Although
mammal endemicity in southern Africa is high (42%), this is not the situation in Mozambique
where endemicity is very low and the fauna mainly transitional between that of the East
African coastal belt and the Cape temperate region.
Mammals of the Chibuto Xai-Xai region

Although approximately 100 mammal species may occur in southern Mozambique, very few
of these remain as viable populations in the Chibuto Xai- Xai region. A total of only 19
mammal species have been observed or reported during the surveys in the region (Branch,
2000, 2001a, 2001b; Appendix B). Local villagers noted that hunting for bush meat in the
Chibuto region was not undertaken, as there was no game left to hunt (Branch, 2000). During
the present survey, two red-bellied coastal squirrel (Paraxerus palliatus) were observed at the
MHS. A number of other species were reported to occur in dune thicket habitat near the jetty,
including red duiker, suni, large-spotted genet, Mellers mongoose, Egyptian mongoose and
vervet monkey. Side-striped jackal was reported from the area of Lake Ualute.
Threatened and endemic mammals

None of the few mammals still surviving in the Chibuto region are endemic. A few threatened
species (included in the Red List 2000) occur in coastal thicket around the MHS and jetty
region (Appendix B), the most notable being red duiker, suni and red-bellied coastal squirrel.
Habitat associations of mammals in the Chibuto Xai-Xai region

126 Fauna: Branch
Too few mammals survive in the Chibuto Xai- Xai region for the habitat dependence to be
assessed. The water mongoose and striped jackal are reported to occur in the major wetlands
and Lake Ualute near the MHS, and the former probably remains along the major drainage
lines and around wetlands through the region. Small threatened antelope, such as red duiker
and suni, are restricted to thicker patches of coastal bush.
Existing impacts on mammals

Local subsistence hunting and habitat destruction has over a lo ng period of time caused a
massive loss of mammalian diversity and population density in the region. The loss of forest
habitat in particular means that there are few refugia in which mammals can retreat from
hunting pressures. The unsustainable exploitation of the fauna has led to the almost total loss
of large mammal diversity.
3.4 KEY ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
3.4.1 INTRODUCTION
Projects and alternatives

The proposed Chongoene Export Facility (CEF) involves a number of components that differ
in the nature and extent of their associated impacts. A dedicated haul road is proposed to
transport the products from the mining operations at Chibuto to the coast and to transport
supplies from the coast to the mine. At the coast the proposed Chibuto load out facility
(CLOF) will consist of a materials handling and storage facility (MHS) and a Materials
Transfer Systems (MTS) to carry products across an offshore jetty for loading onto ships for
export.
The main proposal (Base Case) involves a haul road that will be used by road trains to
transport products (titania slag, zircon, rutile and pig iron) from the mine at Chibuto to the
load out facility. On the return trip anthracite will be transported from the load out facility to
the mine site. In addition, diesel will be transported from the CLOF to the mine site using
tankers. A pipe conveyor will be used to transport bulk products from the MHS to the jetty
and ship loader. Unitised products (pig iron, bagged rutile and zircon) will be delivered along
the jetty to the export berth via an aerial ropeway.
A number of project alternatives have been proposed, including:
Sub surface tunnel MTS: The MTS will replace the above surface conveyor route with a sub
surface tunnel in order to try to reduce visual and ecological impacts. The tunnel will be
constructed using a large cut and fill operation rather than a tunnelling method due to the
unconsolidated nature of the dunes. The same alignment would be used.
Railway: The transport of product from the mine site and the anthracite and diesel to the mine
site will use a railway instead of a haul road. The railway will use diesel locomotives and will
use the same horizontal and vertical alignment as the haul road. The MHS site would be
similar in layout but a shunting/marshalling yard wo uld also be required.
Alternative diesel import: Diesel would be delivered to the mine site via the existing public
roads (EN1/EN207) using tankers. This would mean no transport of diesel by ship to the jetty
and significant diesel storage at the MHS. No diesel transport to the mine site via dedicated
haul road or railway would be involved.
The no-go option (Status Quo) assumes that impacts associated with the current land use
would continue.
Fauna: Branch 127

Assessment of impacts
The following discussion reviews the likely impacts of the project and its alternative
components on the environment. As many project actions result in a variety of environmental
impacts, these are assessed via Key Issues and specific impacts. The severity of these impacts
is considered in terms of their temporal and spatial contexts. The environmental significance
of these impacts is assessed in terms of their severity and possible mitigation. Significance
ratings are accompanied by levels of Certainty and are graded as of Low, Medium or High
Significance. The probable change in the Significance rating following the recommended
mitigatory measures is also given.
Impacts on faunal diversity arise in numerous ways and take many forms. They may act in
concert, synergistically or antagonistically to mitigate or exacerbate their compound effects.
The effects of these impacts are grouped into Key Issues that affect varied components of the
environment. Where the life histories and ecologies of the major vertebrate classes result in
different responses to environmental impacts, they are discussed separately. The Key Issues
and the specific impacts associated with a) the Base case development; b) the proposed
alternatives; and c) current land use (the Status Quo), are discussed below.
3.4.2 IMPACTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE BASE CASE

This section reviews the issues that may impact faunal systems arising from the construction
and operation of the proposed Chongoene export facility and the associated dedicated haul
road between the Chibuto mine site to the proposed Chongoene load out facility and the
offshore jetty. Specifically, the review identifies:
faunal biodiversity;
the conservation status of fauna along the proposed route and handling sites, and the
potential impacts on species of special concern, including sensitive, endemic and
protected species;
the presence of ecologically sensitive areas, including terrestrial and wetland systems;
the potential for the invasion by alien species; and
the impact of increased chemical pollution resulting from road traffic on the indigenous
fauna.
3.4.3 ISSUE 1 - LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
Impact 1: Loss of faunal diversity
Cause and comment: Impacts of the proposed developments on the surviving fauna will be
minimal for most groups. Amphibian diversity may be impacted by possible small scale,
localised changes in water flow dynamics in the region of the MHS caused by the access
roads and pumping of water from the adjacent wetlands or lakes. However, most frogs in the
region are widespread and have rapid colonising abilities. The surviving reptile fauna
comprises species relatively tolerant of agricultural development, and many are commensal
(e.g. striped skink, and house and day geckos) and may even increase in numbers in disturbed
situations and along forest edges and ecotones. Birds are by far the most speciose vertebrate
component in the region and over 250 species can probably be expected. Most are non-
migratory, and include some of the most common birds in Mozambique. Summer migrant
waders and waterfowls utilising seasonal wetlands may transit the region, but are tolerant of
low to medium farming levels. The remaining mammal diversity in the region is already
severely impacted, and the lack of inland forest refugia means that most mammals,
particularly large bovids and carnivores, have been eradicated by habitat loss and hunting
pressures. With the exception of rodents and bats, most mammals in the region are poor
128 Fauna: Branch
colonisers and require protected habitats to maintain viable population levels. Overall, an
increase in animal mortality associated with haul road traffic will definitely occur, as will
disturbance and barriers to movement of animals in the region of the MHS.
Mitigation and management: Mitigation of the impact entails protection and, where
necessary, rehabilitation of habitats, particularly wetland and dune thicket. Although the
alignment of the DHR has been optimised to avoid sensitive areas and minimise impacts, the
inevitable fragmentation of the landscape cannot be mitigated.
Significance statement: The loss of faunal species diversity due to construction and
operation of the CEF may occur and result in a decrease in vertebrate biodiversity in the
region, and this will have a moderate severe negative impact in the short to medium term in
the study area, but only slightly severe negative impact on the district scale. Mitigation of this
impact is difficult and a slightly severe negative impact will probably remain. The
environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be LOW.
Impact 2: Loss of species of special concern
Cause and comment: Although no bird, reptile, amphibian or mammal species are endemic
to the area of the proposed development, some species are rare whilst others are of
conservation concern. Most amphibians in the region are widely distributed throughout
southern Mozambique, and the local amphibian fauna lacks any threatened species. A number
of reptile species in the region are listed on CITES Appendix II but are wide-ranging species
threatened throughout sub-Saharan Africa. Most of these species are linked to aquatic
habitats, e.g. crocodiles, pythons, terrapins and the Nile monitor. Most birds in the region are
also widely distributed through the region, and relatively few (6) are listed in the threatened
(two Vulnerable) or Near threatened (4) categories of the Red List 2000 (Hilton-Taylor,
2000). A further five species are considered locally threatened (Parker, 1999). Most of the
mammals of conservation concern in the region are locally extinct due to habitat loss and
hunting pressures, and at most occur as vagrants. Only three Vulnerable species occur in the
region and all are restricted to dune bush and thicket habitat in the vicinity of the MHS.
Animal mortalities will result from the initial direct impact of habitat loss during the
construc tion phase, and subsequently from traffic and other associated impacts.
The distribution of threatened species along the proposed haul route and the MHS is not
uniform, and there is a concentration of threatened species in the wetlands and coastal thicket
patches surrounding the eastern end of the haul road, MHS and jetty. Impacts during the
construction of the proposed road (habitat loss and fragmentation) and its operation (increased
fire, disturbance, road mortality, risk of pollution, etc.) will all pose a threat to the survival of
populations of threatened species. All impacts will be negative. The significance of the impact
will depend on the success of mitigation of primary impacts (habitat loss and fragmentation).
Secondary impacts during the operative phase, with high probability, will cause local
mortalities over the long term. The accumulative effect may have regional or national
significance depending upon the individual species impacted and their conservation status.
Mitigation and management: Mitigation of this impact entails the protection of wetland and
dune thicket habitats, which are home to most of the threatened species. Both the alignment of
the DHR and conveyor route have been optimised to reduce these impacts. Hunting of
threatened species in the vicinity of the MHS and jetty region must be prohibited. Limitation
of human access to dune thicket habitat in the MHS region could allow it to serve as a
protected refuge for threatened species.
Fauna: Branch 129

Significance statement: The loss of species of special concern due to construction and
operation of the CEF may occur and result in a decrease in these species in the region, and
this will have a moderately severe negative impact in the short to medium term in the study
area and at the district and regional scale. Mitigation of this impact depends on adequate
protection of the species and their habitats and will probably result in a slight negative
impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be MODERATE,
reducing to LOW with mitigation.
Impact 3: Threats to animal movements

Cause and comment: Linear developments, such as roads and rail tracks, may disrupt the
movement of species within their normal home ranges, or the seasonal movements of
migratory species. Habitat fragmentation may require species to make long movements
between patches of suitable habitat in search of mates, breeding sites or food. At such times
they may suffer increased mortality, either directly by road vehicles, or from their natural
predators due to increased exposure. Impacts on animal movements will be greatest in regions
with high habitat fragmentation, or where linear developments transect migratory paths. Large
mammals that may have undertaken seasonal movements are locally extinct throughout the
road route. This potential impact is no longer relevant in the region. Reptiles and amphibians
do not undertake long distance migrations, but both groups may undertake short seasonal
movements between feeding and overwintering sites. Similarly, most frogs move to wetlands
during the breeding season. Some amphibians, particularly toads, are explosive breeders, and
move en masse to their breeding ponds. At such times they may suffer heavy casualties whilst
crossing roads (Langton, 1989; Fahrig, et al., 1995).
There is a significant movement of migratory birds, particularly intra-African migrants,
between forest patches along the East Coast littoral region and escarpment forests. Some
forest species, such as spotted thrush, starred robin, bush blackcap, etc., undertake seasonal
movements within southern Africa between their winter and summer breeding quarters. Other
species overwinter in central Africa (e.g. cuckoos, some swallows) moving south to the
summer breeding grounds in South Africa during early spring. Most appear to make frequent,
short movements between patches of suitable habitat, often flying at night. Palaearctic waders,
migrate between their Northern Hemisphere breeding grounds and southern Africa. Their
flight paths appear to be mainly coastal and are, therefore, unaffected by the proposed road
route.
Impacts on animal movements will be most significant for birds and mammals in regions with
high habitat fragmentation. For amphibians this impact will be greatest where the road runs
adjacent to wetlands suitable for breeding. It is an impact of high probability that will be
negative due to increased mortality. It will be localised and occur over the long term.
Mitigation and management: Mitigation depends firstly on ongoing assessment of the

significance of animal road mortalities. Where breeding toads are being killed in unacceptable
numbers, under-road culverts have been effectively installed in a number of European sites to
allow their movement across road barriers (Langton, 1989; Yanes et al., 1995). Mortalities
can also be reduced by ensuring that vegetation levels in the road reserve are maintained at
low heights. The design of project structures, such as the MHS, should also avoid disrupting
sensitive habitat corridors, e.g. dune thicket. Existing design criteria in the conveyor ensure an
elevated structure which will not impact on the movement of animals.
Significance statement: Disruption of normal animal movement due to construction and

operation of the CEF may occur and result in a moderately severe negative impact in the short
to medium term in the study area. Mitigation of this impact will probably result in a slight
negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be LOW.
130 Fauna: Branch
Table 3.4: Summary of issues relating to the Fauna resulting from the proposed Corridor Sands Chongoene Export Facility project.

ISSUE/IMPACTS
Issue 1 - Loss of biodiversity
Study area: Moderate severe Slight
Impact 1: Loss of faunal diversity May occur Short to medium term Probable Slight Slight LOW
District:
Study area, District &
Impact 2: Loss of species of special concern May occur Short to medium term Probable Moderately severe Slight LOW
Regional
Impact 3: Threats to animal movement May occur Short to medium term Study area Probable Moderately severe Slight LOW
Impact 4: Alien fauna May occur Medium to long term Study area Probable Slight Slight LOW
Will definitely
Impact 1: Habitat loss Medium to long term Study area Probable Moderately severe Slight LOW
occur
Will definitely
Impact 2: Habitat fragmentation Long term Study area Probable Moderately severe Slight LOW
occur
Issue 3 - Operational impacts
Will definitely
Impact 1: Increased dust levels Medium term Study area Probable Moderately severe Slight LOW
occur
Impact 2: Increased fire risk Unlikely Medium term Study area Probable Moderately severe Slight LOW
Will definitely
Impact 3: Chemical pollution Medium term Study area Probable Moderately severe Slight LOW
occur
Impact 4: Changes in water flow dynamics May occur Medium term Study area Probable Slight Slight LOW
Fauna: Branch 131

Impact 4: Invasion by alien fauna
Cause and comment: Linear developments such as roads create a suitable corridor for the
invasion of alien species. Alien birds, such as the Indian myna and house crow, have actively
expanded their range in association with urbanisation along road routes (Harrison et al.,
1997), as have urban rodent pests such as the house mouse (Mus musculus) and house rat
(Rattus rattus). Rats can serve as carriers of plague. In some cases indigenous species, e.g. the
African cat (Felis lybica) and yellow-billed duck (Anas undulata), are threatened by
hybridisation with introduced, closely-related domesticated species (e.g. domestic cat and
mallard, respectively). Negative impacts due to the invasion of alien fauna to the region are
highly probable. They will initially be localised but will spread and occur over the long term.
The significance will generally be low as the probable alien invaders (e.g. some birds and
rodents) presently exist in urban situations throughout much of the route already.
Mitigation and management: Mitigation usually involves active control and culling
programmes of problem animals undertaken by conservation authorities.
Significance statement: The invasion by alien animals following construction and operation
of the CEF may occur and result in a slight negative impact in the medium to long term in the
Study Area. Mitigation of this impact is difficult and a slight negative impact will probably
remain. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be LOW.
3.4.4 ISSUE 2 - HABITAT IMPACTS
Impact 1: Habitat loss
Cause and comment: Various land use options cause the loss, directly or indirectly, of viable
habitats for the various faunal groups. This is usually a loss of plant communities that supply
food or shelter, but may include abiotic features such as the loss of temporary wetlands or
rock outcrops. Habitat loss is not simply total loss due to clearance of cover (e.g. agriculture
and afforestation), as habitats may also deteriorate due to the loss of certain key components.
The selective loss of old dead trees in a forest for firewood may reduce nesting or roosting
sites for parrots or tree dassies, and thus make the habitat unsuitable even though most trees
remain. Impacts such as bush-encroachment present positive and negative facets, representing
habitat loss for some species and habitat gain for others.
The proposed route passes through regions subject to different histories and land use patterns.
As a consequence, the landscape is now much degraded from its natural condition with an
impoverished fauna. No existing reserves or protected areas occur in the vicinity of the
proposed haul road or handling sites. The distribution of biodiversity within the region is not
uniform, and different habitats have different carrying capacities. Biodiversity in closed-
canopy forest and grassland is usually low. Highest levels of biodiversity occur in habitat
mosaics, particularly in the coastal areas.
By their nature, forest habitats are rarely confluent over large areas, particularly in flood
plains and coastal regions. Moreover, in areas with a long history of human dependence upon
natural resources, wooded habitats may only remain as a fragmented archipelago of closed
habitats, restricted to relatively inaccessible areas. Species inhabiting forests are usually
highly adapted to the moisture, light and thermal regimes occurring within them, and such
specialist species rarely survive in other habitats. In consequence, as forests become
increasingly fragmented so does the specialist fauna inhabiting them. Forests, therefore,
contain the highest number of threatened taxa, and also harbour numerous endemic species.
In addition to specialists, well- wooded habitats such as forests, thickets and bushclumps, also
132 Fauna: Branch
serve as important nesting sites for many common birds, as well as temporary refugia and
corridors for the movement of forest specialists, e.g. green coucal, red duiker, serval and red
squirrel. Where there is a mosaic of forest and grassland, many bushclumps may serve as
shelter for small mammals. These species forage in the surrounding grasslands at night,
utilising the bushclumps and adjacent forests for shelter. As well as serving as refugia for
many forest and woodland specialists, forest patches also supply diverse resources utilised by
the surrounding villagers.
Wetlands also form fragmented and specialised habitats. They are essential breeding grounds
for many frogs, serve as feeding grounds for threatened waterbirds, otters and numerous frog-
eating snakes. They are easily impacted by water abstraction, siltation from overgrazing,
pollution from urban sewage and industrial waste, insecticide and herbicide runoff from
agricultural lands, and petroleum spillage on roads. The wetlands and drainage lines of the
study area remain relatively pristine and still harbour a diverse fauna, particularly of aquatic
birds, amphibians and reptiles.
From the perspective of associated faunal diversity and threatened animals, the most sensitive
habitats include:
the coastal corridor of dune bush and dune thicket habitat bordering the MHS;
Lake Ualute and the two large wetlands that lie adjacent to the eastern end of the haul road
Impacts to sensitive forests and wetlands are highly probable, and will be local and negative
in nature, and occur over the long term. The significance of these impacts may vary from low
to high depending upon the local importance of the habitat and the particular fauna that it
harbours. Primary mitigation has in part already occurred with the careful selection of the
road route to avoid sensitive habitats. Specific project actions associated with construction,
access roads, borrow pits and cut-and- fill construction must avoid sensitive habitats. Natural
drainage should be maintained, and the silt loads into rivers, streams and wetlands must stay
within normal limits.
Mitigation and management: To mitigate the potential impact of habitat loss it is essential
that the selected haul road route avoid sensitive wetland and wooded habitats. The preferred
route has, where possible, avoided wetlands and very limited forest is found in the DHR
corridor to the MHS (see Chapter 2).
Significance statement: The loss of habitat associated with construction of the CEF, and
degradation of adjacent habitats during the operational phase will definitely occur and result
in a moderately severe negative impact in the medium to long term in the study area. The
CLOF and DHR have been placed and aligned in order to ensure minimal impacts to the
sensitive habitats. Mitigation of this impact is difficult, but if sensitive habitats (i.e. the dune
thicket corridor and wetlands) are avoided and their conditions are monitored during the
operational phase, a slight negative impact will probably arise. The environmental
significance of this unmitigated impact would be MODERATE, but with mitigation would
reduce to LOW.
Impact 2: Habitat fragmentation
Cause and comment: Habitat fragmentation can have diverse consequences for ecosystems
and their fauna and flora (see review in Saunders, et al., 1991). Habitat loss is rarely uniform,
and usually occurs piecemeal, leaving a mosaic of habitat fragments that may serve as refugia
for the surviving fauna. Intervening unsuitable habitat, however, creates artificial barriers to
normal migration and prevents or inhibits genetic interchange between the isolated
Fauna: Branch 133
populations. Tolerance of habitat fragmentation depends on numerous factors and will thus
affect different faunal groups differently. Due to their increased mobility birds can be
expected to be more tolerant of habitat fragmentation than, say, frogs or rodents. However,
local extinction of fragmented populations can result from reduced gene flow and population
recruitment in the isolates making them less adaptable to future change and increased
extinction potential (Gerlach and Musolf, 2000).
Fragmentation of habitats can lead to the loss of viable populations, especially in animals
requiring large home ranges. The disruption to gene flow between island populations
reduces biological fitness in the long term, compromising the ability of populations to adapt
to future environmental perturbations. Species that are sensitive to habitat fragmentation are
characteristically resident, habitat-specialists with low fecundity. Most of these species, e.g.
prosimians, antelope, pythons, etc., are already locally extinct or occur at very low numbers.
Forest habitats contain most habitat specialists, particularly birds and mammals. Forest-
dependent bird diversity shows a roughly linear relationship between forest size and the
numbers of birds (Dickinson et al., 1995). However, forests below 10km2 in area tend to
support a poor assemblage of forest bird species with no threatened species, suggesting that
forest patches below this size are unable to maintain diverse bird communities and therefore
have lower conservation importance.
Mitigation and management: The planning of road routes and buildings should ensure
minimal fragmentation of sensitive habitats. Road designs should incorporate, where possible,
underpasses and culverts which allow the movement of animals. The preferred road route has
been aligned to avoid sensitive habitats as much as possible and allows for drainage culverts
and bridges.
Significance statement: Habitat fragmentation associated with the construction of the CEF
will definitely occur and result in a moderately severe negative impact in the long term in the
study area. Mitigation of this impact is difficult, but sensitive habitats (i.e. the dune thicket
corridor and wetlands) must be avoided, in which case a slight negative impact will probably
arise. This has already been taken into account with the careful alignment of the preferred
road route, which avoids sensitive habitats. The environmental significance of this
unmitigated impact would be MODERATE, but with mitigation would reduce to LOW.
3.4.5 ISSUE 3 - OPERATIONAL IMPACTS
A variety of impacts are likely to result from the operation of the various components of the
Chongoene Export Facility. Operation of the MHS and MTS facilities may cause chemical
pollution, raise dust leve ls, increase noise and light levels, and lead to changes in water
hydrodynamics and fire regimes. Perhaps more significant and widespread will be the varied
impacts of the haul road. Roads are known to alter at least eight phys ical characteristics of the
environment, such as: soil density, temperature, soil water content, light penetration, dust
production, surface water flow, runoff pattern and sedimentation. Via their impacts on these
parameters, roads affect ecosystems, biological communities and species in numerous and
different ways. The significance of these effects is determined largely by the location, density,
and distribution of roads across the landscape (Hourdequin, 2000). Generally roads have
negative effects on the biotic integrity in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and these
effects can be classified under various categories (Trombulak and Frissell, 2000): increased
mortality from road construction and vehicle collisions; modification of animal behaviour,
particularly movement patterns; alteration of the physical environment; alteration of the
chemical environment; spread of exotic species; and increased alteration and use of the
habitats by humans.
134 Fauna: Branch
The consequences of road mortalities and habitat fragmentation result from roads have been
discussed earlier. Other impacts resulting from the haul road and CEF operations are
discussed below and summarised in Table 3.4.
Impact 1: Increased dust levels
Cause and comment: Increased dust levels are common during construction and bush
clearance, and are also a major consequence of vehicular traffic, even on paved surfaces. Dust
settling on adjacent vegetation can block plant photosynthesis, respiration and transpiration,
in addition to causing physical injuries of plants (Farmer, 1993). Its presence may also make
plants unpalatable, thus acting as a possible deterrent to grazing (Trombulak and Frissel,
2000). Dust from road surfaces can also transport chemical pollutants to adjacent regions, thus
affecting riparian ecosystems via impacts on water quality.
Mitigation and management: The haul road and access roads in the MHS should be hard
paved to inhibit dust production; the current design is a chip spray sealed surface. Road
speeds in sensitive regions (e.g. near wetlands and forest patches) and during extreme dry
climatic conditions should be limited to curtail dust production. During the construction phase
speed limits on unpaved roads should be reduced, and in areas of high dust production road
surfaces should be dampened.
Significance statement: Dust levels will be raised during the construction of the CEF and
during the operational phase of the haul road and will definitely occur and result in a
moderately severe negative impact in the medium term in the study area. Mitigation of this
impact would probably reduce this to a slight negative impact. The environmental
significance of this unmitigated impact would be MODERATE, but with mitigation would
reduce to LOW.
Impact 2: Increased fire risk
Cause and comment: Fire in many ecosystems, particularly grasslands, is a natural

phenomenon and prevents thicket development. Fire in forest habitats is naturally infrequent.
However, changes in water flow dynamics following road construction may reduce the water
table locally, drying vegetation to unnatural levels and making it more susceptible to fire.
Construction and planning of roads should anticipate an increased fire risk. Increased human
population growth in the area may also occur as a consequence of increased accessibility
resulting from the CEF development. This will also lead to an increase in accidental fires.
Although fires are localised, they will occur over the long term and can affect local
conditions. The severity, and hence significance, of any fire will depend on aspects such as
the local topography, habitat type, and fauna present.
Mitigation and management: The regular maintenance of the margins of the haul road
reserve where it runs through or adjacent to forests or wetlands should ensure that vegetation
remains short so that it serves as an effective firebreak. Similar firebreaks should surround
storage depots of flammable materials, which should be situated away from sensitive habitats
and equipped with adequate fire control facilities.
Significance statement: Increased fire frequency associated with the operation of the CEF
and haul road is unlikely and will result in a moderately severe negative impact in the
medium term in the study area. Mitigation of this impact would probably reduce this to a
Fauna: Branch 135

slight negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be
MODERATE, but with mitigation would reduce to LOW.
Impact 3: Chemical pollution
Cause and comment : Many faunal groups are sensitive to pollutants. Lead concentrations are
higher in small terrestrial mammals collected alongside roads than in bats caught in the same
areas (Clark, 1979). Frog diversity in ponds affected by pollution from road runoff is
depressed (Hecnar and Mcloskey, 1996), and the accumulation of herbicides and their
residues in adjacent wetlands can lead to developmental abnormalities in tadpoles and
metamorphosing froglets (Osano et al., 2002), and also masculinisation of female frogs
(Dalton, 2002).
Pollution may result from periodic accidents, or from a slow, ongoing contamination.
Operation of the CEF, particularly in relation to the use of inflammable liquids such as diesel,
will probably result in periodic accidents. Heavy vehicle traffic is also associated with
increased local pollution resulting from exhaust fumes, oil spillage and accumulation of
rubber compounds from tyre wear. These pollutants can cause localised impacts. Sensitive
wetlands or patches of threatened vegetation may need protection from road surface water
runoff containing such pollutants, and the application of herbicides to control plant growth in
road reserves and around the MHS, MTS and jetty should be monitored and banned when
levels are in danger of reaching toxic levels.
Mitigation and management: Storage facilities for chemicals, particularly diesel, should not
be situated in regions subject to regular flooding. They should also be situated such that in the
event of spillage their contents run immediately into large catchment areas for
decontamination. The use of insecticides and herbicides should be closely monitored.
Significance statement: Chemical pollution resulting from the operation of the CEF and
vehicle traffic on the haul road will definitely occur and result in a moderately severe
negative impact in the medium term in the study area. Mitigation of this impact would
probably reduce this to a slight negative impact. The environmental significance of this
unmitigated impact would be MODERATE, but with mitigation would be reduced to LOW.
Impact 4: Changes in water flow dynamics
Cause and comment: The operation of the CEF will require water that will probably be
sourced from Lake Ualute. This may lead to possible changes in water flow dynamics in the
lake and adjacent wetlands. The construction of the haul road may also cause changes in local
drainage affecting adjacent wetlands. Many vertebrates are adapted to the seasonal flooding of
vleis and pans, which have a rich amphibian fauna, a diverse number of aquatic reptiles, and
numerous waterbirds and waders. Amphibians differ in the le ngth of time required to pass
through the larval stage, with some ranids taking 6-9 months to complete metamorphosis. It is
important that flow dynamics in streams and temporary dams be maintained in order that
larval development of all amphibians can be completed successfully.
Mitigation and management: Water quality and flow dynamics in wetlands and water
sources on and adjacent to the development should be continually monitored for any declines.
The DHR design allows for drainage culverts and bridges in order to minimise the effect on
local water flow patterns. Possible erosion into and siltation in water bodies should be
avoided.
136 Fauna: Branch

Significance statement: Changes in water flow dynamics associated with the construction of
the haul road and the operation of the CEF may occur and will result in a slight negative
impact in the medium term in the study area. Mitigation of this impact could probably reduce
this to a slight negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact
would be LOW.
3.5 COMPARISON OF THE PROPOSED ALTERNATIVES
Materials Transfer Systems (MTS)

The proposed alternatives include a sub-surface tunnel or an above-surface conveyor route.
Impacts associated with an above-surface conveyor may include:
Visual intrusion;
Loss of vegetation cover due to changes in hydrology and shading, leading to increased
sand movement;
Increased mortality to animals gaining access to the structure; and
Possible increased environmental pollution (dust etc.) if the transported material is not
fully contained. It should however be noted that the structure is an enclosed pipe
conveyor.
Advantages of the above-surface conveyor include:

Less environmental damage during installation; and
Easier access for maintenance.
Evaluation
The construction of a sub-surface MTS would appear to offer a better environmental option.
However, it requires a large cut-and- fill operation that will need careful rehabilitation if the
vegetated corridor of dune habitat is to be maintained. The depth of the cut-and- fill are
unspecified and thus the extent of the habitat loss and the immediate environmental
consequences are difficult to assess. The complex topography of the dune system and its
associated thicket cover includes a deep, sheltered (i.e. closed canopy) network of corridors
that allow movement and protection of the remaining threatened mammals (e.g. red duiker).
This must be maintained across the MTS, and this may require deep excavation of the sub-
surface tunnel option. Ease of access for maintenance to an above-surface conveyor, and
continued animal movement through the underlying dune thicket corridor would have less
environmental impact provided the closed transport system is carefully designed to prevent
material loss, animal entry, and reduce visual impact.

An alternative for the transport of product from the mine site and the anthracite and diesel to
the mine site may use a railway instead of a haul road. The railway will use diesel
locomotives and will use the same horizontal and vertical alignment as the haul road.
Roads and rail options for transport may have differing environmental consequences. The
advantages of rail transport over that of a haul road include:
less associated dust and noise due to the lower frequency of traffic;
less transport associated animal mortality;
reduced fire risk in adjacent vegetation;
reduced use by humans for access; and
The disadvantages of rail transport over that of a haul road are that it is:
Fauna: Branch 137

more disruptive to animal movement due to the greater physical barrier;

more expensive, and thus less adaptable to subsequent modification;
the footprint of MHS site, and thus direct loss of habitat in this sensitive region, would be
larger as a shunting/marshalling yard would also be required.
Evaluation
rather than a rail link, the disruption of animal movements is potentially serious. However, the
highly degraded nature of the surrounding habitats, involving habitat loss and fragmentation,
depauperate faunal diversity and alien infestation, means that the faunal impacts of both
alternatives will be comparable in the long term.
Alternative Diesel Import

Diesel would be delivered to the mine site via the existing public roads (EN1/EN207) using
tankers. The advantages of using existing transport routes for the transfer of diesel to the
mining site include:
less risk of marine spillage of diesel that would otherwise be transported by ship and
unloaded at the jetty;
no risk of spillage in the sensitive dune habitat; and
no significant diesel storage at the MHS, thus reducing the risk of accidental pollution in
the adjacent sensitive wetland habitats.
The disadvantages of using existing transport routes for the transfer of diesel to the mining
site include:
greater risk of accidents on public roads, and therefore greater risk of pollution and fire in
adjacent habitats; and
greater risk of human death and injury on public roads.
Evaluation
New and greater environmental impacts are associated with ship-to- mine transfer of diesel,
whilst the use of existing public road facilities results in a slight increase in the current
environmental impacts. Diesel transport using existing routes has less faunal impacts.
3.6 IMPACTS ASSOCIATED WITH CURRENT LAND USE
Current land use in the region comprises mainly subsistence agriculture and natural resource
harvesting. These land use practices, when not conducted in a sustainable manner, can have
negative consequences for ecosystem functioning and biodiversity. Current and previous
agricultural practices have caused extensive loss and fragmentation of habitats, and all sites
along the proposed transport route and at the MHS are severely impacted by long term land
use practices. The existing impacts resulting from the current land use are discussed below
and summarised in Table 3.6.
138 Fauna: Branch

3.6.1 ISSUE 1 - LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY

Cause and comment: A massive loss of faunal diversity in the region has already occurred.
This is attributable to poor socio-economic development in the region, with a consequence
that many people view wildlife as a ready source of protein. In addition, large-scale habitat
destruction, particularly of forest patches along watercourses and tributaries, has resulted from
a long tradition of rural farming. This is exacerbated by a need for wood for fuel and housing
construction. The widespread practice of burning grasslands during the dry season also
impacts directly on the fauna, depriving it of food sources, shelter, nesting material, etc. Fiscal
constraints on governmental infrastructure mean that there is little effective implementation of
conservation or land use legislation in the area. These factors have impacted the vertebrate
groups differently, and mitigation can only be achieved by socio-economic development of
the local populace in order to reduce its dependence upon environmental resources.
Impact 1: Loss of amphibian diversity
Current land use practices have had a relatively low impact on amphibians in the region as
they are not utilised to any great extent. Moreover, the many disturbed habitats in the vicinity
of the proposed development still retain high amphibian diversity and viable populations.
Wetland habitats along the course of the proposed transport route and in the vicinity of the
MHS still provide suitable habitat for many amphibians, whilst fallow lands retain a high
amphibian diversity, particularly for terrestrial, burrowing species (e.g. Bufo, Phrynomantis,
Breviceps sp.).
Significance statement: The loss of amphibian diversity due to current land use has
definitely occurred and resulted in a moderately severe negative impact in the medium to long
term in the study area. As amphibian populations can naturally recover, mitigation via socio-
economic up liftment will probably reduce this to a slight negative impact. The
environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be MODERATE, but with
mitigation would reduce to LOW.
Impact 2: Loss of reptile diversity
Rural landscapes still retain a modest diversity of reptiles, particularly lizards. However, due
to the extensive human population it is probable that very large snakes, such as pythons and
the larger venomous species, may be locally extinct or survive at very low densities. Many
small, terrestrial, nocturnal species probably remain common in the region. Freshwater
habitats in the more inaccessible regions probably retain specialist species, such as crocodiles,
terrapins, Nile monitor and frog-eating water snakes (e.g. Crotaphopeltis hotamboeia), but the
normal population densities of crocodiles, tortoises and monitor lizards are probably
depressed. The large-scale clearance of forest and well- wooded savanna have probably had a
significant impact on the diversity and density of many reptiles in the region.
The level of exploitation of reptiles for food in the region is unknown but is likely to be
limited. Nile monitors (Varanus niloticus) are commonly eaten by rural communities and
were consumed by villagers at Chibuto (Branch, 2000). However, they remain relatively
common in the area despite these hunting pressures. The southern African rock python
(Python natalensis) is usually killed for food, its skin retained for sale and the fat used for
medicinal purposes. It is also viewed as a threat to domestic animals. Tortoise fat is also used
for traditional medicine.
Significance statement: The loss of reptile diversity due to current land has definitely
occurred and resulted in a moderately severe negative impact in the medium to long term in
the study area. As populations of the larger predatory species (e.g. crocodiles and pythons)
Fauna: Branch 139
will only recover slowly and only with national protection, mitigation via socio-economic
upliftment will be limited, and probably maintain a moderately severe negative impact. The
environmental significance of this impact will remain MODERATE.
Impact 3: Loss of bird diversity
Many groups of birds, including hornbills, raptors and game birds, have become locally rare
due to hunting pressures. The absence of most small raptors (sparrowhawks, goshawks, etc.)
and larger eagles may also be due to the loss of their prey items. They may also have been
persecuted as a threat to livestock (goats and chickens). Fish eagle are now absent in the study
area. Game birds, such as guinea fowl and francolin experience sustained hunting pressures as
local villagers usually catch them whenever possible. The long history of agriculture in the
region has also had a significant impact on the habitats of forest and woodland birds,
particularly species such as parrots, barbets, hornbills and loeries (turacos) that are dependent
on fruiting trees for food resources and on hollow logs for nest holes.
Significance statement: The loss of bird diversity due to current land use has definitely
occurred and resulted in a severe negative impact in the medium to long term in the study
area. As many bird populations can naturally recover if suitable habitats are present,
mitigation via socio-economic upliftment will probably reduce this to a moderately severe
negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be HIGH,
but with mitigation would reduce to MODERATE.
Impact 4: Loss of mammal diversity
The majority of the megaherbivores historically present in the region have become locally
extinct due to unsustainable hunting and habitat loss (Hatton, 1998). Only the smallest and
most secretive species (e.g. red squirrel, red duiker, bushbuck, etc.) survive as small
populations in the thicker patches of dune thicket and bush. The extensive clearing of savanna
and forest habitats has resulted in a direct loss of food reserves for large mammals, and
increased vulnerability to predation in clearings and at the forest edge. Habitat and food plants
are also lost due to the frequent fires set to improve cattle grazing and control vegetation.
Significance statement: The loss of mammal diversity due to current land use has definitely
occurred and resulted in a very severe negative impact in the medium to long term in the study
area. As large mammal populations can only recover with enforced national protection and
the presence of large reserves of natural habitat, mitigation via socio-economic upliftment will
be limited, and the impact will probably continue as a severe negative impact. The
environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be VERY HIGH, and with
mitigation would only reduce to HIGH.
3.6.2 ISSUE 2 - HABITAT IMPACTS

Cause and comment: Current and previous agricultural practices have caused extensive loss
and fragmentation of habitats in the Chibuto Xai-Xai region. Vertebrates differ in their
dependence on specific habitats, and thus their adaptability to habitat loss and fragmentation.
Forest and wetland habitats are generally naturally fragmented and many species inhabiting
them have natural dispersal behaviours. Due to differences in their life history strategies and
mobility, vertebrates also differ in their ability to recolonise rehabilitated habitats. Faunal
recolonisation is dependent upon the existence of corridors of suitable habitat along which
animals can migrate, and also on the existence of viable reservoir populations in adjacent
regions.
140 Fauna: Branch

Table 3.6: Summary of the existing Faunal impacts resulting from the current land use patterns.
ISSUE/IMPACTS
Issue 1 - loss of biodiversity
Impact 1: Loss of amphibian diversity Will definitely
Moderately severe Slight
Medium to long term Study area Probable LOW
occur
Impact 2: Loss of reptile diversity Will definitely
Moderately severe Moderately severe MODERATE
occur
Impact 3: Loss of bird diversity Will definitely
Severe Moderately severe MODERATE
occur
Impact 4: Loss of mammal diversity Will definitely
Very severe Severe
occur
Impact 1: Habitat loss Will definitely
Very severe Severe
occur
Impact 2: Habitat fragmentation Will definitely
Very severe Severe
occur
Fauna: Branch 141

Impact 1: Habitat loss
Although not formally quantified, it is evident that probably <20% of natural habitats survive
in the Chibuto Xai- Xai region, and even these have suffered relatively high levels of
degradation. The remaining fauna is dominated by species that can survive in disturbed
habitats, and includes a spectrum of commensal species that tole rate, to varying degrees, man-
induced landscape changes.
Significance statement: The loss of habitat associated with current land use has definitely
area. Mitigation of this impact is difficult without socio-economic development, but the more
sensitive habitats (i.e. the dune thicket corridor and wetlands) could be avoided and this
would probably reduce further habitat loss to maintain a severe negative impact. The
mitigation would reduce only to HIGH.
Impact 2: Habitat fragmentation
Concomitant with habitat loss due to the history of extensive subsistence rural agriculture in
the region, the remaining habitats survive as a mosaic of isolated pockets in a degraded
landscape. These fragments are usually highly degraded, and their suitability as refugia for the
remaining fauna, and their ability to function in ecological processes maintaining ecosystems,
is compromised. None are of sufficient size to support populations of medium-sized mammals
such as duiker that will allow the maintenance of genetic diversity. This impact can only be
mitigated by the development of a network of habitat corridors, particularly along drainage
lines, ecotones and the dune thicket corridor, that will maintain faunal diversity and
ecosystem functioning.
Significance statement: The loss of habitat associated with current land use has definitely
area. Mitigation of this impact is difficult without socio-economic development, but the more
sensitive habitats (i.e. the dune thicket corridor and wetlands) could be avo ided and this
would probably reduce further habitat loss to maintain a severe negative impact. The
mitigation would reduce only to HIGH.
3.7 CONCLUSIONS
3.7.1 FAUNAL DIVERSITY AND CURRENT LAND USE

Current land use has had a significant impact on faunal biodiversity and ecological
functioning in the area. Only amphibian and small reptile diversity remains relatively
unaffected by the extensive habitat destruction. The diversity of other faunal groups has been
reduced by extensive habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation, and by a long history of
unsustainable exploitation. The most severely impacted group is that of large mammals, of
which most species are extinct in the region. However, the numbers and diversity of large
reptiles and birds in the region is also severely depleted.
The only viable mitigation of these impacts requires rapid and effective socio-economic
upliftment, and the strict implementation of national conservation laws. Of the six existing
impacts resulting from current land use, only two are of moderate severity, whilst the others
142 Fauna: Branch
are either of High (1) or Very High (3) severity. Due to the extent of these faunal impacts
most will be difficult to mitigate, and will therefore remain of MODERATE to HIGH
SIGNIFICANCE. Unless current land use practice changes, these impacts will continue and
lead to further faunal loss and ecological disruption that will not be easily repairable in the
long term.
3.7.2 IMPACTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE CEF FACILITY

Numerous impacts are associated with the construction of the CEF facility. During the
construction phase they involve the clearing and fragmentation of vegetation for the haul road
and MHS site. This results in direct mortality affecting both faunal diversity and species of
special concern, and loss and fragmentation of habitat. Diverse impacts result from the
operation of the facility, including increased dust levels, increased fire risk, chemical
pollution and potential changes to water quality and hydrodynamics. Many of these impacts
will result from vehicle traffic on the haul road, which will also affect faunal diversity, via
road mortalities, disturbance of animal movements and behaviour, and the possible
introduction of alien species.
Of the ten impacts that result from the proposed construction and operation of the CEF
facility, many (8) involve impacts of moderate severity in the Short to Medium, or Long term.
However, all can be reduced to LOW SIGNIFICANCE if recommendations for mitigation are
implemented and impacts monitored. The predicted low severity of many of the probable
faunal impacts of the CEF development result, in large part, from the existing high impact of
current land use practice on the local fauna. The moderate impact on habitat loss and
fragmentation can be reduced if wetlands and the dune thicket corridor are avoided. Loss or
fragmentation of these sensitive habitats will result in loss of faunal diversity and species of
special concern. These considerations have already been taken into account and the DHR
route has been aligned to minimise these impacts. Unmitigated operational impacts, resulting
from road traffic, increased dust levels, fire risk and chemical pollution, can negatively impact
fauna, either via increased mortalities or degradation of habitats.
3.8 EVALUATION OF ALTERNATIVE PROJECTS
Materials Transfer Systems

The above-surface conveyor system allows continued animal movement through the
underlying dune thicket corridor and would have less environmental impact, provided the
closed transport system is carefully designed to prevent material loss, animal entry, and
reduce visual impact.

rather than a rail link, the greater disruption to animal movements by the latter is potentially
more serious. However, the highly degraded nature of the surrounding habitats, involving
habitat loss and fragmentation, depauperate faunal diversity, and alien infestation, means that
the faunal impacts of both alternatives are probably comparable in the long term. Choice
between the alternatives will depend on non-faunal impacts and considerations.
Alternative Diesel Import

New and greater environmental impacts are associated with ship-to- mine transfer of diesel.
Whilst the use of existing public road facilities results in a slight increase in the current
environmental impacts, these are less than those involved in new options. Diesel transport
using existing routes has less faunal impacts and is therefore preferred.
Fauna: Branch 143
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146 Fauna: Branch

APPENDIX A: BIRDS RECORDED FROM THE CHIBUTO XAI-XAI REGION,

SOUTHERN MOZAMBIQUE
Red List 2000

Scientific Name Name Status + SA RDB
Parker 1999
Phoebetria palpebrata Light-mantled Sooty Albatross * RV Near Threatened
Morus capensis Cape Gannet * RV Vulnerable
Procellaria aequinoctialis White-chinned Petrel * RV
Tachybaptus ruficollis Little Grebe CR
Phalacrocorax carbo Whitebreasted Cormorant CR
Phalacrocorax africanus Reed Cormorant CR
Ardea cinerea Grey Heron CR
Ardea melanocephala Blackheaded Heron CR
Ardea purpurea Purple Heron CR
Nycticorax nycticorax Black-crowned Night Heron * CR
Egretta garzetta Little Egret CR
Bubulcus ibis Cattle Egret CR
Anastomus lamelligerus Openbilled Stork CR Near Threatened
Bostrychia hagedash Hadeda Ibis CR
Plegadis falcinellus Glossy Ibis CR
Scopus umbretta Hammerkop * CR
Dendrocygna viduata Whitefaced Duck CR
Dendrocygna bicolor Fulvous Duck UCR
Thalassornis leuconotus Whitebacked Duck UCR
Anas erythrorhyncha Redbilled Teal CR
Plectropterus gambensis Spurwinged Goose CR
Buteo buteo Common Buzzard CPM
Kaupifalco monogrammicus Lizard Buzzard * CR
Polyboroides typus Gymnogene * CR
Milvus parasitus Yellowbilled Kite CIAM
Elanus caerulus Blackshouldered Kite CR
Circus ranivorus African Marsh Harrier * UCR Vulnerable
Eupodotis melanogaster Black-bellied Korhaan * Cr Near Threatened
Francolinus shelleyi Shelley's Francolin CR
Numida meleagris Helmeted Guineafowl CR
Turnis sylvatica Kurrichane Buttonquail * CR
Amaurornis flavirostris Black Crake CR
Actophilornis africana African Jacana CR
Porphyrio porphyrio Purple Gallinule * CR
Porphyrio alleni Allen's Gallinule RIAM Local Threat
Gallinula chloropus Moorhen UCR
Vanellus senegallus Wattled Plover UCR
Charadrius marginatus White-fronted Plover * CR
Burhinus vermiculatus Water Dikkop * UCR
Tringia nebularia Common Greenshank CPM
Tringa hypoleucos Common Sandpiper CPM
Tringa glareola Wood Sandpiper CPM
Tringia stagnatilis Marsh Sandpiper CPM
Himantopus himantopus Stilt (blackwinged) CR
Gallinago nigripennis Ethiopian Snipe * UCR
Fauna: Branch 147

Red List 2000

Parker 1999
Glareola pratincola Redwinged Pratincole CR
Chlidornias leucopterus Whitewinged Tern CPM
Streptopelia capicola Ring-necked Dove CR
Streptopelia senegalensis Laughing Dove CR
Turtur chalcospilos Emerald-spotted Dove CR
Treron calva Green pigeon CR
Poicephalus cryptoxanthus Brownheaded Parrot CR Local Threat
Chrysococcyx klaas Klaas's Cuckoo CR
Chrysococcyx caprius Diedric's Cuckoo CIAM
Centropus burchelli Burchell's Coucal CR
Centropus grillii Black Coucal * IAM Local Threat
Ceuthmochares aereus Green Coucal * UCR Local Threat
Tyto alba Barn Owl UCR
Cypsiurus parvus Palm Swift CR
Apus affinis Little swift CR
Apus horus Horus swift * UCWV
Colius striatus Speckled Mousebird CR
Urocolius indicus Red-eyed Mousebird CR
Ceryle rudis Pied Kingfisher CR
Alcedo cristata Malachite Kingfisher CR
Halcyon albiventris Brownhooded Kingfisher UCR
Halcon chelicuti Striped Kingfisher CR
Merops pusillus Little Bee-eater CR
Merops persicus Bluecheeked Bee-eater CPM
Merops bullockoides Whitefronted Bee-eater UCR
Merops apiaster European Bee-eater CPM
Coracias caudata Lilacbreasted Roller CR
Upupa epops African Hoopoe CR
Phoeniculus purpureus Red-billed Woodhoopoe CR
Phoeniculus cyanomelas Greater Scimitarbill CR
Lybius torquatus Blackcollared Barbet CR
Pogoniulus bilineatus Golden-rumped Tinker Barbet * UCR
Pogoniulus chrysoconus Yellow-fronted Tinker Barbet * UCR
Indicator indicator Greater Honeyguide UCR
Mirafra rufocinnamomea Flappet Lark CR
Hirundo smithii Wiretailed Swallow UCR
Hirundo abyssinica Lesser Striped Swallow UCR
Hirundo rustica Barn Swallow CPM
Riparia paludicola Plain Martin UCR
Psalidoprocne holomelas Black Saw-wing UCR
Dicrurus adsimilis Forktailed Drongo CR
Corvus albus Pied Crow CR
Turdoides jardineii Arrowmarked Babbler CR
Pycnonotus barbatus Blackeyed Bulbul CR
Chlorocichla flaviventris Yellow-bellied Bulbul * CR
Turdus libonyanus Kurrichane Thrush CR
Erythropygia quadrivirgata Eastern Bearded Scrubrobin UCR
Cossyphya humeralis White-throated Robin * CR
148 Fauna: Branch

Red List 2000

Parker 1999
Cossypha natalensis Natal Robin * CR
Anthoschopus caroli African Penduline Tit CR
Zosterops senegalensis Yellow White-eye * UCR
Sylvietta rufescens Longbilled Crombec CR
Phylloscopus trochilus Willow Warbler CPM
Cisticola juncidis Fantailed Cisticola CR
Cisticola cheniana Rattling Cisticola CR
Cisticola galactotes Winding Cisticola CR
Cisticola fluvicapilla Neddicky CR
Prinia subflava Tawnyflanked Prinia CR
Muscicapa striata Spotted Flycatcher CPM
Melaenornis pammelaina Southern Black Flycatcher CR
Melaenornis pallidus Pale Flycatcher CR
Batis molitor Chinspot Batis CR
Anthus novaeseelandiae African Pipit CR
Macronyx croceus Yellowthroated Longclaw CR
Prinops plumatus White Helmet Shrike * CR
Telophorus sulphureopectu Orangebreasted Shrike CR
Laniarius ferrugineus Southern Boubou CR
Lanius collurio Redbacked Shrike CPM
Dryoscopus cubla Blackbacked Puffback CR
Nilaus afer Brubru CR
Tchagra australis Threestreaked Tchagra CR
Tchagra senegala Blackcrowned Tchagra CR
Lamprotornis chalybeus Gr.Blue-eared Starling CR
Cinnyricinclus leucogaster Violet-backed Starling IAM
Nectarinia bifasciata Purplebanded Sunbird CR
Nectarinia mariquensis Marico Sunbird CR
Nectarinia senegalensis Scarletchested Sunbird CR
Passer domesticus House Sparrow * CR
Passer diffusus Grey-headed Sparrow * CR
Ploceus subaureus Yellow Weaver CR
Ploceus xanthopterus Brownthroated Weaver UCR
Ploceus cucullatus Village Weaver CR
Ploceus velatus Masked Weaver CR
Amblyospiza albifrons Thick-billed Weaver * CR
Quelea quelea Redbilled Quelea CR
Euplectes orix Red Bishop CR
Euplectes axillaris Redshouldered Widow CR
Uraeginthus angolensis Blue Waxbill CR
Estrilda perreini Grey Waxbill * UCR Local Threat
Estrilda astrild Common Waxbill UCR
Lagnosticta senegala Red-billed Firefinch * CR
Spermestes cucullatus Bronze Mannikin CR
Vidua macroura Pintailed Whydah UCR
Serinus mozambicus Yellow-eyed Canary CR
Serinus citrinipectus Lemonbreasted Canary UCR Near Threatened
Fauna: Branch 149

Red List 2000

Parker 1999
TOTAL 140 11
* Additional species recorded during current survey

+ RV = Rare vagrant; CR = Common resident; UCR = Uncommon resident;
UCPM = Uncommon Palearctic migrant, IAM = IntraAfrican migrant, RIAM = Rare IntraAfrican migrant
CPM = Common Palearctic migrant; UCWV = Uncommon winter visitor
150 Fauna: Branch

APPENDIX B: MAMMALS OF THE CHIBUTO XAI-XAI REGION
Conservation
Classification Vernacular name Presence Status
ORDER: PRIMATES
FAMILY: CERCOPITHECIDAE
Cercopithecus (aethiops) pygerythrus Vervet monkey Observed
ORDER: CARNIVORA
FAMILY: FELIDAE
Felis serval Serval Reported
FAMILY: CANIDAE
Canis adustus Side-striped jackal Reported
FAMILY: MUSTELIDAE
Aonyx capensis Cape clawless otter Reported
Ictonyx striatus Striped polecat Observed
FAMILY: VIVERRIDAE
Genetta tigrina Large-spotted genet Reported
FAMILY: HERPESTIDAE
Rhynchogale melleri Meller's mongoose Reported
Herpestes sanguineus Slender mongoose Reported
Herpestes ichneumon Egyptian mongoose Reported
Ichneumia albicauda Whitetailed mongoose Reported
Atilax paludinosus Water mongoose Observed
ORDER: ARTIODACTYLA
FAMILY: BOVIDAE
Sylvicapra grimmia Bush (Common) duiker Reported
Cephalophus natalensis Red duiker Reported Vulnerable
Neotragus moschatus Suni Reported Vulnerable
Tragelaphus scriptus Bushbuck Reported
ORDER: LAGOMORPHA
FAMILY: LEPORIDAE
Lepus saxatilis Scrub hare Observed
ORDER: RODENTIA
FAMILY: BATHYERGIDAE
Cryptomus hottentotus Common molerat Observed
FAMILY: HYSTRICIDAE
Hystrix africaeaustralis Porcupine Observed
FAMILY: SCIURIDAE
Paraxerus palliatus Red squirrel Observed Vulnerable
Total species 19 3
Fauna: Branch 151

CURRICULUM VITAE - WILLIAM ROY BRANCH
Date of birth: 12 May 1946

Nationality: British
QUALIFICATIONS
BSc University of Southampton, 1968

PhD University of Southampton, 1971
PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE
1972-1976 Scientist; Life Sciences Division, Atomic Energy Board, Pretoria, South Africa
1976-1978 Kingdom Post-Doctoral Research Fellow; Department of Biology, University of Southampton,
United
1979-ongoing Curator of Herpetology; Port Elizabeth Museum, South Africa
APPOINTMENTS
Member IUCN SSC Captive Breeding Specialist Group (Herpetology), 1990 - ongoing
Board of Directors IUCN SSC Declining Amphibian Population Task Group, 1991 - 1994
Chair IUCN SSC African Reptile and Amphibian Group, elected for 1997-2000 and 2001-
2004 triennia
Editor journal Herpetological Association if Africa; initially elected June 1983; re-elected
1985, 1987, 1989, 1991; retired Nov. 1993.
Committee Member Herpetetological Association of Africa, 1989-2002
Editorial Board African Journal of Herpetology 1994-ongoing
International Committee First World Herpetological Congress, Canterbury, U.K., September 1989.
Second World Herpetological Congress, Adelaide, December 1993 -January 1994.
Executive Committee Third World Herpetological Congress, Prague - elected Adelaide 1994
Scientific Committee Third World Herpetological Congress, Prague - elected July 1995
Executive Committee Fourth World Herpetological Congress, Sri Lanka - elected Prague 1997
Scientific Committee Fourth World Herpetological Congress, Sri Lanka - elected 2000
Editor Revised South African Red Data Book - Reptiles and Amphibians S. Afr. Nat. Sci.
Prog. Rpt 151: i-iv, 242p, 1988.
Board of Directors International Congress Chelonian Conservation, Nice, France, 1994-5 (6-10 July,
1995).
Board of Directors 2nd International Congress Chelonian Conservation, Saly, Senegal, 2002-3 (18-220
June, 2003).
Editorial Review Board Chelonian Conservation and Biology, international journal of the Chelonian Research
Foundation; March 1997 - ongoing
Board International Herpetological Society, May 1997- ongoing
Executive committee Invited for nomination to Executive committee of the International Society for
Vertebrate Morphology, September 2000. Appointment declined due to prior
commitments.
Keynote address invited to give the annual Distinguished Herpetologist Lecture at the combined
Herpetologist League and Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles 44th
annual meeting, Indiana University, 26-30 July 2001.
Research Associate Smithsonian Institute, Centre for Tropical Biodiversity, Washington DC, 2003-
ongoing.
PUBLICATIONS
Major scientific articles in peer-reviewed journals 112

Scientific notes in peer-reviewed journals 122
Popular articles 68
Book Reviews 74
Books 7
Television: SABC TV 50/50 Environmental Programmes 11
Radio programmes on wildlife, conservation, etc. 28
152 Fauna: Branch
Environmental impact assessment reports 31
SELECTED RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS
BRANCH, W. R. (ed.), 1988. South African Red Data Book - Reptiles and Amphibians. S. Afr. Nat. Sci. Prog.
Rpt 151: I-iv, 242p.
SPAWLS, S. and W. R. BRANCH, 1995. Dangerous Snakes of Africa. Blandford Press, London, 192p.
(released in southern Africa under Southern Book Publ, and in USA by Ralph Curtis Books.)
BRANCH, W. R., G. A. BENN and A. T. LOMBARD, 1995. The tortoises (Testudinidae) and terrapins
(Pelomedusidae) of southern Africa: Their diversity, distribution and conservation. S. Afr. J. Zool. 30(3):
91-102.
BRANCH, W. R., A. M. BAUER & D. A. GOOD, 1996. A review of the Namaqua gecko, Pachydactylus
namaquensis (Reptilia: Gekkonidae) from southern Africa, with the description of two new species. S. Afr.
J. Zool. 31(2): 53-69.
BRANCH, W. R., 1997. A new adder (Bitis; Viperidae) from the Western Cape Province, South Africa. S. Afr.
J. Zool. 32(2): 37-42.
BAUER, A. M., D. A. GOOD, & W. R. BRANCH, 1997. The taxonomy of the southern African leaf-toed
geckos, with a review of Old World ? Phyllodactylus ? (Squamata: Gekkonidae) and the description of five
new genera.. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci. 49(14): 447-497.
BRANCH, W. R. & M. J. WHITING. 1997. A new Platysaurus (Squamata: Cordylidae) from the Northern
Cape Province, South Africa. Afr. J. Herpetol. 46(2): 124-136.
BRANCH, W. R., 1998. Field Guide to the Snakes and other Reptiles of Southern Africa. rev. ed. Struiks Publ.,
Cape Town, 399 pp, 112 col. pls.
HAAGNER, G.V. , BRANCH, W.R. & HAAGNER, A.J.F. 2000. Notes on a collection of reptiles from
Zambia and adjacent areas of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Annals Eastern Cape Prov Mus. 1: 1-
25.
BRANCH, W. R. & RYAN, P. G. 2001. Additions to the Mozambique Herpetofauna: Two new lizards from the
Namuli Massif, Mozambique. Herpetol. Rev. 32(4): 281-282.
BRANCH, W.R, 2002. The Conservation Status of South Africas Threatened Reptiles. pp 89-103. In: "The
State of South Africa's Species" Proceedings of a conference held at the Rosebank Hotel in Johannesburg 4 -
7 September 2001, Endangered Wildlife Trust and WWF-SA.
BROADLEY, D.G. & BRANCH, W.R. 2002. A review of the small East African Cordylus (Sauria: Cordylidae),
with the description of a new species. Afr. J. Herpetol. 51(1): 9-34.
BAUER, A.M. & BRANCH, W.R. 2000 (2003). The herpetofauna of the Richterveld National Park and the
adjacent northern Richtersveld, Northern Cape Province, Republic of South Africa. Herpetol. Nat. Hist. 8(2):
111-160.
BRANCH, W. R. & RDEL, M.-O. 2003. Herpetological survey of the Haute Dodo and Cavally Forests,
western Cte dIvoire. Part 2. Trapping results and Reptiles - Salamandra. 39(1):
LAMB, T., MEEKER, A.M., BAUER, A.M. & BRANCH, W.R. 2003. On the systematic status of the desert
plated lizard (Angolosaurus skoogi): phylogenetic inference from DNA sequence analysis of the African
Gerrhosauridae. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 78: 253-261.
Fauna: Branch 153

Fauna: W R Branch

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CHAPTER 3

Coastal & Environmental Services

APPENDIX A: Birds recorded from the Chibuto ? Xai-Xai Region............................... 145

Fauna: Branch 103

Fauna: Branch 105

Key environmental issues

Evaluation of Alternative Projects

Rail or road transport

Alternative diesel import

Fauna: Branch 107

WITHOUT MITIGATION WITH MITIGATION

108 Fauna: Branch

Fauna: Branch 109

Notou-se uma mistura de comunidades de plantas naturais e perturbadas que proporcionaram

Fauna: Branch 111

Questes ambientais principais

A construo e operao proposta da instalao CEF resulta em dez impactos de severidade

A severidade prevista baixa de muitos dos impactos faunais provveis do desenvolvimento da

Avaliao dos Projectos Alternativos

Transporte ferrovirio ou rodovirio

Alternativa de Importao de Diesel

Fauna: Branch 113

114 Fauna: Branch

Fauna: Branch 115

3.1.2 FAUNAL STUDIES AND CONSERVATION

3.2.1 FIELD SURVEYS

3.2.2 THREATENED AND SENSITIVE SPECIES

3.2.3 LIMITATIONS AND CAUTIONS

118 Fauna: Branch

3.2.4 HABITAT DIVERSITY

Amphibians in a regional context

Fauna: Branch 119

including Breviceps adspersus, Ptychadena mascareniensis, P. mossambica, Leptopelis

Amphibians present in the Chibuto Xai-Xai region

Threatened and endemic amphibians

Habitat associations of amphibians in the Chibuto Xai-Xai region

Existing impacts on amphibians

120 Fauna: Branch

Reptiles in a regional context

Reptiles in the Chibuto Xai-Xai region

Threatened and endemic reptiles

Habitat associations of reptiles in the Chibuto Xai-Xai region

Existing impacts on reptiles

Reptiles of medical significance

122 Fauna: Branch

Birds in a regional context

Birds present in the Chibuto Xai-Xai region

Threatened and endemic birds

Habitat associations of birds in the Chibuto Xai-Xai region

Existing impacts on birds

Fauna: Branch 125

Mammals in a regional context

Mammals of the Chibuto Xai-Xai region

Threatened and endemic mammals

Habitat associations of mammals in the Chibuto Xai-Xai region

Existing impacts on mammals

3.4 KEY ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

Projects and alternatives

A number of project alternatives have been proposed, including:

Fauna: Branch 127

3.4.2 IMPACTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE BASE CASE

3.4.3 ISSUE 1 - LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY

Impact 1: Loss of faunal diversity